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And it was so.

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Jobs were static Worker and machine Fritz Lang Metropolis Symbols -clock -lines -uniformity -rules -terror of losing job -golden city vs ghetto -management at top -separated from worker

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Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles: • Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of

the tasks. • Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving

them to train themselves. • Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance

of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250). • Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers

apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system: It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.[9] Workers were supposed to be incapable of understanding what they were doing. According to Taylor this was true even for rather simple tasks.

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'I can say, without the slightest hesitation,' Taylor told a congressional committee, 'that the science of handling pig-iron is so great that the man who is ... physically able to handle pig-iron and is sufficiently phlegmatic and stupid to choose this for his occupation is rarely able to comprehend the science of handling pig-iron.[10]

Taylor believed in transferring control from workers to management. He set out to increase the distinction between mental (planning work) and manual labor (executing work). Detailed plans specifying the job, and how it was to be done, were to be formulated by management and communicated to the workers.[11]

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Elton Mayo’s team conducted a number of experiments involving six female workers. These experiments are often referred to as the Hawthorne experiments or Hawthorne studies as they took place at The Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Hawthorne Experiment Details Over the course of five years, Mayo’s team altered the female worker’s working conditions and monitored how the change in working conditions affected the workers morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in working hours, rest breaks, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were explained to the workers prior to implementation. Hawthorne Experiment Results At the end of the five year period, the female worker’s working conditions, reverted back to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers morale and productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments. The combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the workers productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led Mayo to conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than physical working condition. Hawthorne Experiment Conclusions After analyzing the results from the Hawthorne experiments Mayo concluded that workers were motivated by more than self interest and instead the following applied:

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Psychological Contract

There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract. Interest in Workers Motivation in workers can be increased by showing an interest in them. Mayo classified studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest in the workers. Work is a Group Activity Work is a group activity, team work can increase a worker’s motivation as it allows people to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the worker’s habits and attitudes. Social Aspect of Work Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female workers socializing during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation. Recognize Workers Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging. Communication The communication between workers and management influences workers’ morale and productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with management. http://www.learnmanagement2.com/eltonmayo.htm

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Functional Job Analysis therefore lets you answer the question, "To do this task and

meet these standards, what training does the worker require?“

For half a century this was the dominant model for analyzing work. The Dictionary of

Occupational Titles, which relied heavily on this model, was a taxonomy and

conceptual schema for understanding work. It was in effect, a common language.

Functional Analysis was heavily used by the United States Employment Service

• Selecting workers who filled job specifications

• Counseling entrants to the labor market or a particular job about the expectations of

the job

• Career counseling and steering people with particular needs toward jobs for which

they are best suited.

What became known as the field of personnel management and later human resource

management did not arrive until after World War II.

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In the 90’s, the DOL decided to cease updates to the DOT and instead build an on-line tool for employers. This approach to building a job description is fast and based on content methodology which means it is validated. For example, if you rely on this data for a job in your organization that closely resembles an ONET job, and you are later challenged (under EEOC regulations) about why you require a bachelor’s degree for a particular job, you can defend your decision by stating that you relied on ONETonline. We will take time to explore this site and how you can use it to develop your job descriptions.

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Job descriptions are the foundation of a good human resource system. If job analysis is thorough, they can be utilized for the following: • Recruitment • Selection • Orientation • Job Evaluation • Compensation • Training and Development • Performance Evaluation • Promote compliance with employment regulations, especially

Equal Employment Opportunity Americans With Disabilities Act Fair Labor Standards Act

• Assist with good faith defense of other complaints under regulations, especially the following:

Labor Relations Laws Workers Compensation Unemployment Compensation The employment regulations cited above ANY COMPLAINT WHERE A QUESTION REGARDING ACTUAL JOB DUTIES IS INVOLVED

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If your job descriptions do not reflect actual duties, revise or dump them and create new ones. Possible scenarios 1) The employee does not have time to perform the duties that are identified as

primary because of other pressing issues. Eg., The employee was hired in part as a recording secretary, but the only way that job can be performed is if it is done after hours.

• SOLUTION: Re-design job 2) The employee does not want to perform the essential duties because they believe

another part of their job is more important. Eg., Codes enforcement focuses on fire safety and inspections to the exclusion of other equally important functions.

• SOLUTION: Managerial direction and performance counseling 3) The employee is new to a job and is still “growing into” the job functions.

• SOLUTION: Review the job description with the employee at appropriate intervals to assess their progress and document your discussion. This employee should not be penalized but, for instance, if he is still not “actually” supervising and directing others, he should not yet be exempt from overtime.

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Keep documentation Three different areas of focus, but the job description can address all three. • Job Analysis • Job Evaluation • Performance Evaluation

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See ONETonline.org for examples of primary tasks and other key elements of job description Job Titles are important for identifying where a job belongs in the universe of jobs. It can be creative but at the minimum should convey what other jobs this one is like; that is, does it belong to an established class of jobs? Job Titles that convey more authority or expertise than is actually exercised are a bad idea. For example, a bookkeeper should not be called an accountant if the person does not have appropriate education or certification to support that title. Why? One, because it messes up market surveys! But more importantly, it sets into motion a misunderstanding about the scope and nature of work, and our job is to IMPROVE communication about what is expected. General summaries are important as a thumbnail sketch of a job. They are

used in market surveys and reflect at a glance the level of complexity and how

much autonomy is exercised in the job.

To comply with the ADA, an employer must distinguish between essential and

nonessential job functions. Essential functions are those that are central to job

performance. The job would not exist without those essential job functions.

Employers are required to provide reasonable accommodations for an otherwise qualified individual to perform the essential job functions.

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The Competency section is critical to performance reviews and employee training and development plans. ADA compliance is also promoted by identifying working conditions that may be required to perform the job. For example, peripheral vision to operate some machinery; or ability to work in a busy office and deal with irate, frustrated customers! FLSA exempt (not covered by overtime regulations) or non-exempt (covered by regulations) As an aside, questions about “Reporting Relationships” often reveal much about an organization and surprisingly, many have a difficult time answering them.

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Many municipal governments are being affected by these changes! Today we have more complex systems: We are highly interfaced with the public, our customers. Like it or not, we are becoming more inter-connected with our neighboring municipalities, especially with respect to environmental issues and infra-structure systems like water, waste-water and power. Today our work is largely about solving problems in uncertain systems. This requires us to be more connected to one another because no one person has all the pieces of information. Teamwork, collaboration and ability to adapt to change are the key skill sets we need to be emphasizing in jobs.

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Although the traditional job description will be here for awhile yet, the description of the future will be more likely to describe a person, as opposed to a job. • Roles • Portfolios • Tags

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[People will need to refer to the handout on the website to view this in detail] A municipality with few staff for its robust size, but all of whom are highly experienced and efficient, is facing retirement of many key employees. They want to know how to put into place an organization structure and job design that will help orient future employees understand their culture, values and how they work. They pride themselves on being lean, focused on execution, and working as a team; in short, they are a high performing organization and they want that to continue in the future. This chart is a work in progress but introduces a way to think about work: This organization structure design focuses on primary roles and processes (how

we get things done) and less on hierarchy Job Titles will e developed to help the public understand functional job focus and

to help the Township match pay to the market

TAGS

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• As jobs are designed, they can be tagged with FUNCTIONAL AREAS or with

PROJECTS.

ROLES

• People may have a PRIMARY ROLE in one functional area (and this will

probably be reflected in their job title) but they may be tagged with other

functional areas or projects and have different roles with those assignments.

• Tags may be re-assigned on a monthly, quarterly or annual basis.

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JOB DESCRIPTIONS WILL LOOK MORE LIKE PORTFOLIOS

• Each employee develops a portfolio that reflects the progression of job

knowledge and skills.

• When Marlene’s job is reviewed, it is based on what functions and areas of

focus she has been tagged with.

• She also has project and task tags that have nothing to do with these areas and

may change quarterly or annually.

• These tags convey how much she has on her plate, also the scope of her

expertise and ability to contribute to the organization.

In order for this to work, core work processes need to be documented. 1. Identify your primary and secondary functional areas of work. For example,

a. Board relations b. Administration c. Planning d. Business Services e. Customer Service

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f. Community Development 1. Breakdown and develop a short description for each functional area 2. Within those functional areas, document how core work processes look. For

example, you can map the flow of activity and describe important steps in the following:

a. Purchasing b. Customer Response c. Accounts Receivable and Payable d. Permitting

Instead of job specifications the organization will focus on work process specifications. So, for example, if a primary part of your work is customer service, then your job PORTFOLIO will identify that this is a primary function, but the work process specification will identify how that is accomplished in the organization. If business services are a primary function of your job, then you will be expected to be a specialist in core processes that support accounting activities; others, who are involved in only part of the process may be generalists. (They know what to do with the money when it comes in but they are not responsible for overseeing the whole process.) In the future, job descriptions really will reflect more the person, and what that person contributes to the organization mission, vision and goals, instead of the other way around where we try to fit someone to a pre-configured job.

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These should be reflected in every job description, or job portfolio!

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