PART TWO

CONCEPT GENERATION

Concept GenerationFigure II.1

Chapter 4

Preparation and Alternatives

Genius Thinking Strategies• Geniuses find many different ways to look at a problem. Einstein, for example, and

da Vinci, were well known for looking at their problems from many different perspectives.

• Geniuses make their thoughts visible. Da Vinci’s famous sketches, and Galileo’s diagrams of the planets, allowed them to display information visibly rather than relying strictly on mathematical analysis.

• Geniuses produce. Thomas Edison had a quota of one invention every ten days. Mozart was among the most prolific composers over his short life.

• Geniuses make novel combinations. Einstein found the relationship between energy, mass, and the speed of light (the equation E=mc²).

• Geniuses force relationships. They can make connections where others cannot. Kekule dreamed of a snake biting its tail, immediately suggesting to him that the shape of the molecule he was studying (benzene) was circular.

• Geniuses think in opposites. This will often suggest a new point of view. Physicist Neils Bohr conceived of light as being both a wave and a particle.

• Geniuses think metaphorically. Bell thought of a membrane moving steel, and its similarity to the construction of the ear; this led to the development of the telephone earpiece.

• Geniuses prepare themselves for chance. Fleming was not the first to see mold forming on a culture, but was the first to investigate the mold, which eventually led to the discovery of penicillin.

Historic Roadblocks to Creativity

“I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.” Thomas Watson, Chair, IBM, 1943.

“Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons.” Popular Mechanics, 1949.

“I can assure you that data processing is a fad that won’t last out the year.” Business books editor, Prentice-Hall, 1957.

“So we went to Atari and said, ...’We’ll give it to you. We just want to do it. Pay our salary, we’ll come work for you.’ And they said no. So then we went to HP, and they said ‘We don’t need you, you haven’t got through college yet.’” Steve Jobs, co-founder, Apple Computers.

“640K of RAM ought to be enough for anybody.” Bill Gates, Microsoft, 1981.

Historic Roadblocks to Creativity

“Who the hell wants to hear actors talk?” H.M. Warner, Warner Bros., 1927.

“Stocks have reached what look to be a permanently high plateau.” I. Fisher, Prof. of Economics, Yale, 1929.

“We don’t like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out.” Dick Rowe, Decca Records executive, rejecting the Beatles’ demo tape, 1962.

“This ‘telephone’ has too many shortcomings to be seriously considered as a means of communication [and] is inherently of no value to us.” Western Union, 1876.

“Heavier-than’air flying machines are impossible.” Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society, 1895.

“Everything that can be invented has been invented.” C. H. Duell, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899.

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Barriers to Firm Creativity• Cross-functional diversity: Diversity leads to

more creative stimulation but also to problem solving difficulties.

• Allegiance to functional areas: Team members need to have a stake in the team’s success, or won’t be loyal to the team.

• Social cohesion: If interpersonal ties among team members are too strong, candid debate may not occur, resulting in less innovative ideas.

• Role of top management: Management should encourage the teams to be adventurous, otherwise only incremental changes will occur.

4-7

The Role of Management in Stimulating Creativity

• Recognize individuality• Be tolerant of mistakes• Be supportive under stress• Techniques include:

– Competitive teams– Idea bank of unused ideas for possible reuse– Encourage interaction – even in how offices

are laid out

4-8

Required Inputs to the Creation Process

• Form (the physical thing created, or, for a service, the set of steps by which the service will be created)

• Technology (the source by which the form is to be attained)

• Benefit/Need (benefit to the customer for which the customer sees a need or desire)

Technology permits us to develop a form that provides the benefit.

4-9

Some Patterns in Concept Generation

Customer need firm develops technology produces form

Firm develops technology finds match to need in a customer segment produces form

Firm envisions form develops technology to product form tests with customer to see what benefits are delivered

Note: the innovation process can start with any of the three inputs.

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What is a Product Concept?

• A product concept is a verbal or prototype statement of what is going to be changed and how the customer stands to gain or lose.

• Rule: You need at least two of the three inputs to have a feasible new product concept, and all three to have a new product.

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Why Do You Need a Product Concept and Not Just an Idea?

• Needed to judge whether it is worthy of development

• Potential customers do not have enough information to judge the worthiness of an idea: the product concept gives them the required information.

• Ex.: Would a taxi operator like cars with a 10 cents per mile operating cost? (need)– Not if it used Caterpillar tractor technology instead of

wheels! (need plus technology)

4-12

New Product Concepts and the New Product

Need Form

Technology New Product

“C”=Concepts

CC

C

Figure 4.4

4-13

The Designer Decaf Example

• Benefit: “Consumers want decaffeinated espresso that tastes identical to regular.”

• Form: “We should make a darker, thicker, Turkish-coffee-like espresso.”

• Technology: “There’s a new chemical extraction process that isolates and separates chemicals from foods; maybe we can use that for decaffeinating espresso coffee.”

Why would each of these taken individually not be a product concept?

4-14

The Toilet Brush Example

• Idea: A new and improved toilet brush.• Concept: A toilet brush that contains

detergent, refillable, and easy for the customer to attach to the handle.

• Product (executions of this concept):– Lysol Ready Brush– Scrubbing Bubbles Fresh Brush– Clorox Toilet Wand– Others?

4-15

What a Concept Is and Is Not

IS: “Learning needs of computer users can be met by using online systems to let them see training videos on the leading software packages.” (good concept; need and technology clear)

IS NOT: “A new way to solve the in-home training/educational needs of PC users.” (need only; actually more like a wish)

IS NOT: “Let’s develop a new line of instructional videos.” (technology only, lacking market need and form)

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Methods for Generating Product Concepts

Two Broad Categories of Methods:• Gathering Ready-Made Product Concepts• Using a Managed Process Run by the

New Products Team

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Best Sources of Ready-Made New Product Concepts

• New Products Employees– Technical: R&D, engineering, design– Marketing and manufacturing

• End Users– Lead Users

• Resellers, Suppliers, Vendors• Competitors• The Invention Industry (investors, etc.)• Idea exploration firms and consulting engineers• Miscellaneous (continued)

Figure 4.5

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Best Sources of Ready-Made New Product Concepts (continued)

• Miscellaneous Categories– Consultants– Advertising agencies– Marketing research firms– Retired product specialists– Industrial designers– Other manufacturers– Universities– Research laboratories– Governments– Printed sources– International– Internet

Figure 4.5

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Lead Users

• An important source of new product ideas.• Customers associated with a significant current

trend.• They have the best understanding of the

problems faced, and can gain from solutions to these problems.

• In many cases, have already begun to solve their own problems, or can work with product developers to anticipate the next problem in the future.

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Toolkits for User Innovation

• A set of design tools that customers can use to customize a product best suited to them.

• Can incorporate CAD/CAM or rapid prototyping.• Example: International Flavors and Fragrances:

Internet-based toolkit that provides a database of flavor profiles and rules on how to combine them. Customer can specify flavor mixes that are immediately made into samples; customer can then make adjustments until the desired flavor is obtained.

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Open Innovation

• The process by which a firm searches for research, innovation, technologies, and products.

• Increases speed of research and innovation, cuts risks, and generates new innovative ideas.

• Viewed by some as the dominant innovation model of the 21st century.

• Inputs can come from internal sources (marketing, strategic planning) and external ones (customers, market information, etc.).

• Sources such as inventors, startup companies, or university laboratories are actively sought out.

4-22

Open Innovation at Work: P&G

• P&G’s “Connect and Develop” program, designed to allow for internal intellectual property to be marketed outside, spun off, or licensed.

• Avoids the “not invented here” syndrome.• To execute Connect and Develop, P&G assigned a team to find

external partners, build brand equity, access new technologies, and create new product categories.

• Examples: – SunHealth Solutions (a P&G partner) developed the UV sensing

technology used in Huggies swimpants with UV sensors, that help parents monitor their child’s exposure to UV radiation.

– Mr. Clean scrubbing brush uses technology originally used as insulation in the auto industry.

– Magic Eraser cleaning pad was sourced from a German chemicals company, and first noticed by P&G in use in Japan.

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Chapter 5

Problem-Based Ideation: Finding and Solving Customers’ Problems

McGraw-Hill/Irwin – Merle Crawford Anthony Di Benedetto 9th Edition Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Problem-Based Concept GenerationFigure 5.1

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Problem Analysis: General Procedure

1. Determine product or activity category for study.

2. Identify heavy users.3. Gather set of problems associated

with product category.– Avoid “omniscient proximity” -- rate

importance of benefits and levels of satisfaction.

4. Sort and rank the problems according to severity or importance.

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Problem Analysis Applied to the Cell Phone

• Keeping the unit clean.• Breaks when I drop it.• Battery doesn’t stay

charged long enough.• Finding it in dark.• Battery dies in mid-

conversation.• Who “out there” hears me?• Dropped calls.• Looking up numbers.• Voice fades in and out.• Hard to hold.

• Health risks?• Can’t cradle between

ear and shoulder.• Antenna breaks off.• Flip cover breaks off.• Disruptive instrument.• Can’t see facial/body

language.• Rings too loud/too soft.• Wrong numbers.• Fear of what ringing

might be for.

Figure 5.2

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The Bothersomeness Technique of Scoring Problems

Figure 5.3

List of pet owners' problems: AProblem Occurs

Frequently

BProblem isBothersome

A x B

Need constant feeding 98% 21% .21Get fleas 78 53 .41Shed hairs 70 46 .32Make noise 66 25 .17Have unwanted babies 44 48 .21

5-28

Problem Analysis: Sources and Methodologies

• Experts• Published Sources• Contacts with Your Business Customers or

Consumers– Interviewing– Focus groups– Observation of product in use– Role playing

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Typical Questions for Problem Analysis Focus Groups

• What is the real problem here – what if the product category did not exist?

• What are current attitudes and behaviors of focus group members toward the product category?

• What product attributes and benefits do the focus group members want?

• What are their dissatisfactions, problems, and unfilled needs?

• What changes occurring in their lifestyles are relevant to the product category?

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Observation and Role Playing in Problem Analysis

• Carmakers send their designers out to parking lots to watch people and how they interact with their cars (Ford called this “gorilla research”).

• Honda got insights as to how large the passenger compartments of their SUVs should be by observing U.S. families.

• Bausch and Lomb generated ideas on making contact lenses more comfortable by getting pairs of executives to act out skits in which they played the eyeball and the contact lens.

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Scenario Analysis

• “Extending” vs. “leaping”• Using seed trends for an “extend“ scenario• Techniques:

– Follow “trend people”/”trend areas”– “Hot products”– Prediction of technological changeover– Cross-impact analysis

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Relevance Tree Form of Dynamic Leap Scenario

Figure 5.4

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Wild Card Events and Their Consequences

• No-Carbon Policy: Global warming may cause governments to put high taxes on fossil fuels, shifting demand to alternative sources of energy. This changes the allocation of R&D investment toward alternative energy, possibly causes new “energy-rich” nations to emerge, and ultimately may lead to a cleaner environment for everyone.

• Altruism Outbreak: This is the “random acts of kindness” movement – solve social problems rather than leaving it up to the government. Schools and other institutions will revive due to community actions, and perhaps inner cities would be revitalized.

• Cold Fusion: If a developing country perfects free energy, it becomes prosperous overnight. It gains further advantages by becoming an energy exporter.

Figure 5.6

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Solving the Problem

• Group Creativity Methods/Brainstorming• Principles of Brainstorming:

– Deferral of Judgment– Quantity Breeds Quality

• Rules for a Brainstorming Session:– No criticism allowed.– Freewheeling -- the wilder the better.– Nothing should slow the session down.– Combination and improvement of ideas.

5-35

Brainstorming Techniques

• Brainstorming circle• Reverse brainstorming• Tear-down• Phillips 66 groups (buzz groups)• Delphi method

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Electronic Brainstorming

• Supported by GSS (group support systems) software.• Overcomes many drawbacks of brainstorming (only one

can talk at a time, fear of contributing, “social loafing”).• Participants sit at networked terminals.• Contributions are projected on screen, and also recorded

(so no errors are made in transcription).• Can be done over multiple sites via computer linkups or

videoconferencing.• Can handle larger size groups (into the hundreds).

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Chapter 6

Analytical Attribute Approaches: Introduction and Perceptual Mapping

McGraw-Hill/Irwin – Merle Crawford Anthony Di Benedetto 9th Edition Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What are Analytical Attribute Techniques?

• Basic idea: products are made up of attributes -- a future product change must involve one or more of these attributes.

• Three types of attributes: features, functions, benefits.

• Theoretical sequence: feature permits a function which provides a benefit.

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Gap Analysis

• Determinant gap map (produced from managerial input/judgment on products)

• AR perceptual gap map (based on attribute ratings by customers)

• OS perceptual map (based on overall similarities ratings by customers)

6-40

A Determinant Gap MapFigure 6.2

6-41

1 2 3 .... Options .... X Ideal

12 . . . . . . .15

Attr

ibut

esRes

pond

ents

12 . .

700.

A Data Cube Figure 6.3

6-42

Rate each brand you are familiar with on each of the following: Disagree Agree

1. Attractive design 1..2..3..4..5 2. Stylish 1..2..3..4..5 3. Comfortable to wear 1..2..3..4..5 4. Fashionable 1..2..3..4..5 5. I feel good when I wear it 1..2..3..4..5 6. Is ideal for swimming 1..2..3..4..57. Looks like a designer label 1..2..3..4..58. Easy to swim in 1..2..3..4..59. In style 1..2..3..4..5 10. Great appearance 1..2..3..4..5 11. Comfortable to swim in 1..2..3..4..5 12. This is a desirable label 1..2..3..4..5 13. Gives me the look I like 1..2..3..4..5 14. I like the colors it comes in 1..2..3..4..5 15. Is functional for swimming 1..2..3..4..5

Obtaining Customer PerceptionsFigure 6.4

6-43

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Snake Plot of Perceptions(Three Brands)

Aqualine

Islands

Sunflare

Attributes

Ratings

Figure 6.5

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Data Reduction Using Multivariate Analysis

• Factor Analysis– Reduces the original number of attributes to a smaller

number of factors, each containing a set of attributes that “hang together”

• Cluster Analysis– Reduces the original number of respondents to a

smaller number of clusters based on their benefits sought, as revealed by their “ideal brand”

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Factor Eigenvalue Percent VarianceExplained

1 6.04 40.32 3.34 22.33 0.88 5.94 0.74 4.95 0.62 4.26 0.54 3.67 0.52 3.58 0.44 3.09 0.40 2.7

05

1015202530354045

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 No. of Factors

Perc

ent V

aria

nce

Expl

aine

d

The Scree

Selecting the Numberof Factors Figure 6.6

6-46

Attribute Factor 1 --“Fashion”

Factor 2 --“Comfort”

1. Attractive design .796 .0612. Stylish .791 .0293. Comfortable to wear .108 .7824. Fashionable .803 .0775. I feel good when I wear it .039 .7296. Is ideal for swimming .102 .8337. Looks like a designer label .754 .0598. Easy to swim in .093 .7939. In style .762 .12310. Great appearance .758 .20811. Comfortable to swim in .043 .75612. This is a desirable label .807 .08213. Gives me the look I like .810 .05514. I like the colors it comes in .800 .06115. Is functional for swimming .106 .798

Factor Loading Matrix Figure 6.7

6-47

Attribute Factor 1 --“Fashion”

Factor 2 --“Comfort”

1. Attractive design 0.145 -0.0222. Stylish 0.146 -0.0303. Comfortable to wear -0.018 0.2134. Fashionable 0.146 -0.0175. I feel good when I wear it -0.028 0.2016. Is ideal for swimming -0.021 0.2277. Looks like a designer label 0.138 -0.0208. Easy to swim in 0.131 0.2169. In style -0.021 -0.00310. Great appearance 0.146 0.02111. Comfortable to swim in -0.029 0.20812. This is a desirable label 0.146 -0.01613. Gives me the look I like 0.148 -0.02414. I like the colors it comes in 0.146 -0.02215. Is functional for swimming -0.019 0.217

Sample calculation of factor scores: From the snake plot, the mean ratings of Aqualine on Attributes1 through 15 are 2.15, 2.40, 3.48, …, 3.77. Multiply each of these mean ratings by the correspondingcoefficient in the factor score coefficient matrix to get Aqualine’s factor scores. For example, on Factor 1, Aqualine’s score is (2.15 x 0.145) + (2.40 x 0.146) + (3.48 x -0.018) + … + (3.77 x -0.019)= 2.48. Similarly, its score on Factor 2 can be calculated as 4.36. All other brands’ factor scores are calculated the same way.

Factor Scores MatrixFigure 6.8

6-48

Aqualine

Islands

Splash

Molokai

Sunflare

Gap 1

Gap 2

Fashion

Com

fort

The AR Perceptual Map Figure 6.9

6-49

Aqualine Islands Sunflare Molokai SplashAqualine X 3 9 5 7Islands X 8 3 4Sunflare X 5 7Molokai X 6Splash X

Dissimilarity MatrixFigure 6.10

6-50

Aqualine

Islands

Splash

Molokai

SunflareCom

fort

Fashion

The OS Perceptual Map Figure 6.11

6-51

AR Methods OS MethodsInput Required

Brand ratings on specific attributes Overall similarity ratingsAttributes must be pre-specified Respondent uses own judgment of similarity

Analytic Procedures Commonly UsedFactor analysis; multiple discriminant analysis Multidimensional scaling (MDS)

Graphical OutputShows product positions on axesAxes interpretable as underlying dimensions(factors)

Shows product positions relative to each otherAxes obtained through follow-up analysis or mustbe interpreted by the researcher

Where UsedSituations where attributes are easily articulated orvisualized

Situations where it may be difficult for therespondent to articulate or visualize attributes

Source: Adapted from Robert J. Dolan, Managing the New Product Development Process: Cases and Notes(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1993), p. 102.

Comparing AR and OS MethodsFigure 6.12

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Failures of Gap Analysis

• Input comes from questions on how brands differ (nuances ignored)

• Brands considered as sets of attributes; totalities, interrelationships overlooked; also creations requiring a conceptual leap

• Analysis and mapping may be history by the time data are gathered and analyzed

• Acceptance of findings by persons turned off by mathematical calculations?

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Chapter 7

Analytical Attribute Approaches:Trade-Off Analysis and Qualitative

Techniques

McGraw-Hill/Irwin – Merle Crawford Anthony Di Benedetto 9th Edition Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Trade-Off (Conjoint) Analysis

• Put the determinant attributes together in combinations or sets.

• Respondents rank these sets in order of preference.

• Conjoint analysis finds the optimal levels of each attribute.

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Thickness Spiciness Color ActualRanking*

Ranking asEstimatedby Model

Regular Mild Red 4 4Regular Mild Green 3 3Regular Medium-Hot Red 10 10Regular Medium-Hot Green 6 8Regular Extra-Hot Red 15 16Regular Extra-Hot Green 16 15Thick Mild Red 2 2Thick Mild Green 1 1Thick Medium-Hot Red 8 6Thick Medium-Hot Green 5 5Thick Extra-Hot Red 13 13Thick Extra-Hot Green 11 11Extra-Thick Mild Red 7 7Extra-Thick Mild Green 9 9Extra-Thick Medium-Hot Red 14 14Extra-Thick Medium-Hot Green 12 12Extra-Thick Extra-Hot Red 17 18Extra-Thick Extra-Hot Green 18 17

* 1 = most preferred, 18 = least preferred.

Conjoint Analysis Input: Salsa ExampleFigure 7.2

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Regular Thick Ex-Thick

UTI

LITY

2

1

0

-1

-2

Mild Medium-Hot Ex-Hot Red Green

Thickness Spiciness Color

0.161 0.913 -1.074 1.667 0.105 -1.774 -0.161 0.161

Conjoint Analysis: Graphical OutputFigure 7.3

7-57

Conjoint Analysis:Relative Importance of Attributes

0 20 40 60 80 100 %

SpicinessThicknessColor

59.8%34.6%

5.6%

Figure 7.3(cont’d.)

7-58

Some Qualitative Attribute Analysis Techniques

• Dimensional Analysis• Checklists• Relationships Analysis

– There are many others.

7-59

A Dimensional Attribute List

• Weight• Rust resistance• Length• Color• Water resistance• Materials• Style• Durability• Shock resistance• Heat tolerance

• Explosiveness• Flammability• Aroma• Translucence• Buoyancy• Hangability• Rechargeability• Flexibility• Malleability• Compressibility

Figure 7.4

7-60

An Idea Stimulator Checklistfor Industrial Products

• Can we change the physical/chemical properties of the material?

• Are each of the functions really necessary?• Can we construct a new model of this?• Can we change the form of power to make it work better?• Can standard components be substituted?• What if the order of the process were changed?• How might it be made more compact?• What if it were heat-treated/hardened/cured/plated?• Who else could use this operation or its output?• Has every step been computerized as much as possible?

Figure 7.5

7-61

Templates for Creativity

• Attribute Dependency: Find a functional dependency between two attributes. Ex.: color of ink on coffee cup is sensitive to heat and can reveal message if coffee is too hot.

• Replacement: Remove a component and replace with one from another environment. Ex.: antenna is replaced by headphone cord on Walkman.

• Displacement: Remove a component and its function to change the product. Ex.: Removing floppy drives resulted in ultra-thin PCs.

• Component Control: Find a new connection between a component internal to the product and one external to the product. Ex.: Toothpastes with whiteners, suntan lotions with skin moisturizers.

Source: Jacob Goldenberg and David Mazursky, Creativity in Product Innovation, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Figure 7.6

7-62

Relationships Analysis

• Force combinations of dimensions (features, functions, and benefits) together.

• Techniques:– Two-dimensional matrix– Multidimensional (morphological) matrix

• Two-dimensional example: person/animal insured and event insured against.

• Household cleaning products example used six dimensions:– Instrument used, ingredients used, objects cleaned,

type of container, substances removed, texture or form of cleaner

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Another Form of Dimensional Analysis

Two key dimensions for winning new product ideas:· Utility lever: How the product will affect the

customer’s life (such as simplicity, fun/image, environmental friendliness, reduced risk, convenience, and productivity).

· Buyer’s experience cycle: The stage when/where the product will affect the customer (purchase, delivery, use, supplements, maintenance, disposal).

Source: W. C. Kim and R. Mauborgne, “Knowing a Winning Business Idea When You See One,” Harvard Business Review, Sept.-Oct. 2000, pp. 129-138.

Figure 7.8

7-64

Morphological Matrix:New Coffee Maker

Heating:Heating element in potOpen flame under potMicrowave unit

Adding Coffee:By spoonBuilt-in measuring capAutomatic feed

Filtering:Filtering paperPorous ceramic filterCentrifuge method

Keeping Coffee Warm:Thermal insulating technologyWarming unit in putExternal heat source

Pouring Coffee:Valve under potPump in lid of potEspresso-like jets

7-65

Other Methods:Lateral Search Techniques

• Free association• Stereotype activity• Lateral thinking -- avoidance• Creative stimuli words• Studying “big winners”• Use of the ridiculous• Forced relationships

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Lateral Thinking -- Avoidance

Keep an idea from dominating thinking as it always has in the past by asking avoiding questions.

• Ask “Is there another way of looking at this?”• Ask “Why?”• Focus on an aspect of the problem other than

the “logical” one.• List all possible alternatives to every aspect of

the analysis.• Break apart aspects (concepts) of the problem,

or combine them to create even more concepts.7-67

Some Creative Stimuli Words

• Guest stars• Alphabet• Truth• Outer space• Charity• His and hers• Style• Nation• Family• Videotape

• Photography• Testimonials• Decorate• Fantasy• Hobbies• Holidays• Weather• Calendar• Push button• Snob appeal

7-68

Use of the Ridiculous

• How can you join two wires together?– Hold them with your teeth.– Use chewing gum.

• Can you think of others?• Do any of these ridiculous ideas suggest a

not-so-ridiculous solution?

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