BB Chapter Nine : Learning and Memory

Chapter Nine:Learning and Memory

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Chapter 9: Learning and memory

1. Nature of learning2. Differences between classical conditioning,

operant (instrumental) conditioning and cognitive learning

3. Main characteristics of learning

4. Understand how consumers learn5. How knowledge about learning can be

incorporated into marketing strategies

6. Importance of brand image and product positioning

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The Nature of LearningThe Nature of Learning

LearningLearning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the result of information processing.

Consumer behaviorConsumer behavior is largely learned behavior .

FeelingsFeelings

Symbolic Symbolic MeaningsMeanings

PreferencesPreferences BehaviorsBehaviors

TastesTastes

ValuesValues

AttitudesAttitudes

LearningLearning

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Learning as a key to consumer behaviour

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Learning results from information processing, causing memory changes

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The Nature of Learning and MemoryThe Nature of Learning and Memory

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Involvement and learning

• Learning under high-involvement conditions– Consumer has a high motivation to learn

• Learning under low-involvement conditions– Most consumer learning is in a low-involvement

context

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Learning Under High and Low InvolvementLearning Under High and Low Involvement

A HighHigh --involvement learning involvement learning situation is one in which the consumer is motivated to process or learn the material.

A LowLow --involvement learninginvolvement learning situation is one in which the consumer has little or no motivation to process or learn the material.

Most consumer learning occurs in relatively low involvement contexts.

The way a communication should be structured differs depending on the level of involvement the audience is expected to have.

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Learning theories in high and low involvement situations

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Types of learning

• Conditioning– Classical conditioning– Operant conditioning

• Cognitive learning– Iconic rote learning– Vicarious learning/modelling– Reasoning

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Conditioning

•Conditioning is based on the association of a stimulus (information) with a response (behaviour or feeling)

•It is a set of procedures that marketers can use to increase the chances that an association between two stimuli is formed or learned.

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There are two types of conditioning:There are two types of conditioning:

1.1. ClassicalClassical ConditioningConditioning

2.2. Operant Operant ConditioningConditioning

Conditioning

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Classical conditioning

• Establishing a relationship between stimulus and response to bring about the learning of the same response to a different stimulus

• Most common in low-involvement situations

• Learning is more often a feeling or emotion than information

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Consumer learning through classical conditioning

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Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) involves rewarding desirable behaviors such as brand purchases with a positive outcome that serves to reinforce the behavior.

OperantOperant ConditioningConditioning

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Operant conditioning• Trial precedes liking

– Reverse is often true for classical conditioning

– Product sampling is an example of this type of learning

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How affective response leads to learning

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Products using the Heart Foundation’s tick are associated with good health

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The process of shaping in purchase behaviour

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An advertisement designed to induce trial

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�� Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

•• Cognitive learning Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems or cope with situations.

• It involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and fact that contribute to our ability to reason, solve problems, and learn relationships without direct experience or reinforcement.

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1.1. Iconic Rote LearningIconic Rote Learning

2.2. Vicarious Learning/ModelingVicarious Learning/Modeling

3.3. Analytical ReasoningAnalytical Reasoning

Cognitive Learning

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Cognitive learning

• Iconic rote learning– Association between two or more concepts in the

absence of conditioning� a substantial amount of low-involvement

learning involves iconic rote learning� achieved by repeated advertising messages

• In iconic rote learning there is neither an unconditioned stimulus (classical) nor a direct reward or reinforcement (operant) involved.

• Repetition tends to be critical to iconic rote learning.

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Cognitive learning (cont.)

• Vicarious learning/modelling– Observe others' behaviour and adjust their own

accordingly� common in both high-involvement and low-

involvement situations

• Reasoning– Most complex form of cognitive learning

� most high-involvement decisions generate some reasoning

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Vicarious learning Vicarious learning or modeling modeling can include observing the outcomes of others’ behaviors and adjusting their own accordingly. In addition, they can use imagery to anticipate the outcome of various courses of action.

This type of learning is common in both low- and high-involvement situation.

Many ads encourage consumers to imagine the feeling and experience of using a product. Such images not only enhance learning about the product, but may even influence how the product is evaluated after an actual trial.

Vicarious Learning/ModelingVicarious Learning/Modeling

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Analytical reasoning Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of cognitive cognitive learninglearning.

•Individuals engage in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to form new associations and concepts.

•Information from a credible source that contradicts or challenges one’s existing beliefs will often trigger reasoning.

••Analogical reasoningAnalogical reasoning allows consumers to use an existing knowledge base to understand a new situation or object.

Analytical ReasoningAnalytical Reasoning

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An advertisement using reasoning

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General characteristics of learning

• The strength of learning is influenced by:– Importance and relevance

� separates high and low-involvement learning situations

– Involvement– Mood– Reinforcement (or punishment)– Stimulus repetitions (practice sessions)– Imagery

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Learning, Memory, and RetrievalLearning, Memory, and Retrieval

�� Strength of LearningStrength of Learning

�� Memory InterferenceMemory Interference

�� Response EnvironmentResponse Environment

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What is required to bring about a long-lasting learned response?

One factor is strength of learningstrength of learning.

The stronger the original learning (e.g., of nodes and links between nodes), the more likely relevant information will be retrieved when required.

Strength of learningStrength of learning

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Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors:Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors:

1.1. ImportanceImportance

2.2. Message InvolvementMessage Involvement

3.3. MoodMood

4.4. ReinforcementReinforcement

5.5. Number of stimulus repititionsNumber of stimulus repititions

6.6. The amount of imagery contained in the materialThe amount of imagery contained in the material

Strength of Learning

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Importance Importance refers to the value that consumers place on the information to be learned.

ImportanceImportance might be driving by inherent interest in the product or brand, or might be driven be the need to make a decision in the near future.

ImportanceImportance

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When a consumer is not motivated to learn the material, processing can be increased by causing the person to become involved with the message itself.

• Example: Playing an instrumental version of a popular song with lyrics related to product attributes may cause people to “sing along,” either out loud or mentally.

Self referencingSelf referencing uses second-person pronouns (you, your) in ads to encourage consumers to relate brand information to themselves.

Message InvolvementMessage Involvement

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A positive mood during the presentation of information such as brand names enhances learning.

�A positive mood during the reception of information appears to enhance its relational elaboration—it is compared with and evaluated against more categories.

�This produces a more complete and stronger set of linkages among a variety of other brands and concepts, which in turn enhances retrieval (access to the information).

MoodMood

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ReinforcementReinforcement involves anything that increases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future.

ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

A pleasant or desired consequence

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

The removal or the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence.

PunishmentPunishment is the opposite of reinforcement. It is any consequence that decreases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future.

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Repetition Repetition enhances learning and memory by increasing accessibility of information or by strengthening the associative linkages between concepts.

�Repetition depends on importance and reinforcement.

�Less repetition of an advertising message is needed if importance is high or if there is a great deal of relevant reinforcement.

RepetitionRepetition

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General characteristics of learning (cont.)

• Extinction– Forgetting occurs when reinforcement for

learning is withdrawn

• Stimulus generalisation– Brand equity

– Brand leverage

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Spontaneous awareness: Brand A

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Spontaneous awareness: Brand B

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Changes in buyer commitment to the product

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�� Learning to Generalize and DifferentiateLearning to Generalize and Differentiate

•• Stimulus generalization Stimulus generalization or rubor rub--off effectoff effect occurs when a response to one stimulus is elicited by a similar but distinct stimulus.

•• Stimulus discrimination Stimulus discrimination or differentiation or differentiation refers to the process of learning to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.

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Example of stimulus generalisation to launch a new product

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General characteristics of learning (cont.)

• Stimulus discrimination– Why your brand is different

• Response environment– Strength of original learning– Similarity of original learning environment to the

retrieval environment

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The response environment

• Strength of original learning affects ability to retrieve relevant information

• Similarity of the original learning and the type of learning is important

• Marketers aim to replicate these situations

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Memory and its connection to Consumer Information Processing (Perception- previous lecture)

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MemoryMemory’’s Role in Learnings Role in Learning

Memory consists of two interrelated componentsMemory consists of two interrelated components:

1.1. ShortShort --term Memory (STM) term Memory (STM) a.k.a. working memorya.k.a. working memory

• is that portion of total memory that is currently activated or in use.

2.2. LongLong --term Memory (LTM)term Memory (LTM)

• is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent information storage.

•• Semantic memorySemantic memory is the basic knowledge and feelings an individual has about a concept.

•• Episodic memoryEpisodic memory is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated.

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The Multiple Store Approach to Memory

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�� STM is Short LivedSTM is Short Lived

• Consumers must constantly refresh information through maintenance rehearsalmaintenance rehearsal or it will be lost.

�� STM has Limited CapacitySTM has Limited Capacity

• Consumers can only hold so much information in current memory.

�� Elaborative Activities Occur in STMElaborative Activities Occur in STM

•• Elaborative activitiesElaborative activities serve to redefine or add new elements to memory and can involve both conceptsconcepts and imageryimagery.

Short-Term Memory

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Short term memory

Two kinds of information processing:• Elaborative activities:

– Use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in the working memory.

• Maintenance rehearsal: – The continual repetition of a piece of information

in order to hold it in working memory to solve problems. Repeating a brand name is an example of this.

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Memory (cont.)

• Long-term memory– Unlimited permanent storage– Schematic memory

� linking to ‘chunks’ of information

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�� Schemas (a.k.a. schematic memory)Schemas (a.k.a. schematic memory)

�� ScriptsScripts

�� Retrieval from LTMRetrieval from LTM

Long-Term Memory

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Mental Processes Assisting Learning

RepetitionRepetition Dual Coding

Dual Coding

Meaningful Encoding

Meaningful Encoding ChunkingChunking

These rely on making associations.These rely on making associations.

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Cognitive Schemas

• Schema – a type of associative network that works as a cognitive representation of a phenomenon that provides meaning to that entity.

• Exemplar – a concept within a schema that is the single best representative of some category.

• Prototype – characteristics more associated with a concept.

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A Partial Schematic Memory for Mountain DewA Partial Schematic Memory for Mountain Dew

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A Typical Consumer’sAssociative Network Associated with Mercedes

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Reaction to New Products/Brands

What is this?!?What is this?!?

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We find it strange if a brand doesn’t fit within the given associative network of attributes

The Knowledge for Snack Foods

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Category Exemplars

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Explicit memoryExplicit memory is characterized by the conscious recollection of an exposure event.

Implicit memoryImplicit memoryinvolves the nonconscious retrieval of previously encountered stimuli.

Retrieval: Knowing versus RememberingRetrieval: Knowing versus Remembering

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Learning, Memory, and Learning, Memory, and RetrievalRetrieval

Marketers want consumers to learn and remember positive features, feelings, and behaviors associated with their brands.

What happens when What happens when consumers consumers forgetforget??

Conditioned LearningConditioned LearningExtinctionExtinction

Desired response decays or dies out if not reinforced.

Cognitive LearningCognitive LearningRetrieval FailureRetrieval Failure

Information that is available in LTM cannot be retrieved.

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Forgetting over Time: Magazine AdvertisementForgetting over Time: Magazine Advertisement

Source: LAP Report #5260.1 (New York: Weeks McGraw-Hill, undated). Reprinted with permission from McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Impact of Repetition on Brand Awareness for HighImpact of Repetition on Brand Awareness for High -- and Lowand Low --Awareness BrandsAwareness Brands

Source: A Study of the effectiveness of Advertising Frequency in Magazines, 1993 Time, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

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Repetition Timing and Advertising RecallRepetition Timing and Advertising Recall

Source: Reprinted from H. J. Zielski, “The Remembering and Forgetting of Advertising,” Journal of Marketing, January 1959, p. 240, with permission from The American Marketing Association. The actual data and a refined analysis were presented in J. L. Simon, “What Do Zielski’s Data Really Show about Pulsing?” Journal of Marketing Research, August 1979, pp. 415-20.

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Memory interferenceMemory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way.

A common form of interference in marketing is due to competitive advertising.

Competitive advertising makes it harder for consumers to recall any given advertisement and its contents.

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What Can Marketers Do to Decrease Competitive Interference?

What Can Marketers Do to Decrease What Can Marketers Do to Decrease Competitive Interference?Competitive Interference?

Avoid Competing AdvertisingAvoid Competing AdvertisingAvoid Competing Advertising

Strengthen Initial learningStrengthen Initial learningStrengthen Initial learning

Reduce Similarity to Competing AdsReduce Similarity to Competing AdsReduce Similarity to Competing Ads

Provide External Retrieval CuesProvide External Retrieval CuesProvide External Retrieval Cues

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Response EnvironmentResponse Environment

Retrieval is also affected by the similarity of the retrieval (response) environment to the original learning environment and type of learning.

The more the retrieval situation offers cues similar to the cues present during learning, the more likely effective retrieval is to occur.

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Product positioning strategy

• Brand image

• Product positioning• Perceptual mapping

• Product repositioning

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Brand Image and Product PositioningBrand Image and Product Positioning

Brand imageBrand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand.

ManufacturerManufacturerMarketer Marketer

CharacteristicsCharacteristics

UsersUsers Usage SituationsUsage Situations

BenefitsBenefits

Perceived Product Perceived Product AttributesAttributes

Brand ImageBrand Image

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Product positioningProduct positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment.

An important component of brand image is the appropriate usage situations for the product or brand.

Perceptual mappingPerceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a product’s position.

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Perceptual Map for AutomobilesPerceptual Map for Automobiles

Also refer to Figure 9.13 on page 286 of the text

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Product repositioningProduct repositioning refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a product. This can involve

� level of performance

� the feelings it evokes

� the situations in which it should be used, or

� who uses the product

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Brand Equity and Brand LeverageBrand Equity and Brand Leverage

Brand equityBrand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond the functional characteristics of the product.

Brand leverageBrand leverage , often termed family branding, brand family branding, brand extensions, or umbrella brandingextensions, or umbrella branding, refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity by using an existing brand name for new products.

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Business

BB Chapter Nine : Learning and Memory