Current Issues in Second Language Phonology

John ArchibaldLESLLA 2009, Banff CANADA

Current Issues in Second Language Phonology

(and a bunch of other stuff)

Overview

Some basic facts about language. Benefits of bilingualism. Second language phonology. Age effects. Special populations.

Who am I?› A linguist with an interest in the study of

learning second (or other) languages. › Someone with a past life as an ESL teacher

at the credit and non-credit level. Who am I not?

› Someone who has a lot of experience with the population in question for this conference

Basic Facts About Language

How many languages are there? Close to 7,000.

There are no primitive languages; understudied languages may have surprising properties:› Inalienable possession› Evidentiality

All languages have a grammar; share basic properties

Even the native speakers may feel that their language is somehow “inferior”

Remember that prestige judgments are social not linguistic› Double negatives: Old English vs Modern

English; urban dialects

We have ample evidence that even if the speakers are nervous about the status of their L1 that it will be a robust natural language

Most languages in the world don’t have writing systems

So, writing systems are not essential components of human languages

But they have decided socio-economic implications in many societies

What About Multilingualism?

A Multilingual Planet

Bilingualism and multilingualism is the norm on this planet

Monolingualism is the exception

Benefits of Bilingualism

What effects does learning a second language have?

It has both linguistic and non-linguistic benefits.

Increased Syntactic Complexity

We know that exposure to an L2 can enhance the complexity of syntax used in producing the first language. Studies have shown that the sophistication of language actually increases when there is knowledge of a second language.

Not only does knowledge of another language not harm your first language, it can actually enhance it.

Enhanced Narrative Strategies

We know that exposure to a second language can enhance language use skills (things like narrative strategies, both reading and writing literacy skills in the L1, and vocabulary scores).

Metalinguistic Awareness

We know that bilinguals have greater meta-linguistic awareness – which leads to better performance in tasks when we need to pay attention to structure (e.g. writing), and also to increased sensitivity to the needs of the listener

General Cognition

We know that bilinguals have cognitive advantages as demonstrated in scores on tests of analogical reasoning and visual-spatial skills.

Room For Everyone

We know that being taught in one language doesn’t lead to a reduced capacity in the other language. In fact, maintaining bilingual proficiency (rather than becoming monolingual in the socially dominant language) can actually benefit school performance.

The goal is not to become a monolingual English speaker.

Math

Grade 3 students were tested and it was found that students who had studied a foreign language had significantly higher scores on the mathematics subtest of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills than did students who did not take a foreign language.

What is Phonology?

More than pronunciation It’s about a system of knowledge;

mental representation It’s about what you know (not just what

you can do)

Segments

Consonants and vowels New languages may have new

contrasts

Consonants

Learning English [θ] (as in ‘think’) Learning the difference between the ‘l’

in “leaf” and the ‘l’ in “fall” L1 phonology, universal patterns, and

L2 phonetics all influence the acquisition of L2 sounds

Vowels

Imagine learning the French [ü] English speakers tend to substitute an

[u] sound Portuguese speakers tend to substitute

an [i] sound L1 properties may explain this

Syllables

Syllables have internal structure:› The onset consonant comes before the

vowel› The coda consonant comes after the vowel› E.g., “cat”

Syllables

Consonant clusters?› Yes: English› No: Korean

Yes ++: Swedish, Polish Coda consonants?

› Lots: English› Some: Japanese› None: Hawaiian

Repair Strategies

Epenthesis versus deletion as repair strategies

Epenthesis: “went” -> “wenti” Deletion “went” -> “wen”

Repair Strategies

Epenthesis (over deletion) increases as task formality increases

Epenthesis (over deletion) increases as proficiency increases

Stress

Some languages have stress and some do not

Stress: English, French, Spanish, Finnish

Tone: Chinese, many African languages Pitch Accent: Japanese L2 learners can acquire new settings

Non-Stress Languages

Even L1s that lack stress are able to acquire representations that include stress. E.g., Chinese and Japanese learners of English stress

Stress

Stress can be predictable:› Polish: penultimate› French: Final› Czech: Initial

Or variable:

› English, Russian

Stress

The L1 stress rules can influence L2 production and perception

Importance of Perception

Mis-perception as basis of foreign accent

L2 sounds shoe-horned into L1 categories› E.g., [q] as [k]

Actually hearing things that aren’t in the input string (Japanese listeners of French): ebzo/ebuzo

L1 Perceptual Filter

Japanese has 1 liquid [ɾ] Japanese learners lend to hear English

[r] and [l] as examples of [ɾ] English speakers tend to hear French [ü]

as [u]

The L1 does influence the L2

The L1 grammar does transfer to the L2 and influence the new grammar

At first transfer effects are prevalent, and then the system starts to adopt L2 rules and become a kind of hybrid system

Intelligibility/Comprehensibility

Just because someone has an L2 accent doesn’t mean their speech is impossible to understand

Intelligibility is a measure of whether the words can be understood by native listeners

Comprehnsibility is a measure of how difficult it is to retrieve the words being spoken

Some errors are more difficult to process than others

You can learn new stuff

Just because you lack certain things in your L1 doesn’t mean you can’t learn them

It’s not like a door has closed› Chinese learners of English [l]/[r]› English learners of Japanese [t]/[tt]› Japanese learners of Russian [r]

Global Accent

Even nativelike global accent is not unattainable for late learners (though rare)

Age Effects

Adults can acquire nativelike ability Late learners’ speech rate is slower

Should You Start Early?

There are some advantages but it’s never too late.

Global Accent

Upper Limits of Late SLA

Attainment potential not inferior to L1A

Similar ends can be reached by different means

ERP’s

Electrophysiology (ERP)

ERP components reveal certain differences between the brain activation of L1 and L2 speakers.

Age of Acquisition of L2 has an effect on the pattern of brain activation as revealed by ERPs.

High proficiency in L2 results in patterns of activation quite similar to those of native speakers.

ERP Signature Components

LANs P600 N400

Syntactic Lexical-Semantic

ERPs and Age of Acquisition

Content words were treated similarly in all groups.

However, function words showed very definite age effects.

Age doesn’t affect all areas equally

ERPs and Proficiency in L2

High proficiency in L2 results in patterns of activation quite similar to those of native speakers.

Age isn’t the only relevant factor.

Morphology

Two Cognitive Mechanisms

IRREGULARS

Stored in & retrieved from associative memory (along with arbitrary facts, dates, lists, etc.)

REGULARS

Computed in procedural system (responsible for coordination of motor & cognitive skills, symbol manipulation, etc.)

Special Skills/Special Populations?

So, can anyone do this?

Special Populations?

Dyslexia Developmental delay

Special Populations

Students with language or other impairments require special support regardless of the language of instruction

Diagnostic Difficulty

It can be difficult sometimes to diagnose learning disability in second language learners (Case & Taylor 2005)

We need to try to provide effective L2 instruction and accommodate learning difficulties (Artiles & Artiz 2002)

Accommodation

Teach basic skills or concepts Reteach via different approaches to

those who fail to meet expected performance levels

Refocus instruction Ortiz, A. (1997). Learning disabilities occurring with

linguistic differences.

Developmental Delay

Children with developmental disabilities attending Jacaranda school in Nairobi are speakers of not only English and Kiswahili but also indigenous languages.

Kenyan children with developmental delay perform equally well in multiple languages (including reading and writing) as their monolingual American counterparts

Candelaria-Greene, J. (1996). A paradigm for bilingual special education in the USA: lessons from Kenya.

Dyslexia

Can be difficult, though not impossible, to diagnose

Cline, T. & N. Frederickson (1999). Identification and assessment of dyslexia in bi/multilingual children. International Journal of bilingual Education and bilingualism

2(2): 81-83.

Dyslexia

One study looked at Norwegian dyslexics acquiring English as an L2.

Helland, T. & R. Kaasa (2004). Dyslexia in English as a second language. Dyslexia 11(1): 41-60.

Dyslexia

The authors recommended that the higher proficiency dyslexic group would be successful in foreign language courses with extra aid in spelling (such as a computer spell checker). The lower proficiency group was recommended for adjusted L2 education to match their level of L2 development.

Dyslexia

Another study debunks the assumption that L1 difficulties due to dyslexia will necessarily manifest in L2 learning. Individuals identified as dyslexic may experience anxiety in their L1 inhibiting learning; L2 learning offers the pupil a chance to be equal with non-dyslexic peers and develop confidence and a fondness for language learning unknown to them in their L1.

Learning an L2 is not a special skill available only to an elite few

Summary

When attempting to learn the sound system of a new language, lower-educated second language learners are engaged in a very complex task

Yet, research shows that it is a feasible task

Neither age nor education are barriers to success

Summary

Many special populations are able to acquire second languages

Of course, it’s hard work, it’s stressful, and there is a great deal riding on the outcome of the journey they are on

But teachers can help, and the learners are equipped with the necessary hardware and software they need to succeed.

Conclusion

Research can inform what is possible, and where our sights should be set.

Achieving these goals involves policy and resource commitments (so, we’ve got to lobby)

But the frontline workers are the most crucial for ensuring that this most special population is not marginalized.

Thank you for your work, and thank you for your time.

john.archibald@ucalgary.ca