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Chapter 2

Foundations of Individual Behavior

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Learning Objectives

Contrast the two types of ability.

Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB.

Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB.

Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning.

Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB.

Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.

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Ability

Ability

An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job

Types of Ability

Intellectual Abilities Physical Abilities

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Intellectual Ability

Intellectual Ability

The capacity to do mental activities such as; thinking, reasoning, and problem solving

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Number Aptitude - Verbal Comprehension - Perceptual Speed - Inductive Reasoning - Deductive Reasoning - Spatial Visualization - Memory

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Physical Ability

Physical Ability

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

Dimensions of Physical Ability

Strength Factors (Dynamic strength - Trunk strength - Static strength - Explosive strength) Flexibility Factors (Extent flexibility - Dynamic flexibility)Other Factors (Body coordination – Balance – Stamina)

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Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

Personal Characteristics

Age Gender

Race Other Biographical Characteristics

Tenure – Religion – Sexual orientation and gender identity

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Learning

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Social-Learning Theory

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Learning

Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Social-Learning Theory

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment

People can learn through observation and direct experience

BehaviorismBehavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner

Attentional processes - Retention processes - Motor reproduction processes - Reinforcement processes

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Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response

Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning)

ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)

PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”)

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Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Schedule of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated

Fixed interval schedule

Variable interval schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

Variable ratio schedule

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Behavior modification (OB Mode)

Behavior Modification (OB Mode)

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting

Steps Identify critical behaviors

Develop baseline data

Identify behavioral consequences

Develop and apply intervention

Evaluate performance improvement

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Behavior modification (OB Mode)

Problems with Behavior Modification (OB Mode)

OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.

OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling.

Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior.

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Global Implications

Schedule of Reinforcement

Intellectual Abilities Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across cultures

Biographical Characteristics

Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships described in this chapter.

LearningAgain, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point

Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical composition