Session 2 ppt fg

Foundations of Individual Behavior

Chapter 2

Learning Objectives

• Contrast two types of ability• Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to

OB• Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe

how they are relevant• Define learning and outline the principles of three major

theories of learning• Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB• Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual

abilities, biographical characteristics and learning

ABILITY

• Ability is an individual’s current capacity to perform various tasks in a job.

• Current assessment of what one can do• Made up of two sets of factors:Intellectual AbilitiesPhysical Abilities

Intellectual Abilities

• The abilities needed to perform mental activities.ThinkingReasoningProblem solving• General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall

intelligence. • Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of

intelligence for recruitment screening• No correlation between intelligence and job

satisfaction.

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Intellectual Ability

Number Aptitude

Verbal Comprehensi

on

Perceptual Speed

Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

Spatial Visualization

Memory

2-5

Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions Descriptions Job Example

Number aptitude

Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic

Accountant5 computing the sales tax on a set of items

Verbal Comprehension

Ability to understand what is read or heard

Plant manager: following corporate policies on hiring

Perceptual speed

Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately

Fire investigator: identifying clues to support a charge of arson

Inductive reasoning

Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem

Market researcher: forecasting demand for a product in the next time period

Deductive reasoning

Ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument

Supervisor: choosing between two different suggestions

Spatial Visualization

Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed

Interior decorator: redecorating an office

Memory Ability to retain and recall past experience

Salesperson: remembering the names of customers

Physical Abilities

• The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics

• Physical abilities have been and will remain important for successfully doing certain jobs

• Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical task

• Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities

• There is little relationship among them• A high score on one is no assurance of high score others

Physical Abilities• High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management has

ascertained the extent to which job requires each of the nine abilities and ensures that the employee in that job have those abilities

• Nine Basic Physical AbilitiesA. Strength Factors1. Dynamic Strength: Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time2. Trunk Strength: Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk(abdominal) muscles3. Static strength: ability to exert force against external objects4. Explosive strength: ability to expend a maximum energy in one or series of explosive acts

Physical Abilities• Nine Basic Physical Abilities (contd.)B. Flexibility Factors5. Extent flexibility: Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible6. Dynamic flexibility: Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movementsC. Other Factors7. Body coordination: ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body8. Balance: ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces putting off balance9. Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• There is a sizable amount of research on biographical factors (age, gender, length of service) and their relationship with productivity, absence, turnover citizenship, and satisfaction

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS • Age: Evidence indicate that employers hold mixed feelings about older workers Positive Qualities Experience, judgment A strong work ethic Commitment to quality Negative Aspects Lacking flexibility Resistant to new technology• Age and turnover relationship The older you get the less likely you are to quit the job As workers get older they have fewer alternative job opportunities Older workers are less likely to resign because their long tenure tends to

provide them with higher wages, and more attractive retirement benefits


• Age and absenteeism relationshipAge – absence relationship is partially a function

of whether absence is avoidable or unavoidable In general, older workers have lower rates

avoidable absence than younger workersThey have higher rates of unavoidable absence,

probably due to poorer health associated with age• Age and Productivity RelationshipAge and job performance are unrelated

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS The finding seems to be true for almost all types of jobs professionals and

nonprofessionals The natural conclusion is that the demands of most jobs even those with

heavy manual labor requirements are not extreme enough for any declines in physical skills attributable to age to have an impact on productivity; or if there is some decay due to age, it is offset by gains due to experience

• Age and job satisfaction The evidence is mixed Most studies indicate a positive relationship between age and satisfaction at

least up to age 60 Other studies have found U shaped relationship The most plausible explanation being that these studies are intermixing

professional and non professional employees When two types are separated , satisfaction continually increase among

professionals as they age, whereas it falls among non professionals during middle ages and then rises again in the latter years

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS • Gender• There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will

affect their job performance, including the areas of: No consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills,

competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning motive Psychological studies have found that women are more willing to conform to

authority Men are more aggressive and more likely than women have expectation of

success There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work

schedules Working mothers are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible work

schedules, and telecommuting No significant difference than men in turnover rates Women have higher absence rate than men


• Race and EthnicityControversial IssueEmployees tend to favor colleagues from their

own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, pay raises.


• Tenure Extensive reviews have been conducted of the seniority

–productivity relationship If seniority is defined as time on particular job most

recent evidence demonstrate a positive relationship between seniority and job productivity

Seniority to be negatively related to absenteeism The longer is a person on the job, the less likely he/she

is to quit Tenure and job satisfaction are positively related

Learning• Learning is relative change in behavior that is brought about by experience1. Learning involves changes Change may be good or bad from organizational point of view People can learn unfavorable behaviors2. The change must become ingrained one must distinguish short-term changes in behavior that are due to factors

other than learning Example: decline in performance due to fatigue, sickness, and under the

influence of alcohol or drugs3. Some form of experience is necessary for learning Experienced may be acquired directly through observation, or practice, or it

may be acquired indirectly as through reading Some changes in behavior or performance comes about through maturation;

inherited, genetic factors representing the nature part. THESE CHANGES ARE NOT THE RESULT OF EXPERIENCE

Classical Conditioning• A type of learning in which neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is

shared with a stimulus that naturally bring about that response Neutral stimulus: a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the

response Unconditioned stimulus (US) : a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response

without having been learned (Reflexive Response) Unconditioned Response (UCR) : a response that is natural and needs no training Examples of Unconditioned stimulus and response

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response ( UR)

Individual is stuck by a pin and flinches

Individual is shocked by a electric pin and jumps and screams

Conditioned Stimulus ( CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with conditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response (CR): A response that after conditioning follows a previously neutral stimulus

Meat Powder (Unconditioned

Stimulus)

Saliva (Unconditioned

response)

Bell (Conditioned

Stimulus)

Meat Powder (Unconditioned

Stimulus)

Saliva (Unconditioned Response)

Bell (Conditioned

Stimulus)

Saliva (Conditioned

response)

Classical Conditioning

+

Professor gives surprise Quiz (UCS)

Students feel anxiety ( UCR)

Professor Wears black suit

Professor gives surprise

quiz

Students feel anxiety

Professor wears black suit

Students feel anxiety

Steps in Classical Conditioning


• Stimulus Generalization Occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the

conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response• Example if you get sick after eating clams, the chances are that

you will avoid eating oysters as well• If you had a bad experience in the dentist chair, the sound of

neighbor high speed drill may make you uncomfortable• Generalization makes adaptive sense• Things that look, sound, or feel similar often share similar

properties• It really does not matter if it is loin, tiger, or panther leaping at

you --- you should run


• Stimulus Discrimination• Occurs when you respond to a new stimulus in a

way that is different from your response to the original conditioned stimulus

• Through stimulus discrimination you reveal that you can distinguish between stimuli, even when those stimuli are quite similar

• When stimuli do share properties – for example two tones of similar pitch – people often need to experience to learn to discriminate

Classical Conditioning• In management the best example to demonstrate the principle of

generalization is the principle of “ Management by exception”.• For example a sales supervisor may set performance benchmark

for his salesmen as minimum of 22 units per month• As long as the salesmen are selling 22 units he is quite satisfied

with the performance of his team• As soon as it goes below this number he starts investigating the

reasons for low performance• In the above example when the salespersons are achieving their

targeted sales he is using principle of stimulus generalization• He is also using principle of stimulus discrimination by identifying

sales persons whose performance is below 22 units per month


• Classical Conditioning is passive• Something happens and we react in a specific way• It is elicited in response to specific , identifiable event• It can only explain simple reflexive behaviors• Most behaviors of individuals in organizations are

emitted rather than elicited (voluntary rather reflexive)• Examples: employee choose to arrive at work on time• Ask their bosses for help with their problems• The learning of those behaviors is better understood by

looking at operant conditioning

Instrumental / Operant Conditioning

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• “ Of several responses made to the same situation, those that accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction will more likely to recur, those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will less likely to occur.

• This definition suggests the following:

1. Several responses or behaviors can occur in a given situation

2. Not all behaviors, however, will be associated with that situation in the future

3. Only positive reinforced (rewarded) behaviors will most likely to occur

4. Behaviors associated with punishment or other aversive stimuli will diminish

5. Behaviors not reinforced are not likely to occur in future

The Nature of Reinforcers

• A reinforcer is a stimulus that occurs a after a response and increases the likelihood that the response (behavior) will be repeated

• Primary Versus Secondary Reinforcers: Primary reinforcers are those that are necessary for survival

i.e., satisfy biological needs. Secondary Reinforcers do not directly satisfy biological needs Examples ; a compliment, A grade in an exam, money, etc. These reinforcers are established through classical conditioning We learn to associate a neutral stimulus, such as money (CS)

with rewards such as food, security, and power (US

Increasing The Probability Of Behavior

• Positive Reinforcement: Through the administration of a stimulus (Rewards) increases the

probability that a behavior will be repeated Rewarded behaviors will increases in frequency, as when people

work harder in response to praise, or increased pay

• Negative Reinforcement Increases behavior through removal of a stimulus When one is trying to avoid or escape an unwanted stimulus The seven absence rule in I. U., is an example of negative

reinforcement• The key point is that reinforcement - positive or negative , increases

the likelihood of a behavior

Reducing the Probability Of Behavior

• Punishment :Involves following an unwanted behavior with

some unpleasant, aversive stimulusIn theory, this should reduce the probability of

the response when the organism learns that the behavior leads to unwanted consequences

• Extinction/ withdrawal:Terminating the reinforcement that is

maintaining some unwanted behavior

The Practice of reinforcing

consequence ofContingent

Reward( something desirable)

Noxious Stimuli(Something aversive or

undesirable)

Application Positive Reinforcement Behavior Increase

Punishment Behavior Decrease

Withdrawal Punishment/ extinctionBehavior Decrease

Negative ReinforcementBehavior increase

The Use Of Punishment• Meaning Of Punishment Punishment results in a decrease in the frequency of an undesired

behavior Unless the punishment is severe the behavior will reappear again, but

the bigger the punishment the greater the negative side effect To minimize the problems, the person administering it should always

provide an acceptable alternate behavior• Administering Punishment

1. It should be immediate

2. It should be in private

3. It should have advance warning

4. It should be consistent

5. It should be impersonal

6. It should provide an acceptable alternative behavior

Continuous and Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement : A type of learning in which the desired behavior is influenced each time it

occurs• Partial Reinforcement Schedule: A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently• The partial-reinforcement extinction effect: Refers to greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than

under continuous reinforcement During continuous reinforcement the learner easily can detect when

reinforcement has stopped When the behavior is reinforced only some of the times to detect , the

learner has to repeat the behavior comparatively more times to detect the absence of reinforcement

Thus the less frequent the reinforcement during training , the greater the resistance to extinction

Conditioning a behavior so that it persists involves reinforcing continuously during early acquisition and then slowly changing to partial reinforcement

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedule

• Ratio and Interval Schedules• Ratio Schedule: Is based on the number of times a behavior , occurs, as when behavior is

reinforced every 3rd or 10th time behavior occurs Example : factory workers are paid on piece rate• Interval Schedules: Is based on specific unit of time, as when behavior is reinforced when it is

performed every minute or hour Example: a factory worker is paid by the hour (passage of time) Ratio Reinforcement generally leads to a greater responding than does

interval ratio Example: Factory workers paid by piece rate are usually more productive

than those paid by the hour, especially if the workers receive incentives for higher productivity


• Fixed and Variable Schedules:• Fixed Schedule: it can be both interval or ratio schedules• Fixed interval Schedule: The reinforcer consistently is given after fixed time Examples: Workers are paid a hourly wage When quizzes are scheduled at fixed intervals students study

only when the quiz is to be administered (the grade is the reinforcer)

• Fixed Ratio When the reinforcer is consistently given after a specific

number of occurrences Examples : When a worker is paid by the piece rate they are

paid according to a fix rate , earning the same for each piece


When you are paid each time you complete some work• Variable Schedule • Variable Interval: Reinforcer is given at different times The responder does not know how much time needs to pass before

reinforcement will occur Example: you listen to the radio to hear your favorite song. You don’t

know when you will hear it • Variable ratio: The respondent does not know how many behaviors need to be

performed before reinforcement to occur A slot machine pays off on average every few pulls , but you never

know when the pull will pay

Principles of learning in Operant conditioning

Intermittent reinforcement

Interval

Fixed Monthly salary

Variable promotion

RatioFixed Piece rate

Interval PraiseBonus

Schedules of reinforcementSchedule of reinforcement Reinforcer Applied Reinforcer Removed

Continuous Reinforcement

Quickest approach to establish a new motivated behavior

Quickest approach to extinguish a new motivated behavior

Partial Reinforcement

a. Variable interval

b. Variable Ratio

Frequencies of motivated behavior slow but more

consistent

Slower Extinction rate of motivated behavior

c. Fixed Interval

d. Fixed Ratio

Frequencies of motivated behavior are less

consistent than variable schedule

Faster Extinction rate of motivated behavior than

variable schedule

Behavior Modification

• Is the use of operant conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones

• The general rationale is behind behavior modification is that most unwanted behaviors are learned and there fore can be eliminated

• People can be taught , for example to be more productive at work, to save energy, drive more safely

Behavioral Performance Management or O.B. MOD.

Major Steps

Step 1. Identify: Performance related Behavioral events. These have to do with quality and quantity of work. These should be observable, measurable, and critical to the task

Step 2. Measure: How often are the performance behavior identified in step I occurring under existing conditions. This called base line data

Step3. Analyze: What are the antecedent (A) cues of the performance behavior (B) and what are the contingent consequences (C). ABC analysis is necessary prerequisite for developing an effective strategy

Step 4: Goal is to accelerate functional performance behaviors and de-accelerate dysfunctional ones. Positive reinforcement strategies of social recognition and feedback are mostly used

Step 5. Evaluate: To make sure that intervention lead to performance, if not than another analysis and intervention made

Example of steps in O.B. MOD

Step 1: Identify. Coming to work on time

Step 2; Measure. Each member of the work group is late at-least three times a week

Step 3: Analysis. Workers know that they should come to work on time but receive no positive reinforcement for doing so or punishment for coming late

Step 4: intervention. Positively reinforce workers for coming on time as follows: A worker is allowed one Friday afternoon off each month he/she is never late

Step 5. Evaluate. Workers always come on time

OB Modification Steps for Self Improvement

1. Identify a target behavior, such as losing 25 pounds, jogging 2 miles, or controlling your temper

2. Establish a baseline. Record your present status. This means you must write your present weight, the distance you can jog, or the number of times you lose temper each day

3. Identify a suitable reinforcer. Find a reward that will motivate you. Make a list of your favorite thing and then find the one that will be most appropriate for you

4. Set sub-goals, or steps toward the target. Your sub-goal might be losing 2 pounds each week, or jogging ¼ mile, then ½ mile, then 1 mile, and finally 2 miles

5. Write down achievement of sub-goals as planned and reward yourself with a suitable reinforcer identified in step 3

Social Learning/ Observational learning

• Individuals can learn by observing what happens to others, and just by being told about something as well as through direct experience

• This view that we can learn through both observation and experience is calle3d social-learning theory

• Although social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning – that is it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences

• It also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and importance of perceptions

• People respond to how they perceive and define consequences , not to objective consequences themselves

• The influence of models is central to the social-learning• Four processes have been found to determine the influence that model

will have on an individual

Social Learning/ Observational learning

1. Attentional processes People learn from model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical

features Most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important and

similar 2. Retention Process How well the individual remembers model’s action after the model is no longer

available3. Motor Reproduction process: Observed model behavior must be converted to doing This process then demonstrates that individual can perform modeled activities4. Reinforcement Process: Individuals are motivated to exhibit behavior if proper incentives are provided Behaviors that are positively reinforced are given more attention, learned better,

and performed more often

Business

Session 2 ppt fg