10 Top Selling Hybrid Cars

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: Toyota Prius Hybrid

The Toyota Prius may not be as large as the Cadillac Escalade Hybrid, but when it comes to hybrid sa

he Prius is a juggernaut. In 2008, Toyota sold 158,886 Prius hatchbacks. That's more vehicles than the

of this 10 best selling hybrids list combined.

The Prius has long been the most successful hybrid on the market. Not only does it have excellent

economy, but buyers love its exterior design, which has become the de facto shape of a hybrid in m

people's minds. The Prius is slatted for a redesign in 2010 and Toyota is pulling out all the stops: not o

will fuel economy improve, but the car will be larger and more comfortable, feature solar panels on the

to power interior accessories), and be built in America.

While you can never say for sure what a redesign will do for a car, the buzz building around the Prius is t

t will continue to dominate the hybrid market for years to come.

2: Toyota Camry Hybrid

When it comes to hybrid sales, Toyota is king. And while Toyota is well known for its Prius hybrid,

second-best selling hybrid of 2008 is the Toyota Camry Hybrid. In fact, Toyota sold more than 46,00

hem in 2008.

While the Prius is known for its distinctive shape, the Camry Hybrid flies under the radar. On the outsi

only a hybrid badge separates it from the conventional Camry. Under the hood, however, the Camry Hy

manages to get an extra 12 miles per gallon (5.1 kilometers per gallon) in the city compared to the stand

Camry, and a 26 percent improvement in fuel economy overall. The Camry Hybrid is another one of th

have everything" hybrids. In addition to the eco-friendly ride, buyers get a comfortable passenger cabin

good performance, too. All reasons that explain the Camry Hybrid's popularity.

3: Honda Civic Hybrid

The Honda Civic Hybrid has the distinction of being one of the most affordable hybrids out of the top 10 b

selling hybrids in America. The Civic Hybrid is nearly indistinguishable from the conventional Civic, exc

or its powertrain.

Buyers snapped up more than 31,000 Honda Civic Hybrids in 2008. Not only is it an economical choice

green drivers, but the Civic Hybrid retains a lot of the fun-to-drive characteristics of the conventional C

The Civic Hybrid handles well, accelerates with some oomph and has Honda's bulletproof reputation

eliability. But the Civic Hybrid won't be the cheap kid on the block for long. In April of 2009, Honda

eintroduce the Honda Insight, a midsized hybrid that will likely be priced less than the Civic Hybrid.

4: Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner Hybrids

Even though General Motors has three hybrids on this top 10 list, Ford is the only domestic automaker w

hybrids listed in the top five. Together, the Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner Hybrids are the fourth b

selling hybrid vehicles of 2008. The two models are fairly similar. Both are compact SUVs that seat five a

are almost mechanically identical.

n 2008, Ford sold nearly 20,000 of the Escape and Mariner Hybrids as buyers opted for all the convenie

and capabilities of a small SUV, but with the added boost of improved gas mileage and decrea
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emissions. As Ford starts to roll out more hybrids, including the well-reviewed Ford Fusion Hybrid,

Escape and Mariner Hybrids seem to be a good platform to build on.

5: Toyota Highlander Hybrid

Some people want to have it all: a car that uses less gas but is still capable of handling all of the people

stuff you need to haul. The Toyota Highlander Hybrid is one of those vehicles that does just that.

The Highlander Hybrid is a midsize hybrid SUV, which means it seats seven and has plenty ofcargosp

or luggage, sports equipment orpets. It's also fairly rugged; while it wouldn't be most people's first cho

or an off-road machine, it can handle foul weather and dirt roads with no problem. When you add a hy

power train that give drivers a 37 percent improvement in city fuel economy, you get a machine that re

earns its spot as the 5th best selling hybrid in America.

6: Lexus RX 400h

The sixth best selling hybrid in the U.S. for 2008 is another luxury model, and another Lexus. More t

5,000 Lexus RX 400h hybrid SUVs were sold in 2008 -- almost twice the number of the Nissan Alt

Hybrid, the next most-bought hybrid in America.

The Lexus RX 400h appeals to buyers looking for Lexus luxury and reliability, SUV practicality, and redu

oil use and carbon emissions. It's also popular because, fuel economy aside, its performance is decide

unhybrid-like. It accelerates strongly, handles well and wraps passengers in a tech-heavy cocoon of lux

The only downside to the RX400h is its high sticker price: It starts at about $42,000.

7: Nissan Altima Hybrid

Nissan is often seen as an "also-ran" competitor when compared to Toyota and Honda, the Godzillas

apanese automakers. But for buyers who want a little more performance from their family sedan,

Nissan Altima has long been the car of choice. The Nissan Altima Hybrid now lets drivers pass the station in addition to passing other cars on the road.

n 2008, Nissan sold 8,819 Altima Hybrids. While those sales numbers aren't as high as sales for hyb

rom Honda or Toyota, what makes the Altima Hybrid's sales impressive is that it's only available in e

states. If Nissan sold the Altima Hybrid in more areas, sales, and Nissan's reputation for eco-friendly driv

might be a bit higher.

8: Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid and GMC Yukon Hybrid

The Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon Hybrids offer the same capabilities and seating as the Cadi

Escalade hybrid. However, with much lower price tags, it's not hard to see why 5,876 buyers went for

Tahoe and Yukon in 2008, compared to the 801 buyers who chose the Escalade Hybrid.

But the Tahoe and Yukon Hybrids aren't just pale imitations of the Escalade. The Tahoe Hybrid was nam

he 2008 Green Car of the Year by the Green Car Journal, giving it some green street-cred. Like

Escalade Hybrid, the Tahoe and Yukon Hybrids' size prevents them from getting great fuel economy, but

people who need to tow heavy loads or haul lots of people, the extra miles per gallon, not matter how sm

s a big benefit.

9: Lexus LS600h
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Of course, there are plenty of car buyers who want a luxury hybrid without having to drive a large SUV

he Escalade. In 2008, 980 people purchased the Lexus LS600h, the largest and most luxurious hybrid

produced by Toyota Motor Corp., Lexus' parent company.

With a manufacturer suggested retail price (MSRP) that startsabove $100,000, the LS600h obviously i

or people who are looking to save a little cash on gas. In fact, the LS600h only gets an EPA-estimated

MPG (8.5 kilometers per liter) in the city and 22 MPG (9.35 kilometers per liter) on the highway. The LS6

s an interesting hybrid because the electric motor not only can power the car at slow speeds to save ga

can also provide a power boost to the gas engine. That makes the Lexus LS600h the hybrid of choice

well-heeled buyers looking to add a little thrill to their green driving.

0: Cadillac Escalade Hybrid

When Santonio Holmes won the MVP Award for Super Bowl XLIII, he clearly had green driving on his m

MVP winners are allowed to choose any car from Cadillac's lineup, and Holmes chose the Cadillac Escala

Hybrid.

n 2008, 801 buyers opted for the car that proves going green doesn't mean you have to sacrifice bling. Escalade Hybrid combines a V-8 engine, seating for up to eight passengers, high-tech interior features

owing ability with a 25 percent improvement in fuel economy compared to the standard Escalade. While

Escalade Hybrid's size prevents it from getting the same fuel economy as smaller hybrids, it allows buy

who need lots of space and utility, and those who want lots of luxury, to make a slightly greener choice.

How can hybrid cars utilize solar power?

One thing some drivers like about fuel-efficient vehicles like hybrid cars is that they attempt to save as much energpossible while the car is running. When you're stopped at a stoplight, for instance, many hybrid systems will switchhe gasoline engine completely; as the car starts once again and begins to moves forward, it uses only the electric mo

which creates little or no emissions and saves fuel until the driver reaches higher speeds.

But what if hybrid cars could save energy and promote eco-friendly driving even while the car is turned off?

Of course, some hybrid cars do this already. Plug-in hybrids, when they're parked, can charge theirbatteries uommon electrical outlets to increase the vehicle's range. This buys the driver a little more time before the gasol

powered engine kicks in and improves overall fuel efficiency. But charging a plug-in hybrid still involves consumnergy from the electrical grid, which, in most cases, generates power by burning coal and other carbon-based fuels

pollute the environment and contribute to global warming.

But some automakers are thinking about getting energy from a source that's located far, far away from the Earth --un. Solar panels that gather energy from the sun's light have been around for many years at this point. In fact, so

people even install solar power in their homes as a way to remove themselves from the power grid. But solar panelars haven't always been practical, mostly because of how expensive the technology is. Some carmakers, howe

ncluding Toyota and Audi, are introducing solar panels onto their hybrid models.And as people worry about theprice of gas and the impact fossil fuels have on the environment, solar panels might sike a novel solution to increase fuel economy and make green driving easier for commuters. But how can a hybrid

make good use of solar panels? And to what extent do they power a hybrid car? Can they help power a hybrid's elemotor, or would solar panels assist other systems throughout the vehicle? How much would adding solar panels to yhybrid car cost, and would it really be worth it? Keep reading to find out.

Hybrid Car Solar Roof Panels

There are several car companies that plan to install solar panels in their newer hybrid vehicles. Some third generamodels of the Toyota Prius and the Karma, a plug-in hybrid made by Fisker Automotive, will get solar power. Even
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Audi A8, a conventional car powered by a gasoline engine, uses solar panels. The big question for most of thmanufacturers is: how much extra power will a solar roof panel actually provide? Can they boost the electric rangefuel-efficient vehicles like hybrids and make eco-friendly driving even friendlier and sunnier?

The answer, for the most part, is no. In the case of the 2010 Toyota Prius, an unidentified source from Toyota noted he company's use of a solar panel in the hybrid car was more of a "symbolic gesture" than a useful source of propulsxplaining that it's very difficult to generate enough power to move a vehicle with energy from the sun's light [sou

Reuters.com]. So, solar panels generally don't have any impact on a hybrid car's fuel efficiency. Solar panels are made out of silicon, which for the moment is too expensive for automakers to use as a viable source. In fact, a fewompanies have tried in the past to install solar panels, with little or no luck. Mazda, for instance, attempted to maolar panels on two of its models sold outside of the U.S., the Eunos 800 and the Sentia, in 1992, but the system prove

be too costly and unpopular with drivers.

So what will solar panels do on top of hybrid cars if they're not powering the electric motor? The panels, built byKyocera Corporation, will power at least part of the Toyota Prius' air-conditioning unit. The solar panel will be availas an option on the Prius, so customers will pay extra for this feature. Smaller, less power-hungry systems seem to wbetter with solar power, a fact highlighted by the Audi A8, a conventional gasoline-powered car that employs solar pafor powering its air-conditioning system.

How can solar panels power a car?

f there's no such thing as a free lunch, how about a free ride? Think of how wonderful it would be if your car coontinue running without you spending a dime on fuel. If you drove a solar-powered car, that auto dream would crue. Much like solar-powered homes, solar cars harness energy from the sun, converting it into electricity. Tlectricity then fuels the battery that runs the car's motor. Instead of using a battery, some solar cars direct the potraight to an electric motor.

Solar cars can accomplish this through photovoltaic cells (PVC). PVCs are the components in solar paneling that conhe sun's energy to electricity. They're made up ofsemiconductors, usually made of silicon, that absorb the light. unlight's energy then frees electrons in the semiconductors, creating a flow of electrons. That flow generateslectricity that powers the battery or the specialized car motor in solar cars. For more details about solar energy, read H

Solar Cells Work.Although you won't find solar cars at any dealerships, people have been building their own models since the 1970sPasserini who constructed his own completely solar powered car called the "Bluebird" in 1977 and Larry Perkins wdrove the "Quiet Achiever" in 1982 both receive nods as the first people to do so. Ford and Mazda have even testedwaters with solar hybrid concept cars. The 2006 Ford Reflex installed solar panels in the headlights, and the 2005 MSenku featured solar panels on its roof to help charge its battery. The 2008 Cadillac Provoq uses solar panels to poaccessories, such as interior lights and the audio system.

While the Reflex, Provoq and Senku are merely concept models, cars outfitted with solar panels may be tiptoeing tway into the consumer automotive industry as companies try to find innovative methods for dodging gasodependence. French car company Venturi has made one of the most publicized efforts with its unveiling of the Eclemodel prototype at the 2006 Paris Auto Show. The Eclectic combines solar, wind and battery power to run a thpassenger car specifically for city driving. Solar panels cover its roof, and a wind turbine can also catch energyblustery days. The Venturi Eclectic isn't cut for highway travel, however, since it only goes up to 30 miles per hourkph).

Are solar cars practical?

Canadian Marcelo da Luz is also trumpeting the solar car during his journey to the Arctic Circle in -- what else? -- a sar. Although his single occupancy vehicle cost $1 million, he intends for the journey to communicate to the public

viability of solar energy for automobiles [source: CBC].
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Payal mittal06179f that astronomical price stands out to you, consider the projected cost of the forthcoming Venturi Eclectic. The Freompany plans to show its final version of the model in October 2008, and it's slated for a price point of around $30,0

While that's a far cry from da Luz's expense, considering the size and limited range, this goes to show that sechnology is not cheap.

The cost of solar cells can range from $10 up to $400 each [source: Barry]. The more expensive they become, the bhey are at capturing and converting sunlight. Race-worthy solar cars that can travel beyond 60 miles per hour (96 k

and go for hundreds of miles use thousands of those solar cells across the body of the car. They also cost hundredhousands of dollars.

Achieving speeds of 60 miles per hour solely from the sun has a lot to do with the weight and aerodynamics of the sacecars. Their design, combined with the efficiency of the motor allows them to zip down the road with the same oohat powers a hairdryer [source: MIT Solar Car Team]. While gasoline engine cars direct around 15 percent of the en

from burning fuel to actually moving the car, solar power achieves beyond 90 percent efficiency [souFuelEconomy.gov].

All this fuel thrift doesn't translate to desirable aesthetics, however. For one thing, these one-seaters look like pancakewheels. And as you can guess, driving a car covered in solar panels may not be the most temperate experience. Thpurely solar-powered cars can heat up quickly since the passenger area is enveloped by the cells.

Then there's the problem of how to get around at night or on rainy days when the sun is nowhere to be seen. Here's wha battery or small gas engine would come in. Most viable solar car projects rely on additional power sources to ensure he car gets going any time you need it to. In fact, James Dyson of vacuum cleaner fame recently publicized his inteno develop an electric car with a solar roof that would improve the mileage it could get [source: Derbyshire]. Used

way, solar power could serve as a range extender for electric cars, allowing the panels to provide the fuel whileunlight is abundant, but kicking it to the battery once it goes down.

Solar Car Competitions

Solar cars haven't caught on with the public yet, but solar car racing has been going on since the 1980s. Common entrnclude school, corporate and hobbyist teams. You'll also notice many big-name automakers as team sponsors as w

Here are a couple of the longest-distance examples:

World Solar Challenge: started in 1983, this 1,872-mile (3,012-kilometer) race goes acrAustralia and happens every three years.

Toyota American Solar Challenge: a 2,400-mile (3,862-kilometer) race from Dallas, Texto Alberta, Calgary.

Solar car

Tokai Challenger, the winner of the 2009 World Solar Challenge, with an average speed of 10km/h over the 2998 km race.A solar car is a solar vehicle used for land transport.Solar ccombine technology typically used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternatenergyand automotive industries. The design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by amount of energy input into the car. Most solar cars have been built for the purpose ofsolar aces. Exceptions include solar-powered cars and utility vehicles.

Solar cars are often fitted with gauges as seen in conventional cars. In order to keep the unning smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these gauges to spot possible problems. C

without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows the driver's teammonitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters and free driver to concentrate on driving.

Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight actuaenters the Earth's atmosphere.[1] Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy
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heat for either household purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cdirectly convert sunlight into electricity.[2] When sunlight (photons) strike PV cells, they excelectrons and allow them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are madesemiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%. Of late, several consultcompanies, such as Phoenix Snider Power, have started offering technical and financial servi

o institutes and teams developing solar cars worldwide.

Solar array-The solar array consists of hundreds of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlnto electricity. In order to construct an array, PV cells are placed together to form moduwhich are placed together to form an array.[3] The larger arrays in use can produce ovekilowatts (2.6 hp).

Cells,Modules,Arrays[4]The solar array can be mounted in several ways:

horizontal. This most common arrangement gives most overall power during most of the in low latitudes or higher latitude summers and offers little interaction with the wHorizontal arrays can be integrated or be in the form of a free canopy.

vertical. This arrangement is sometimes found in free standing or integratedsails to harnwind energy.[5] Useful solar power is limited to mornings, evenings, or winters and when vehicle is pointing in the right direction.

adjustable. Free solar arrays can often be tilted around the axis of travel in order to increpower when the sun is low and well to the side. An alternative is to tilt the whole vehicle whparked. Two-axis adjustment is only found on marine vehicles, where the aerodynaresistance is of less importance than with road vehicles.

integrated. Some vehicles cover every available surface with solar cells. Some of the cells be at an optimal angle whereas others will be shaded.

trailer. Solar trailers are especially useful for retrofitting existing vehicles with little stabile.g. bicycles. Some trailers also include the batteries and others also the drive motor.

remote. By mounting the solar array at a stationary location instead of the vehicle, power cbe maximised and resistance minimized. The virtual grid-connection however involves melectrical losses than with true solar vehicles and the battery must be larger.

The choice of solar array geometry involves an optimization between power output, aerodynaesistance and vehicle mass, as well as practical considerations. For example, a free horizon

canopy gives 2-3 times the surface area of a vehicle with integrated cells but offers betcooling of the cells and shading of the riders. There are also thin flexible solar arraysdevelopment.

Solar arrays on solar cars are mounted and encapsulated very differently from stationary soarrays. Solar arrays on solar cars are usually mounted using industrial grade double-siadhesive tape right onto the car's body. The arrays are encapsulated using thin layers of Tedla

Some solar cars use gallium arsenide solar cells,, with efficiencies around thirty percent. Otsolar cars use silicon solar cells, with efficiencies around twenty percent.

How Solar Cells Work
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You've probably seen calculators with solar cells -- devices that never needbatteries and in some cases, don't even han off button. As long as there's enough light, they seem to work forever. You may also have seen larger solar panperhaps on emergency road signs, call boxes, buoys and even in parking lots to power the lights.

Although these larger panels aren't as common as solar-powered calculators, they're out there and not that hard to spyou know where to look. In fact, photovoltaics -- which were once used almost exclusively in space, powering satellectrical systems as far back as 1958 -- are being used more and more in less exotic ways. The technology continue

pop up in new devices all the time, from sunglasses to electric vehicle charging stations.

The hope for a "solar revolution" has been floating around for decades -- the idea that one day we'll all use free electrifrom the sun. This is a seductive promise, because on a bright, sunny day, the sun's rays give off approximately 1watts of energy per square meter of the planet's surface. If we could collect all of that energy, we could easily powerhomes and offices for free.

n this article, we will examine solar cells to learn how they convert the sun's energy directly into electricity. Inprocess, you will learn why we're getting closer to using the sun's energy on a daily basis, and why we still have mesearch to do before the process becomes cost-effective.

Photovoltaic Cells: Converting Photons to Electrons

The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also called photovoltaic (PV) cells, which as the name impphoto meaning "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"), convert sunlight directly into electricity. A module is a gr

of cells connected electrically and packaged into a frame (more commonly known as a solar panel), which can thegrouped into larger solar arrays, like the one operating at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada.

Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which is currently used mommonly. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor mate

This means that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loallowing them to flow freely.

PV cells also all have one or more electric field that acts to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a certdirection. This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, wedraw that current off for external use, say, to power a calculator. This current, together with the cell's voltage (which esult of its built-in electric field or fields), defines the power (or wattage) that the solar cell can produce.

That's the basic process, but there's really much more to it. On the next article, let's take a deeper look into one exampla PV cell: the single-crystal silicon cell.

How Silicon Makes a Solar Cell

Silicon has some special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon has 14 electrarranged in three different shells. The first two shells -- which hold two and eight electrons respectively -- are complefull. The outer shell, however, is only half full with just four electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to filts last shell, and to do this, it will share electrons with four nearby atoms. It's like each atom holds hands with

neighbors, except that in this case, each atom has four hands joined to four neighbors. That's what forms the crystaltructure, and that structure turns out to be important to this type of PV cell.

The only problem is that pure crystalline silicon is a poor conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are fremove about, unlike the electrons in more optimum conductors like copper. To address this issue, the silicon in a solarhas impurities -- other atoms purposefully mixed in with the silicon atoms -- which changes the way things work aWe usually think of impurities as something undesirable, but in this case, our cell wouldn't work without them. Consilicon with an atom of phosphorous here and there, maybe one for every million silicon atoms. Phosphorous has lectrons in its outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but in a sense, the phosphorous has lectron that doesn't have anyone to hold hands with. It doesn't form part of a bond, but there is a positive proton in

phosphorous nucleus holding it in place.
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Payal mittal06179

When energy is added to pure silicon, in the form of heat for example, it can cause a few electrons to break free of tbonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in each case. These electrons, called free carriers, then wanandomly around the crystalline lattice looking for another hole to fall into and carrying an electrical current. Howehere are so few of them in pure silicon, that they aren't very useful.

But our impure silicon with phosphorous atoms mixed in is a different story. It takes a lot less energy to knock looseof our "extra" phosphorous electrons because they aren't tied up in a bond with any neighboring atoms. As a result, mof these electrons do break free, and we have a lot more free carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The procesadding impurities on purpose is called doping, and when doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N-"n" for negative) because of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor than pilicon.

The other part of a typical solar cell is doped with the element boron, which has only three electrons in its outer snstead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having free electrons, P-type ("p" for positive) has free openingsarries the opposite (positive) charge.

Anatomy of a Solar Cell

Before now, our two separate pieces of silicon were electrically neutral; the interesting part begins when you put together. That's because without an electric field, the cell wouldn't work; the field forms when the N-type and P-ilicon come into contact. Suddenly, the free electrons on the N side see all the openings on the P side, and there's a ush to fill them. Do all the free electrons fill all the free holes? No. If they did, then the whole arrangement wouldn

very useful. However, right at the junction, they do mix and form something of a barrier, making it harder and harderlectrons on the N side to cross over to the P side. Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and we have an electric feparating the two sides.

This electric field acts as a diode, allowing (and even pushing) electrons to flow from the P side to the N side, but notother way around. It's like a hill -- electrons can easily go down the hill (to the N side), but can't climb it (to the P side)

When light, in the form ofphotons, hits our solar cell, its energy breaks apart electron-hole pairs. Each photon wnough energy will normally free exactly one electron, resulting in a free hole as well. If this happens close enough tolectric field, or if free electron and free hole happen to wander into its range of influence, the field will send the elec

o the N side and the hole to the P side. This causes further disruption of electrical neutrality, and if we providxternal current path, electrons will flow through the path to the P side to unite with holes that the electric field sent th

doing work for us along the way. The electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltWith both current and voltage, we have power, which is the product of the two.

There are a few more components left before we can really use our cell. Silicon happens to be a very shiny matewhich can send photons bouncing away before they've done their job, so

an antireflective coating is applied to reduce those losses. The final step is to install something that will protect the from the elements -- often a glass cover plate. PV modules are generally made by connecting several individual cogether to achieve useful levels of voltage and current, and putting them in a sturdy frame complete with positive

negative terminals.

How much sunlight energy does our PV cell absorb? Unfortunately, probably not an awful lot. In 2006, for example, molar panels only reached efficiency levels of about 12 to 18 percent. The most cutting-edge solar panel system that

finally muscled its way over the industry's long-standing 40 percent barrier in solar efficiency -- achieving 40.7 persource: U.S. Department of Energy]. So why is it such a challenge to make the most of a sunny day?

Energy Loss in a Solar Cell
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Visible light is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation is not monochromatic -- it's madof a range of different wavelengths, and therefore energy levels. (See How Light Works for a good discussion oflectromagnetic spectrum.)

Light can be separated into different wavelengths, which we can see in the form of a rainbow. Since the light that hitsell hasphoton s of a wide range of energies, it turns out that some of them won't have enough energy to alter an electr

hole pair. They'll simply pass through the cell as if it were transparent. Still other photons have too much energy. Onertain amount of energy, measured in electron volts (eV) and defined by our cell material (about 1.1 eV for crystalilicon), is required to knock an electron loose. We call this the band gap energy of a material. If a photon has mnergy than the required amount, then the extra energy is lost. (That is, unless a photon has twice the required energy, an create more than one electron-hole pair, but this effect is not significant.) These two effects alone can account foross of about 70 percent of the radiation energy incident on our cell.

Why can't we choose a material with a really low band gap, so we can use more of the photons? Unfortunately, our bgap also determines the strength (voltage) of our electric field, and if it's too low, then what we make up in extra curby absorbing more photons), we lose by having a small voltage. Remember that power is voltage times current.

optimal band gap, balancing these two effects, is around 1.4 eV for a cell made from a single material.

We have other losses as well. Our electrons have to flow from one side of the cell to the other through an external circ

We can cover the bottom with a metal, allowing for good conduction, but if we completely cover the top, then phoan't get through the opaque conductor and we lose all of our current (in some cells, transparent conductors are usedhe top surface, but not in all). If we put our contacts only at the sides of our cell, then the electrons have to travextremely long distance to reach the contacts. Remember, silicon is a semiconductor-- it's not nearly as good as a m

for transporting current. Its internal resistance (called series resistance) is fairly high, and high resistance means hosses. To minimize these losses, cells are typically covered by a metallic contact grid that shortens the distance lectrons have to travel while covering only a small part of the cell surface. Even so, some photons are blocked by

grid, which can't be too small or else its own resistance will be too high.

Now that we know how a solar cell operates, let's see what it takes to power a house with the technology.

Solar-powering a House

What would you have to do to poweryour house with solar energy? Although it's not as simple as just slapping somodules on your roof, it's not extremely difficult to do, either.

First of all, not every roof has the correct orientation or angle of inclination to take full advantage of the sun's eneNon-tracking PV systems in the Northern Hemisphere should ideally point toward true south, although orientations face in more easterly and westerly directions can work too, albeit by sacrificing varying degrees of efficiency. Spanels should also be inclined at an angle as close to the area's latitude as possible to absorb the maximum amounnergy year-round. A different orientation and/or inclination could be used if you want to maximize energy productionhe morning or afternoon, and/or the summer or winter. Of course, the modules should never be shaded by nearby treebuildings, no matter the time of day or the time of year. In a PV module, if even just one of its cells is shaded, poproduction can be significantly reduced.

f you have a house with an unshaded, southward-facing roof, you need to decide what size system you need. Thomplicated by the facts that yourelectricity production depends on the weather, which is never completely predictaand that your electricity demand will also vary. Luckily, these hurdles are fairly easy to clear. Meteorological data gaverage monthly sunlight levels for different geographical areas. This takes into account rainfall and cloudy days, as as altitude, humidity and other more subtle factors. You should design for the worst month, so that you'll have enolectricity year-round. With that data and your average household demand (your utility bill conveniently lets you k

how much energy you use every month), there are simple methods you can use to determine just how many PV modyou'll need. You'll also need to decide on a system voltage, which you can control by deciding how many modules to wn series.
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You may have already guessed a couple of problems that we'll have to solve. First, what do we do when the sun hining?

Solving Solar Power Issues

The thought of living at the whim of the weatherman probably doesn't thrill most people, but three main optionsnsure you still have power even if the sun isn't cooperating. If you want to live completely off the grid, but don't t

your PV panels to supply all the electricity you'll need in a pinch, you can use a backup generator when solar suppliesow. The second stand-alone system involves energy storage in the form ofbatteries. Unfortunately, batteries can add

of cost and maintenance to a PV system, but it's currently a necessity if you want to be completely independent.alternative is to connect your house to the utility grid, buying power when you need it and selling it back when produce more than you use. This way, the utility acts as a practically infinite storage system. Keep in mind thogovernment regulations vary depending on location and are subject to change. Your local utility company may or maybe required to participate, and the buyback price can vary greatly. You'll also probably need special equipment to mure the power you're looking to sell the utility company is compatible with their own. Safety is an issue as well.

utility has to make sure that if there's a power outage in your neighborhood, your PV system won't continue to flectricity into power lines that a lineman will think are dead. This is a dangerous situation called islanding, but it ca

avoided with an anti-islanding inverter -- something we'll get to on the next page.

f you decide to use batteries instead, keep in mind that they'll have to be maintained, and then replaced after a cernumber of years. Most solar panels tend to last about 30 years (and improved longevity is certainly one research goal),batteries just don't have that kind of useful life [source:National Renewable Energy Laboratory]. Batteries in PV systan also be very dangerous because of the energy they store and the acidic electrolytes they contain, so you'll need a w

ventilated, nonmetallic enclosure for them.

Although several different kinds of batteries are commonly used, the one characteristic they should all have in commohat they are deep-cycle batteries. Unlike your car battery, which is a shallow-cycle battery, deep-cycle batteries

discharge more of their stored energy while still maintaining long life. Car batteries discharge a large current for a vhort time -- to start your car -- and are then immediately recharged as you drive. PV batteries generally have to disch

a smaller current for a longer period of time (such as at night or during a power outage), while being charged duringday. The most commonly used deep-cycle batteries are lead-acid batteries (both sealed and vented) and nickel-cadmbatteries, both of which have various pros and cons.

Finishing Your Solar Power Setup

The use ofbatteries requires the installation of another component called a charge controller. Batteries last a lot longehey aren't overcharged or drained too much. That's what a charge controller does. Once the batteries are fully charghe charge controller doesn't let current from the PV modules continue to flow into them. Similarly, once the batte

have been drained to a certain predetermined level, controlled by measuring battery voltage, many charge controllers not allow more current to be drained from the batteries until they have been recharged. The use of a charge controllessential for long battery life.

The other problem besides energy storage is that the electricity generated by your solar panels, and extracted from ybatteries if you choose to use them, is not in the form that's supplied by your utility or used by the electrical applianceyour house. The electricity generated by a solar system is direct current, so you'll need an inverter to convert it alternating current. And like we discussed on the last page, apart from switching DC to AC, some inverters are designed to protect against islanding if your system is hooked up to the power grid.

Most large inverters will allow you to automatically control how your system works. Some PV modules, called modules, actually have an inverter already built into each module, eliminating the need for a large, central inverter, implifying wiring issues.

Throw in the mounting hardware, wiring, junction boxes, grounding equipment, overcurrent protection, DC anddisconnects and other accessories, and you have yourself a system. You must follow electrical codes (there's a sectio
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Payal mittal06179he National Electrical Code just for PV), and it's highly recommended that a licensed electrician who has experience w

PV systems do the installation. Once installed, a PV system requires very little maintenance (especially if no batteriesused), and will provide electricity cleanly and quietly for 20 years or more.

Developments in Solar Cell Technology

We've talked a lot about how a typical PV system operates, but issues concerning cost-effectiveness (which we'll get

more on the next page) have spurred endless research efforts aimed at developing and fine-tuning new ways to make spower increasingly competitive with traditional energy sources.

For example, single-crystal silicon isn't the only material used in PV cells. Polycrystalline silicon is used in an attemput manufacturing costs, although the resulting cells aren't as efficient as single crystal silicon. Second-generation sell technology consists of what's known as thin-film solar cells. While they also tend to sacrifice some efficiency, theimpler and cheaper to produce -- and they become more efficient all the time. Thin-film solar cells can be made fro

variety of materials, including amorphous silicon (which has no crystalline structure), gallium arsenide, copper inddiselenide and cadmium telluride.

Another strategy for increasing efficiency is to use two or more layers of different materials with different band gRemember that depending on the substance, photons of varying energies are absorbed. So by stacking higher bandmaterial on the surface to absorb high-energy photons (while allowing lower-energy photons to be absorbed by the loband gap material beneath), much higher efficiencies can result. Such cells, called multi-junction cells, can have mhan one electric field.

Concentrating photovoltaic technology is another promising field of development. Instead of simply collecting onverting a portion of whatever sunlight just happens to shine down and be converted into electricity, concentratingystems use the addition of optical equipment like lenses and mirrors to focus greater amounts of solar energy onto hifficient solar cells. Although these systems are generally pricier to manufacture, they have a number of advantages oonventional solar panel setups and encourage further research and development efforts.

All these different versions of solar cell technology have companies dreaming up applications and products that rungamut, from solar powered planes and space-based power stations to more everyday items like PV-powered curtalothes and laptop cases. Not even the miniature world of nanoparticles is being left out, and researchers are e

xploring the potential for organically produced solar cells.

But if photovoltaics are such a wonderful source of free energy, then why doesn't the whole world run on solar power?

Solar Power Costs

Some people have a flawed concept of solar energy. While it's true that sunlight is free, the electricity generated byystems is not. There are lots of factors involved in determining whether installing a PV system is worth the price.

First, there's the question of where you reside. People living in sunny parts of the world start out with a greater advanhan those settled in less sun-drenched locations, since their PV systems are generally able to generate more electric

The cost of utilities in an area should be factored in on top of that. Electricity rates vary greatly from place to placeomeone living farther north may still want to consider going solar if their rates are particularly high.

Next, there's the installation cost; as you probably noticed from our discussion of a household PV system, quite a bhardware is needed. As of 2009, a residential solar panel setup averaged somewhere between $8 and $10 per wanstall [source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory]. The larger the system, the less it typically costs per watt. It's mportant to remember that many solar power systems don't completely cover the electricity load 100 percent of the t

Chances are, you'll still have a power bill, although it'll certainly be lower than if there were no solar panels in place.

Despite the sticker price, there are several potential ways to defray the cost of a PV system for both residents orporations willing to upgrade and go solar. These can come in the form of federal and state tax incentives, utompany rebates and other financing opportunities. Plus, depending on how large the solar panel setup is -- and how
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Payal mittal06179t performs -- it could help pay itself off faster by creating the occasional surplus of power. Finally, it's also importa

factor in home value estimates. Installing a PV system is expected to add thousands of dollars to the value of a home.

Right now, solar power still has some difficulty competing with the utilities, but costs are coming down as reseamproves the technology. Advocates are confident that PV will one day be cost-effective in urban areas as well as rem

ones. Part of the problem is that manufacturing needs to be done on a large scale to reduce costs as much as possible. Tkind of demand for PV, however, won't exist until prices fall to competitive levels. It's a catch-22. Even so, as demand module efficiencies rise constantly, prices fall, and the world becomes increasingly aware of the environmeoncerns associated with conventional power sources, it's likely photovoltaics will have a promising future.

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