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Forgetting and Memory Forgetting and Memory ImprovementImprovement

PSY 421 – Fall 2004PSY 421 – Fall 2004

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OverviewOverview

ForgettingForgetting InterferenceInterference Cognitive InhibitionCognitive Inhibition Directed ForgettingDirected Forgetting

Memory ImprovementMemory Improvement Memory TechniquesMemory Techniques Prospective vs. Retrospective MemoryProspective vs. Retrospective Memory

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ForgettingForgetting Exactly what is this?Exactly what is this?

Attention problemsAttention problems Cognitive inhibitionCognitive inhibition Insufficient encodingInsufficient encoding Poor performance on a memory testPoor performance on a memory test Response biasResponse bias Mismatch between encoding and retrievalMismatch between encoding and retrieval ConfusionConfusion Inability to discriminateInability to discriminate InterferenceInterference Context effectsContext effects

Notice that none of these options is associated Notice that none of these options is associated with a physical abnormality that results in with a physical abnormality that results in "terrible memory ability""terrible memory ability"

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InterferenceInterference TypesTypes

Proactive – Proactive – information learned information learned before the target item before the target item was learned interferes was learned interferes with the memory for with the memory for the target itemthe target item

Retroactive – Retroactive – information learned information learned after the target item after the target item was learned interferes was learned interferes with the memory for with the memory for the target itemthe target item

Experimental Method Experimental Method for Interferencefor Interference

List List 11

List List 22

TestTest

ListList

Inter-Inter-fer-fer-enceence

Exp Exp GrpGrp

A-BA-B A-DA-D A-BA-B RIRI

Ctrl Ctrl GrpGrp

A-BA-B C-DC-D A-BA-B NoneNone

Exp Exp

GrpGrp

A-DA-D A-BA-B A-BA-B PIPI

CtrlCtrl

GrpGrp

C-DC-D A-BA-B A-BA-B NoneNone

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Interference FindingsInterference Findings The greater number of previous trials you have had The greater number of previous trials you have had

with a particular task, the lower your memory with a particular task, the lower your memory performance will be because of proactive performance will be because of proactive interference – Underwood, 1957interference – Underwood, 1957

Interference occurs at retrieval – McGeoch, 1932Interference occurs at retrieval – McGeoch, 1932 Often times, multiple possible responses are Often times, multiple possible responses are

competing to be the response given at testcompeting to be the response given at test Similarity can create interference – Release from Similarity can create interference – Release from

Proactive Interference – Wickens, Born, and Allen, Proactive Interference – Wickens, Born, and Allen, 19631963

Context (environmental) can also create Context (environmental) can also create interference to the extent that the cues it provides interference to the extent that the cues it provides activate many responses or responses similar to activate many responses or responses similar to that you are trying to retrievethat you are trying to retrieve

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Cognitive InhibitionCognitive Inhibition Cognitive inhibition = the control of cognitive Cognitive inhibition = the control of cognitive

contents or processes (Harnishfeger, 1995) contents or processes (Harnishfeger, 1995) Thought to improve across childhood and Thought to improve across childhood and

adulthood and decline with increase ageadulthood and decline with increase age Age-related improvements in the ability to ignore Age-related improvements in the ability to ignore

both external sources of distraction (e.g., both external sources of distraction (e.g., selective attention)selective attention)

Most common type of inhibition is retrieval based Most common type of inhibition is retrieval based = there is a loss of retrieval access to inhibited = there is a loss of retrieval access to inhibited items, without a loss in the availability of those items, without a loss in the availability of those items in storage (E. L. Bjork, Bjork, & Anderson, items in storage (E. L. Bjork, Bjork, & Anderson, 1998). 1998).

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Directed ForgettingDirected Forgetting The directed-forgetting paradigm - developed by R. A. The directed-forgetting paradigm - developed by R. A.

Bjork (1972) Bjork (1972) After material has been presented for study, participants After material has been presented for study, participants

are told to remember some of it and to forget the are told to remember some of it and to forget the remainderremainder

The remember and forget cues can be presented either The remember and forget cues can be presented either after each item (item cuing) or after a group of items (list after each item (item cuing) or after a group of items (list cuing)cuing)

If directed forgetting is successful, then there will be If directed forgetting is successful, then there will be (a) only a small number of intrusions of forget-cued items when (a) only a small number of intrusions of forget-cued items when

participants are asked to recall only the remember-cued itemsparticipants are asked to recall only the remember-cued items (b) a poor recall of forget-cued items when participants are (b) a poor recall of forget-cued items when participants are

asked to recall all items. asked to recall all items. Research results indicate that young adults are able to Research results indicate that young adults are able to

minimize interference from the to-be-forgotten material minimize interference from the to-be-forgotten material (MacLeod, 1998) and that children begin to gain control (MacLeod, 1998) and that children begin to gain control over their forgetting in the elementary school years over their forgetting in the elementary school years (Golding & Long, 1998; Lehman & Bovasso, 1993; (Golding & Long, 1998; Lehman & Bovasso, 1993; Wilson & Kipp, 1998).Wilson & Kipp, 1998).

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Memory ImprovementMemory Improvement What do we know so far?What do we know so far?

Pay attentionPay attention Elaborate, especially on meaning for what needs to Elaborate, especially on meaning for what needs to

be rememberedbe remembered Try to anticipate under what conditions you will need Try to anticipate under what conditions you will need

to remember the information and then encode it under to remember the information and then encode it under those same or similar conditionsthose same or similar conditions

Memory improvement devicesMemory improvement devices Mnemonic techniquesMnemonic techniques Method of loci (location)Method of loci (location) Peg-Word techniquePeg-Word technique Keyword techniqueKeyword technique

Remembering to RememberRemembering to Remember

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Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices Mnemonic = Mnemonic = Naïve vs. Technical Naïve vs. Technical Naïve = memory strategies we use Naïve = memory strategies we use

spontaneously – without instructionsspontaneously – without instructions Acronyms with first lettersAcronyms with first letters ImageryImagery RhymingRhyming

Technical = strategies not used everyday, usually Technical = strategies not used everyday, usually need to be taught how they workneed to be taught how they work Method of Loci – visual imagery and spatial informationMethod of Loci – visual imagery and spatial information Peg-Word technique – visual imagery to see "items" Peg-Word technique – visual imagery to see "items"

hung on a peghung on a peg Keyword technique – associating images with words Keyword technique – associating images with words

and these images interactand these images interact

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Remembering to RememberRemembering to Remember Remember to feed the cat – do your homework Remember to feed the cat – do your homework

– go to the game – read an assigned chapter – – go to the game – read an assigned chapter – send a birthday card – remembering to do send a birthday card – remembering to do something in the future = prospective memorysomething in the future = prospective memory Benefit from external memory aids (writing things Benefit from external memory aids (writing things

down)down) Many of the everyday memory failures are failures of Many of the everyday memory failures are failures of

prospective memoryprospective memory The makers of Post-it Notes – their muse?The makers of Post-it Notes – their muse?

Remembering the scientist who developed Remembering the scientist who developed Structuralism – remembering what color the Structuralism – remembering what color the slides were last lecture – remembering the last slides were last lecture – remembering the last time PSU beat Purdue in football – remembering time PSU beat Purdue in football – remembering something from the past = retrospective memorysomething from the past = retrospective memory