18635830 Lesson 1 Introduction to Business Communication

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UNIT 1CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF

COMMUNICATIONLESSON 1:

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESSCOMMUNICATION

On completion of this lesson you will understand

• What is communication?

• How important it is in context of business organizations?

• How communication process works?

“Communication” is a process — an activity that serves toconnect senders and receivers of messages through spaceand time. Although human beings tend to be interestedprimarily in the study of human communication, the process ispresent in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things.From this we may conclude that communication is a funda-mental, universal process.How often have you heard statements such as these?• If you want to be promoted, you’ll have to improve your

communication skills.• One of the strengths of our relationship over the years has

been that we communicate so well - in fact, usually I knowwhat she’s thinking before she tells me!

• The lightening storm knocked out our communicationsystems, and since then we haven’t handled a singlecustomer call.

• He’s really smart, and he knows his stuff, but as a teacher hejust doesn’t communicate it very well.

• They say they built the product to meet our specifications,but it’s not what we asked for - I think we have acommunication problem here.

The word “communicate” derives from the word “common” -to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, putin use, relate. So an investigation of this subject might beginwith the question: What do all studies of communication havein common? What are the shared concepts that make the studyof “communication” different from the study of subjects suchas “thought” or “literature” or “life?” When someone says,“this is a communication problem,” what does that mean?When a baby sees his mother’s face for the first time, communi-cation happens. When someone steps out onto a beach in Goaand water touches his feet communication happens. When theIndian parliament passes a new bill to curb monopolies in themarket and the President signs, communication happens.When a computer in Delhi calls up a computer in Tokyo andtransmits a message, communication happens.Communication is a general phenomenon. It occurs in nature,wherever life exists. Whether we recognize it or not, we have nochoice but to communicate. If we try to avoid communicatingby not replying to messages, we are nevertheless sending amessage, but it may not be the one we want or intend. Whenwe don’t say yes, we may be saying no by default – and viceversa. The only choice we can make about communication iswhether we are going to attempt to communicate effectively.

What do we mean by communicating effectively? The object ofcommunication is to convey thoughts/ intentions/emotions/facts/ideas of one person or group to the others. When themessage sent is received and understood by the receiver in thesame sense , as the sender wants to convey ,effective communi-cation takes place. When the receiver misunderstands a messagewe consider it a distortion in communication. Throughout ourstudy, we would try to improve our communication skills sothat we can make ourselves better understood in our communi-cations.The fact is that we spend so much of our time communicating;we tend to assume that we are experts. Surveys indicate thatwhen business professionals are asked to rate their communica-tion skills, virtually everyone overestimates his or her abilities asa communicator. There is a natural tendency to blame the otherperson for the problems in understanding or making ourselvesunderstood. The better option is to improve one’s owncommunication. One has to be always on a look to identify hisweak points as a communicator and strive to overcome them.This needs a thorough understanding of meaning and processof communication.

Meaning of CommunicationCommunication is derived from the Latin word communis,which means, “ to share” that is, sharing of ideas, concepts,feelings and emotions. The science of communication is almostas old as man himself. Form time immemorial; the need toshare or to communicate had been felt. Different vehicles /channels were identified and subsequently improvised for thepurpose of transmission of ideas and concepts. A study ofthese channels enables us to gain an insight into the process ofcommunication.Before a definition of communication is arrived at, a fewqueries, which arise in the minds of the readers, have to beanswered. What is the importance of communication? Whyshould it be studied? Why should the channel be analyzed andexamined?The importance of communication can be gauged from the factthat we are communicating in some from or the other almostevery moment of our lives. Whether we are walking,, talking,playing, sitting, or even sleeping, a message is being formulatedand transmitted. Man, who is a social animal, is constantlyinteracting with other individuals. For him it is necessary tounderstand the art of communication and apply or modify it ina suitable manner. Man possesses the ability to communicate,which is much more than a composition of certain symbolizeor to understand concepts in terms of images or symbols. It isthis ability that helps him to communicate. Communicationthen, it may be stated, is much more than an understanding ofthe spoken or written language. It is a composite of symbols,

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gestures, and illustrations that accompany either the spoken orthe written word.

Basic Purpose of CommunicationPeople in organizations typically spend over 75% of their time inan interpersonal situation; thus it is no surprise to find that at theroot of a large number of organizational problems is poorcommunications. Effective communication is an essential compo-nent of organizational success whether it is at the interpersonal,intergroup, intragroup, organizational, or external levels.“What is the purpose of (formal) communication?” Aresponse to a query of this nature would be more beneficial ifattempts were made to understand the business situationwhere success or failure of issues is always measured in termsof man- hours spent in the completion of a task. Let us take anexample. Suppose the boss issues instructions to his subordi-nate to complete a certain project in a particular manner within astipulated timeframe. The subordinate does it to the best of hisability. However, the end result is a miserable failure because themanner of completion does not match with the expectationsof the boss. A lot of time has been wasted as a result ofmiscommunication on the part of the two members of thesame organization. In fact, more first instance. If the amountof time used in completion of this particular task is calculated,it would be seen that double the time necessary has been taken.The example cited above is one of the most common andprevailing examples of miscommunication resulting from a lackof feedback in organizations. This, however, is not the onlycriterion that qualifies for an in-depth study of communication.Let us take a look at the communicative competence required atthree different levels in an organization.In the business situation of a manager, as he goes higher up inthe hierarchy is to coordinate, issue instructions, collateinformation, and then present it. All these activities requireeffective communication skills the sooner these skills are honed,the easier it is for the manager to accomplish tasks. Similar is thecase of the junior manager vying for a quick promotion. Aswork in the organization is always done in conjunction withother people, effective communication skills become a necessity.Let us compare the progression of two junior managers up theladder of success possessing almost the same academicqualifications and almost similar personality traits. Only one ofthem would be able to make it to the managing Director’s chair.Without doubt it would be the candidate with excellentcommunication skills.Prior to entry in any organization, certain communicative abilitiesare also looked for in candidates. Ability to speak, conductoneself properly in an interview, get along with others, listencarefully and accurately, make effective presentations, prepare goodyet brief report, make proposals, sell ideas, convince and persuadeothers are some of the attributes looked for in a candidate. If anindividual possesses these attributes looked for in a candidate. Ifan individual possesses these attributes or can train himself toexcel in them, he himself would realize how much easier it is forhim only to secure a comfortable position in an organization butalso to achieve success.

A Study-tour of CommunicationThis tour presents a fundamental overview of the study ofcommunication with emphasis on the study of humancommunication. The sections may be used in any order, thougha comprehensive study would normally begin with sectionnumber one and consider each in the order listed below.1. The Communication ProcessCommunication is a process that serves to connect senders andreceivers of messages in space and time. Although humanbeings tend to be interested primarily in the study of humancommunication, the process is present in all living things and, itcan be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude thatcommunication is a fundamental, universal process.

2. Self AndsocietyMessages are formed in the mind of one individual andinterpreted in the mind of another. Yet the formation andinterpretation of messages are affected by the groups to whichthe individuals belong. Thus, a complete understanding ofhuman communication must take into account both humanpsychology and human social interaction.

3. InformationTo receive messages human beings must make use of theirsenses. However, the senses continually process large volumesof data, not all of which are the result of communication. It isthe human ability to discern, recognize, and remember patternsin this constant flow of data that makes meaningful communi-cation possible.

4. Signs And LanguageSome patterns of data bring to mind memories of previouspatterns. These “signs,” as they are called, can be assembled intolarge, powerful patterns called “languages.” Much (thoughcertainly not all) of human communication is carried onthrough the use of language.


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5. Interaction And RelationshipsIn face-to-face situations human beings cannot avoid commu-nicating with one another. This “interpersonal”communication, which involves processes such as “speech” and“body language,” plays an important role in the formation,development, and dissolution of human relationships.

6. Mass CommunicationApproximately five hundred years ago a new form of commu-nication arose. This “mass” communication process, whichmakes use of permanent text that can be made available tomillions of people at the same time, has quickly become animportant factor in the lives of many human beings.

7. The Communication EnvironmentHuman communication takes place within, and cannot beseparated from, the complex social environments within whichall communicators must live. Systems of belief, technologicalmedia, and the presence of cultural artifacts all affect thecommunication process and contribute to the development ofthe human social reality.

Communication: a system for sending and receiving messages.An investigation of this statement will lead first to the idea of asystem, and then to the idea of messages.

SystemsA “system” is typically described as a collection of parts whichare interconnected, or related to, one another and which alsorelate to the environment which surrounds the system. In thepicture below, the circles and rectangles represent the parts, thesolid lines represent the relationships among the parts, and thearrows show the system’s interaction with its environment.

To say that the elements of a system are interconnected impliesthat if something happens to change one part, then at least oneother part must change, too. Naturally, as soon as that secondpart changes, some other part must then change ... and so on.This is somewhat like the effect of touching a bowl of gelatin -a single touch results in a long period of jiggling motion.Because systems interact with their environments, they areconstantly being “touched” from the outside. This means thatmost systems are constantly changing, and, because thesechanges take time, a system cannot be described as having oneparticular shape. It is this property that makes systems usefulfor studying the kinds of situations that scholars usually referto as events, or processes.The idea of a system is well illustrated by the device called a“mobile.” The parts of this system, or objects, as they are oftencalled, are represented in the illustration below as “fishes.” Therelationships are established by the bars, which maintain ahorizontal spacing among the fish, and the pieces of string,which keep the fish at certain vertical depths.

Notice that the strings and bars• Connect every fish with every other fish,• Allow the fish to move around quite a bit, yet confine them

to a certain area and keep them from falling apart.This is a fine example of how a system works. If any one fishmoves, at least one other fish will react by moving, too. Thus,the smallest breeze will keep the mobile in constant motion.


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The following quotation by Stephen Littlejohn provides a moreformal definition of the term “system” .From the simplest perspective, a system can be said to consistof four things.• The first is objects. The objects are the parts, elements, or

variables of the system. These objects may be physical orabstract or both, depending on the nature of the system.

• Second, a system consists of attributes, or the qualities orproperties of the system and its objects.

• Third, a system must possess internal relationships amongits objects. This characteristic is a crucial defining quality ofsystems. A relationship among objects implies a mutualeffect (interdependence) and constraint.

• Fourth, systems also possess an environment. They do notexist in a vacuum but are affected by their surroundings.

Clearly, the “fish” mobile meets these requirements.

It is important to do the following exercise. Thinking aboutsystems in this way is the most effective way to understandthem. Consider each of the three systems named here and try to:• Name some of the objects that make up the system,• Name some of the relationships among the objects,• Describe the environment of the system, and• Describe ways in which the system is constantly changing.

Three SystemsYour body’s nervous system,The legal system of the United States,The U. S. Interstate Highway system.

The Role of CommunicationNotice that these example systems have communication incommon.• The nervous system carries messages from the nerve endings

in our extremities to our brains and back.• The legal system includes thousands of individuals talking

to one another, laws being read and interpreted, forms beingfilled out, and so on.

• The highway system requires constant communicationamong drivers - turn signals, brake lights, and so on - andbetween drivers and their vehicles - as, for example, whenyou “tell” your car to turn left by pulling on the steeringwheel.

In fact, it might be said that communication is the “glue” thatholds a system together. This gives insight into the nature ofcommunication itself, to wit:

Communication ConnectsBut communication is not merely passive connection. Rather,communication is the process of connecting. It is a collection ofrenewable actions that work throughout space and over time toform relationships among objects.Communication is not an object itself; it is not a thing, and thisleads to a second insight into the nature of communication.

Communication HappensThis is an important observation. It implies that communica-tion can never fully be understand by looking only at “things.”To understand communication, we must also look at therelationships among the “things” and at the environments inwhich the “things” reside.For example, consider some common communication“things”:• A paperback copy of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol,• A video tape of the CNN 6:00 news broadcast on May 5th,

1990,• A written invitation to attend my sister’s wedding.In each case the thing - the actual book, the actual video tape,the actual invitation - is not the communication.• The communication is the process that connects the readers

of the book to the story told by the author.• The communication is the process that connects the watchers

of the broadcast to the events of the day.• The communication is the process that connects my sister

and I via the announcement of her wedding.True, the book, the tape and the invitation are a part of thecommunication process, but they are only a part.There are additional observations to be drawn from theseexamples.• Communication always happens between or among - it takes

at least two to communicate.• Communication involves an exchange - of electrical signals,

of sounds, words, pages of print, or whatever.For ease, these exchanges among communicators will be giventhe general name: messages.Notice, for example, that each of the previous set of examplescontained sender and a receiver and a message. The book waswritten by its author to be read by its audience. The video tapewas produced by one group of people to be watched byanother. And the invitation is a message sent from my sister tome.The idea of “messages” is considered at length in thesetutorials. At this point, however, it is appropriate to reiterate thetwo basic rules that have just been uncovered:1. Communication is a process that happens among and acts to

connect communicators through space and over time.2. Communication involves the creation, transmission, and

reception of messages.


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That’s Just What I Mean!Most problems arise because people cannot sustaineffective communication. Cultivating the art of listeninghelps to build bridges and enhance relationships, saysSantosh BabuAll happy families resemble one another, eachunhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” Thus begins LeoTolstoy’s epic Anna Karenina. What he meant, perhaps, is thatcommunication is complete when the mind is happy anduninhibited, and distortion creeps in when the mood is sullenand sad. Most problems in an organization, family or group arethe result of people failing to communicate. Haven’t you oftensaid “You don’t understand what I say” or words to that effect?Communication is the exchange or flow of information andideas between one person and another. Technically, it involves asender passing on an idea to a receiver. Effective communicationoccurs when the receiver comprehends the information or ideathat the sender intends to convey. What does a communicationprocess involve? You have an idea that you need to communi-cate, and a message is sent to the receiver, either verbally ornon-verbally. The receiver then translates the words or nonver-bal gestures into a concept or information. Let’s take, forexample, this message: “You are very intelligent.” Would thismessage carry the same meaning to the receiver every time youvoice these words? The success of the transmission depends ontwo factors—content and context. Content is the actual wordsor symbols that constitutes a part of the message, known aslanguage. It could be either spoken or written. We all interpretwords in our own ways, so much so that even simple messagescould be understood differently.Context is the way the message is delivered-the tone, expressionin the sender’s eyes, body language, hand gestures, and state ofemotion (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence and so on). As webelieve what we see more than what we hear, we trust theaccuracy of nonverbal behavior more than verbal behavior. Sowhen we communicate, the other person notices two things:What we say and how we say it. Normally we think communica-tion is complete once we have conveyed the message: “I don’tknow why it was not done. I had asked him to do it.” Chancesare that the message was not perceived properly. A messagehasn’t been communicated successfully unless the receiverunderstands it completely. How do you know it has beenproperly received? By two-way communication or feedback.

Communication Barriers OurselvesFocusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead toconfusion and conflict. Often, we are thinking about ourresponse, rather than focusing on what the other person issaying. Some other factors that cause this are defensiveness (wefeel someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we knowmore than the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of theactivity). Perception: If we feel the person is talking too fast,not fluently or does not articulate clearly, we may dismiss theperson. Our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to listen.We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismissthose of low status. Mental state: People don’t see things thesame way when under stress. What we see and believe at a givenmoment is influenced by our psychological frames of refer-ences-beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences and goals. These

barriers are filters that we use to decide what is useful for us. Noone can completely avoid these filters. If you start taking everyinformation and message you get seriously, you would beoverloaded with information. But if you are not consciouslyaware of this filtering process, you may lose a lot of valuableinformation. A way to overcome these filters when you want isthrough active listening and feedback.

Active ListeningAll of us can hear, but all of us cannot listen. Hearing andlistening are not the same thing. Hearing is involuntary andlistening involves the reception and interpretation of what isheard. It decodes the sound heard into meaning. Does a knockon the door sound the same all the time? What if you are aloneand you hear a knock at late night? What happens when youhear a knock while you are expecting someone whom you like?People generally speak at 100 to 175 words per minute but wecan listen intelligently at 600 to 800 words per minute. Thismeans most of the time only a part of our mind is payingattention, it is easy for the attention to drift. This happens to allof us. The cure: active listening. This involves listening with apurpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions,understand others, solve problems, share interests, see how theother person feels, even show support. This type of listeningtakes the same amount of or more energy than speaking. Thisrequires the listener to hear various messages, understand themeaning and then verify the meaning by offering feedback. Hereare some of the traits of an active listener:• Does not finish the sentence of others.• Does not answer questions with questions.• Is aware of biases. We all have them... we need to control

them.• Never daydreams or becomes preoccupied with one’s own

thoughts when others talk.• Lets others talk.• Does not dominate the conversation.• Plans responses after the other persons have finished

speaking, not while they are speaking.• Provides feedback, but does not interrupt incessantly.• Analyses by looking at all the relevant factors and asking

open-ended questions.• Keeps the conversation on what the speaker says...not on

what interests them.• Takes brief notes. This forces one to concentrate on what is

being said.

FeedbackThis is done by restating the other person’s message in yourown words. It helps to make sure that you understood themessage correctly. How much better daily communicationwould be if listeners tried to understand before they tried toevaluate what someone is saying! Let’s do a test of yourlistening ability. Get a paper and pen. You have two minutes todo this. If you take more time, you need to improve yourlistening skills. Read all the instructions below before doinganything.


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• Write your name in the top right corner of the paper• Draw five small squares in the top left corner• Put a circle around each square• Put an X on the lower left-hand corner• Draw a triangle around the X you just made• Sign your name at the bottom of the page• On the back of your page multiply 70 x 30• Write the answer to the above problem adjacent to your

signature• Check whether you have done all the above correctly Now

that you have finished reading carefully, do only the firstinstruction. The author is a Delhi-based personal growthtrainer.


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LESSON 2:STAGES IN COMMUNICATION CYCLE

Content

• Key stages of communication cycle

• Methods of Communication – Verbal and nonverbal

The Communication ProcessAlthough all of us have been communicating with others sinceour infancy, the process of transmitting information from anindividual (or group) to another is a very complex process withmany sources of potential error.

Consider the Simple Example

• Terry: “I won’t make it to work again tomorrow; thispregnancy keeps me nausious and my doctor says I shouldprobably be reduced to part time.

• Boss: Terry, this is the third day you’ve missed and yourappointments keep backing up; we have to cover for you andthis is messing all of us up.

In any communication at least some of the “meaning” lost insimple transmission of a message from the sender to thereceiver. In many situations a lot of the true message is lost andthe message that is heard is often far different than the oneintended. This is most obvious in cross-cultural situationswhere language is an issue. But it is also common amongpeople of the same cuture.Look at the example. Terry has what appears to be a simplemessage to convey-she won’t make it to work today because ofnausia. But she had to translate the thoughts into words andthis is the first potential source of error. Was she just trying toconvey that she would be late; was she trying to convey anythingelse. It turns out she was. She was upset because she perceivedthat her co-workers weren’t as sympathetic to her situation asthey should be. Her co-workers, however, were really beingpressured by Terry’s continued absences, and her late calls. Theywished she would just take a leave of absence, but Terry refusesbecause she would have to take it without pay.Thus what appears to be a simple communication is, in reality,quite complex. Terry is communicating far more than that shewould miss work; she is conveying a number of complexemotions, complicated by her own complex feelings aboutpregnancy, work, and her future.She sent a message but the message is more than the words; itincludes the tone, the timing of the call, and the way sheexpressed herself.Similarly, the boss goes through a complex communicationprocess in “hearing” the message. The message that Terry senthad to be decoded and given meaning. There are many ways todecode the simple message that Terry gave and the way themessage is heard will influence the response to Terry.

In this case the boss heard far more than a simple message thatTerry won’t be at work today. The boss “heard” hostility fromTerry, indifference, lack of consideration, among other emo-tions. Terry may not have meant this, but this is what the bossheard.Communications is so difficult because at each step in theprocess there major potential for error. By the time a messagegets from a sender to a receiver there are four basic places wheretransmission errors can take place and at each place, there are amultitude of potential sources of error. Thus it is no surprisethat social psychologists estimate that there is usually a 40-60%loss of meaning in the transmission of messages from senderto receiver.It is critical to understand this process, understand and be awareof the potential sources of errors and constantly counteractthese tendencies by making a conscientious effort to make surethere is a minimal loss of meaning in your conversation.It is also very important to understand that major of ourcommunication is non-verbal. This means that when weattribute meaning to what someone else is saying, the verbalpart of the message actually means less than the non-verbalpart. The non-verbal part includes such things as body languageand tone.

Key Stages in Communication CycleCommunication is a two- way process in which there is anexchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually accepteddirection or goal. For this process to materialize, it is essentialthat the basic elements of communication be identified. Theseelements are.

Sender/ Encoder/ SpeakerThe person who initiates the communication process isnormally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bankhe selects ideas, encodes and finally transits them to the receiver.The entire burden of communication then rests upon thesender or encoder. His choice of images and words thecombination of the two is what goads the receiver to listencarefully. In this process a number of factors come into play,primary among them being an understanding of the recipientand his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordancewith the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance isgoing to be higher. For example, a consultant wishes tocommunicate with the HRD manager of a company. Theobjective is to secure consultancy projects on training ofpersonnel. If the consultant wishes the HRD manager tocommunicate with him, he has to ensure that their goalsconverge. He has a tough task ahead of him. The manager hadbeen interacting with many consultants. Why should he payheed to the proposal of this consultant? In a situation such asthis, a good strategy to be adopted is to expand the purview ofthe proposal and make it company specific. The result could be


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highlighted and spelt out in terms of increase in sales. Ifsufficient preparation has been done, the message too wouldincrease in sales. If sufficient preparation has been done, themessage too would be formulated in a manner conducive to theinterests of the HRD manager.

Receiver/ Decoder/ ListenerThe listener receives an encoded message, which he attempts todecode. This process is carried on in relation to the workenvironment and the value perceived in terms of the worksituation. If the goal of the sender is envisioned as similar tohis own, the listenerbecomes more receptive. The decoding of the message is donein almost entirely the same terms as were intended by thesender. In the example cited above, as soon as the HRDmanager realizes that the proposal of the consultant is going toresult in tangible benefits, he becomes more receptive and hisinterest in communication is reinforced.

MessageMessage is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. Theformulation of the message is very important, for a message,which is incorrectly structured, can turn the receiver hostile ormake him lose interest. At this stage the sender has to beextremely cautious. What is the order in which he would like topresent his ideas? Suppose he has four points to make wouldhe (a) move in the stereotyped manner of presenting them in asequence or (b) would he like to be innovative and proceed in acreative way? Probability is high that in case (a) he might becomemonotonous and in case (b) he might touch a wrong spot.How then should the message be formulated and transmitted?The ordering, as stated earlier, should be based on the require-ments of the listener so that its significance is immediatelygrasped. The minute the receiver finds his goals codified in themessage, he sits up, listens and responds. The message thus hasmade an impact.

MediumAnother important element of communication is the mediumor channel. It could be oral, written or nonverbal. Prior to thecomposition of the message, the medium / channel should bedecided. Each medium follows its own set of rules andregulations. For example, in oral communication one can affordto be a little informal, but when using the written mode, allrules of communication need to be observed. It must beremembered that anything in writing is a document that wouldbe filed for records or circulated to all concerned.

FeedbackThis is the most important component of communication.Effective communication takes place only when there isfeedback. The errors and flaws that abound in businesssituations are a result of lack of feedback. Le us take a look atthe typical responses of people involved in miscommunication:“ this is not what I meant” or “ This is not what I said”, or“this was not my intention”. If feedback is solicited on alloccasions, this error can be minimized or even completely doneaway with. Fallacious statements or erroneous conclusions aremade because of lack of confirmation through feedback anddiscrepancy between the message transmitted and understood.

SENDING

Encoding Transmission Decoding

Source Noise Receiver

Feedback Loop

Encoding Transmission Decoding

ActivityTry not to narrate a story of a film you recently saw to yourfriend. Ask your friend to tell the story, which you have just toldhim. Try to understand the entire communication processthrough the above diagram.

Barriers to Effective CommunicationThere are a wide number of sources of noise or interferencethat can enter into the communication process. This can occurwhen people now each other very well and should understandthe sources of error. In a work setting, it is even more commonsince interactions involve people who not only don’t have yearsof experience with each other, but communication is compli-cated by the complex and often conflictual relationships thatexist at work. In a work setting, the following suggests anumber of sources of noise:• Language: The choice of words or language in which a

sender encodes a message will influence the quality ofcommunication. Because language is a symbolicrepresentation of a phenomenon, room for interpreationand distortion of the meaning exists. In the above example,the Boss uses language (this is the third day you’ve missed)that is likely to convey far more than objective information.To Terry it conveys indifference to her medical problems.Note that the same words will be interpreted different byeach different person. Meaning has to be given to words andmany factors affect how an individual will attribute meaningto particular words. It is important to note that no twopeople will attribute the exact same meaning to the samewords.

• Defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, project,transference, distortions from the past

• Misreading of body language, tone and other non-verbalforms of communication (see section below)

• Noisy transmission (unreliable messages, inconsistency)• Receiver distortion: selective hearing, ignoring non-verbal

cues• Power struggles• Self-fulfilling assupmtions• Language-different levels of meaning• Managers hesitation to be candid


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• Assumptions-eg. assuming others see situation same as you,has same feelings as you

• Distrusted source, erroneous translation, value judgment,state of mind of two people

• Perceptual Biases: People attend to stimuli in theenvironment in very different ways. We each have shortcutsthat we use to organize data. Invariably, these shortcutsintroduce some biases into communication. Some of theseshortcuts include stereotyping, projection, and self-fulfillingprophecies. Stereotyping is one of the most common. Thisis when we assume that the other person has certaincharacteristics based on the group to which they belongwithout validating that they in fact have these characteristics.

• Interpersonal Relationships: How we perceivecommunication is affected by the past experience with theindividual. Percpetion is also affected by the organizationalrelationship two people have. For example, communicationfrom a superior may be perceived differently than that from asubordinate or peer

Cultural Differences: Effective communication requires deci-phering the basic values, motives, aspirations, and assumptionsthat operate across geographical lines. Given some dramaticdifferences across cultures in approaches to such areas as time,space, and privacy, the opportunities for mis-communicationwhile we are in cross-cultural situations are plentiful.

7 C’S’ and 4 S’s

7 C’s

In any business environment, adherence to the 7 C’s and the 4S’s helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease andaccuracy. Lets us first take a look at the 7 C’s:1. Credibility. If the sender can establish his credibility, the

receiver has no problems in accepting his statement.Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shotstatement. It is a long-drawn out process in which thereceiver through constant interaction with the senderunderstands his credible nature and is willing to accept hisstatements as being truthful and honest.

• Courtesy. Once the credibility of the sender has beenestablished, attempts should be make at being courteous inexpression. In the business world, almost everything startswith and ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact,diplomacy and appreciation of people are woven in themessage.

Example:

• Jane:” You can never do things right. Try working on thisproject. If you are lucky you may not have to redo it.”

• Jane: “This is an interesting project. Do you think youwould be able to do it. I know last time something wentwrong with the project, but everyone makes mistakes.Suppose we sat down and discussed it threadbare I’m sureyour would be able to do wonders.”

The two statements convey totally different impressions. Whilethe first statement is more accusative, the second is more tactfuland appreciative of the efforts put in by the receiver at an earlier

stage. The crux of the message in both the statements is thesame: You want an individual within an organization toundertake a project. The manner in which it is stated bringsabout a difference in approach. Further, expressions that mighthurt or cause mental pain to the receiver should, as far aspossible, be ignored. For this it becomes essential that the “I” –attitude be discarded in favor of the “you”-attitude. Develop-ment of interest in the “you” will perforce make the otherindividual also see the point of view of the other. At the timeof emphasizing the “you-attitude”, only the positive andpleasant “you-issues” should be considered. If it is being usedas a corrective measure, then the results are not going to be verypositive or encouraging.2. Clarity. Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning

of the message. The first stage is clarity in the mind of thesender. The next stage is the Makes comprehension easiertransmission of the message in a manner which makes itsimple for the receiver to comprehend. As far as possible,simple language and easy sentence constructions, which arenot difficult for the receiver to grasp, should be used.

4. Correctness. At the time of encoding, the sender shouldensure that his knowledge of the receiver is comprehensive.The level of knowledge, educational background and statusof the decoder help the encoder in formulating his message.In case there is any discrepancy between the usage andcomprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. Ifthe sender decides to back up his communication with factsand figures, there should be accuracy in stating the same. Asituation in which the listener is forced to check the presentedfacts and figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of termsshould be nondiscriminatory, e.g. the general concept is thatwomen should be addressed for their physical appearancewhereas men for their mental abilities. This, however, is astereotype and at the time of addressing or praisingmembers of both the sexes, the attributes assigned shouldbe the same. Similarly for occupational references. In thebusiness world almost all professions are treated withrespect. Addressing one individual for competence in hisprofession but neglecting the other on this score because ofa so-called ‘inferior’ profession alienates the listener from thesender.

5. Consistency – The approach to communication should, asfar as possible, be consistent. There should not be too manyups and downs that might lead to confusion in the mind ofthe receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it should beobserved without there being situations in which the senderis left groping for the actual content or meaning. If thesender desires to bring about a change in his understandingof the situation, he should ensure that the shift is gradualand not hard for the receiver to comprehended.

6. Concreteness. Concrete and specific expressions are to bepreferred in favour of vague and abstract expressions. Incontinuation of the point on correctness, the facts andfigures presented should be specific. Abstractions or abstractstatements can cloud the mind of the sender. Instead ofstating: “There has been a tremendous escalation in the salesfigure”, suppose the sender made the following statement:


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“There has been an escalation in the sales figures by almost50% as compared to last year.” The receiver is more apt tolisten and comprehend the factual details.

7. Conciseness. The message to be communicated should beas brief and concise as possible. Weighty language definitelysounds impressive but people would be suitably impressedinto doing precisely nothing. As far as possible, only simpleand brief statements should be made. Excessive informationcan also sway the receiver into either a wrong direction or intoinaction. Quantum of information should be just right,neither too much nor too little , e.g.

Usually the policy date…In the first example, the statement is rather long and convo-luted. However, the second example gives it the appearance ofbeing crisp, concise and to the point.

7 C’s

C’s Relevance Credibility Builds trust Courtesy Improves relationships Clarity Makes comprehension easier Correctness Builds confidence Consistency Introduces stability Concreteness Reinforces confidence Conciseness Saves time

4 S,sAn understanding of the 4 S’s is equally important.1. Shortness. “Brevity is the soul of wit,” it is said. The same

can be said about communication. If the message can bemade brief, and verbosity done away with, then transmissionand comprehension of messages is going to be faster andmore effective. Flooding messages with high soundingwords does not create an impact. Many people harbour amisconception that they can actually impress the receiver, ifthey carry on their expeditious travails. Little do they realizehow much they have lost as the receiver has spent a majorchunk of his time in trying to decipher the actual meaning ofthe message.

2. Simplicity. Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideasreveals a clarity in the thinking process. It is normally atendency that when an individual is himself confused that hetries to use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver ina maze. Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simpleterminology and equally simple concepts.

3. Strength. The strength of a message emanates from thecredibility of the sender. If the sender himself believes in amessage that he is about to transmit, there is bound to bestrength and conviction in whatever he tries to state. Half-hearted statements or utterances that the sender himselfdoes not believe in adds a touch of falsehood to the entire

4. Sincerity. A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident tothe receiver. If the sender is genuine, it will be reflected in themanner in which he communicates. Suppose there is a small

element of deceit involved in the interaction or on the partof the sender. If the receiver is keen an observant, he wouldbe able to sense the make-believe situation and, businesstransactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.

4 S’s

S’s Relevance

Shortness Economises

Simplicity Impresses

Strength Convinces

Sincerity Appeals

Keys to More Effective CommunicationOver 70% of our time is spent communicating with others,and that’s the one interaction every person must do. Everyonemust communicate their needs and ideas. Every organizationmust communicate its products and services. Unfortunately,many people have trouble in this area. Some just don’t have theprofessional impact they need to get ahead in today’s corporateworld. Communication is just as important as what we saybecause people judge us, our companies, our products, ourservices, and our professionalism by the way we write, act, dress,talk, and manage our responsibilities. In short, how well wecommunicate with others.Successful people know how to communicate for results. Theyknow how to say what they mean and get what they wantwithout hurting the people they deal with. You deal daily withpeers, outside groups, customers, employees, and managers,and you must have a good communication style.When we ask people how well they communicate, their answersusually fall into one of three categories. First, and most prevalent,is the person who responds, “I communicate perfectly. I spelleverything out so there’s nothing left to doubt.”Another will react with surprise and ask me, “What do you mean‘how well?’ I don’t think about communicating, I just do it.”The third type will reflect on the question thoughtfully beforesaying something like, “How can one ever know how well theyget their ideas across to another person? All I can tell you is Iwork more hours trying to communicate than I can count, andit still doesn’t work some of the time.” Each answer, in its ownway, is correct.Communicating today is both a discipline and a liberation. Ourlanguage is flexible; one size fits all. It’s a language in which raveland unravel mean the same thing; flammable and inflammablemean the same thing; fat chance, slim chance, no chance at allmean the same thing. Communication is both a science and afeeling; it’s often a cinch, and often an impossibility.The smell of a woman’s perfume, the taste of semisweetchocolate, the sight of a blind person’s cane, the feel of thefeverish brow of a sick child, the sound of the backgroundmusic of a horror movie—all these move us to action orreaction. These are all examples of effective communication, andnone of them involve words.


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Communication is full of risks; despite whatever precautionsand plans we make, we can never really be sure of our success.No communication ever travels from sender to receiver in thesame shape intended by the sender. And, no matter how hardyou try, the message will never be what you say—the message isalways what they hear. But if you have a system to go by, youcan at least reduce the risk and improve your chance of beingeffective.For communication to occur, there must be a two-way inter-change of feelings, ideas, values; clarification of signals; and afine-tuning of skills.

Adjust the ClimateWhenever people get together to communicate with oneanother, two factors are always present. First, there is some sortof content to be covered—instructions, news, gossip, ideas,reports, evaluations, etc.All of us are familiar with the content of communication,because it’s the most obvious factor, and because we deal with itevery day. The second factor that is always present when peopleget together to communicate is the atmosphere or feeling thataccompanies what you say. This is known as the communica-tion climate.Physical climate affects us in many ways. When it’s cold, we wearwarm clothes. When it’s raining, we wear protective clothes.And it’s not uncommon for weather conditions to affect ourmood. Communication climates also affect us. They can beeither positive or negative. When the communication climate ispositive, it’s easier for us to communicate, solve problems, reachdecisions, express thoughts and feelings. In short, it makesworking and dealing with other people more pleasant andproductive. We’ve all been in restaurants, stores, offices, andhomes where we felt comfortable and at ease. We usually wantto go back to those places. We’ve also been in homes, offices,and shops where the climate has been negative. In thoseinstances, we were uncomfortable, uneasy, and less open. Weusually don’t enjoy attempting to communicate or do businessin a negative climate. Are you making the climate negative forthose you work with?

Choose Your ChannelLike a radio, human transmitters and receivers have channels. Acommunication channel is the medium through whichinformation passes from sender to receiver: lecture, writtenmessages, telephone conversations, face-to-face dialogue, andgroup meetings.The choice of a channel may affect the quality of the communi-cation and, in turn, the degree to which the receiver will respondto it. Therefore, you must decide which channel will be mosteffective in accomplishing your purpose.Written communication should be used when communicatingcomplex facts and figures or information, such as engineering,legal or financial data, since communication breakdowns oftenresult when complex material is presented orally. Writtencommunication is also the best channel when communicatingwith large numbers of people, when transmitting large amountsof data, or when you need a record of the communication.

The telephone is appropriate when communicating simple factsto a few people. The phone also has more impact and sense ofurgency than written communication, but not as much as ameeting. To insure that messages are understood on the phone,you may want to ask for feedback and check to make sure thecommunication link is complete.Face-to-face communication has more urgency than meetings. Italso has the advantage of speed, allows considerable two-waycommunication to take place, and usually elicits a quick re-sponse. It’s usually best to use face-to-face dialogue when theinteraction is personal—when giving praise, counseling, ortaking disciplinary action.Meetings are appropriate when there is a need for verbalinteraction among members of a group. Studies have revealedthat supervisors spend more than half of their potentialproductive time in meetings, discussions, and conferences. Forthis reason, it’s important to decide in advance whether ameeting will actually achieve the desired result.

Eliminate StaticAnother helpful skill is elimination of communication “static”or barriers. If there’s too much static, or noise, there’s a garbledmessage. The problem is that each of us has different barriers,and we don’t usually know what kind of noise the otherperson is hearing. Sometimes we guess, and sometimes weguess wrong. The major barrier to communication is ournatural tendency to judge, evaluate, approve, or disapprove theother person’s statements.Suppose the person next to you at lunch today says, “I reallylike what Kay duPont has to say.” What will you say? Your replywill probably be either approval or disapproval of the attitudeexpressed. You’ll either say, “I do too!” or you’ll say, “I thinkshe’s terrible.” In other words, your first reaction will be toevaluate it from your point of view, and approve or disapprovewhat the other person said. Although the tendency to makeevaluations is common in almost all conversation, it is verymuch heightened in those situations where feelings andemotions are involved.

Tune inOne of the best ways to “tune in” to the other person is to findout how they process and store the information they receive.Studies of Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) have provedthat there are three sensory process types: Visual, Auditory, andKinesthetic.Some people are visually oriented. They remember and imaginethings by what they look like. They store pictures. Some peopleare auditory—they store sounds. Some people are kinesthetic—they store touch sensations.How can you figure out a person’s processing system? Bylistening. People tend to broadcast how they process informa-tion, how they file their data. Visually oriented people say thingslike: “Here’s what it looks like to me. Do you see what I mean?Do you get the picture? I need a clearer vision of that. That’snot coming in clear to me.” All visually oriented terms.Auditory people remember and imagine things by what theysound like. They say: “Here’s what it sounds like to me. That


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rings a bell. Do you hear what I mean? We need to have moreharmony in this office. We’re not in tune on this.”Kinesthetic people remember and imagine things by the feel ofthem. They say: “Here’s what it feels like to me. Do you graspwhat I’m saying? That was a rough problem. That was a heavyburden. That was a weighty issue.”People don’t always use the same sensory words, of course, butwe do tend to use one sensory process about 70% of the time.If you want me to understand how you feel or see what youmean or get in tune with your ideas, you need to talk to me inwords I’ll relate to—either visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. Ifyou talk to me in flowers, and I hear in pastry, we can’t commu-nicate. This is a very sophisticated form of communicating, andcan be very effective.

Know Your NonverbalsBody movement, eye contact, posture, and clothing are also veryimportant elements. In fact, studies prove that 93% of yourmessage is nonverbal and symbolic. Employees learn to cue onthe boss’ moods, spouses learn to react to each other’s move-ments, children instinctively watch for signs from their parents.Studies have also taught us that sometimes our tongues sayone thing, our bodies say another thing, and our symbols—likeclothing and hairstyles—say still a third thing. When this occurs,the normal person will believe what they see, not what theyhear. So you need to be constantly aware of the image youportray. Is it one of assertive confidence. . .someone who iswilling to listen and solve problems? Or is it of someone whois unfriendly and uncaring? Do your clothes and posture reflecta person of high quality or one of sloppy habits?Over 2 centuries ago, Ben Franklin said, “Power is with theperson who can communicate well.” It’s truer today than it hasever been. And the power exists within you. . .all it takes isawareness and practice.

Exercise1. Pick up any two students in your class. At random give

feedback to both of them – positive to one and negative tothe other. Note down their verbal responses and bodylanguage. Is there any difference between the responses ofthe two students? If yes, what is it? What strategies can beused to even out the differences?

2. Divide the section into two groups with two observers.Both the groups are numbered and further subdivided intosenders and receivers. It is decided beforehand that themessage transmitted in the first group is meaningful and inthe second, a mere exchange of social pleasantries. Observerslist down the criteria that help them to determine thesignificance of the message – whether it is meaningful orbeing used to while away the time. Observe the non-verbalcues in a piece of communication. How do these cues affectthe meaning of words? What is their impact on the receiver?


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LESSON 3: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Contents

• Methods of Communication – Verbal and nonverbal

• Channels of communication – formal and informal

• Dimensions of communication – upward, downward, horizontal and

diagonal

We have by now gathered some knowledge on what communi-cation is, how is it important in business and key stages ofcommunication as well. Today we shall learn the differentmethods of communication, channels and dimensions ofcommunication.

IntroductionWhen Anil entered in his office on a Monday morning, hefound that somebody had tempered with his personal com-puter and that it was plugged on. He called up his personalsecretary and enquired as to who could have done that. After awhile she reported that two marketing executive came onSaturday evening to seek some information and since he wasnot there, they used his computer for that. Sandeep was veryangry and wanted to stop this practice. He called those execu-tives and and warned them. He issued a memo to this effectand distributed it in the office.Here Anil used speech (words spoken), writing (memo) , bodylanguage (his expression when he talked to the marketingexecutives and paralanguage (stern tone of voice) to make hispeople aware of his sentiments.Both formal (i.e. memo) and informal channels (discussionamong employees) contributed to spread the news.Note the dimensions of communication even in the smalloffice environment. Anil Enquires from his secretary , warns theexecutives and issues a memo - all are downward communica-tion. Secretary reports, executives reply to Sandeep –all areupward communication. Secretary enquires about who came inthe boss’s room – horizontal communication.Now we will see the various forms of communication anddifferent channels and directions through which communica-tion may pass.

Methods of CommunicationOne of the ways of communicating is by words whether byway of speech or by way of writing. Another is by using theexpressions other than words , like gestures , body language,etc. A third mode of communication is circumstantial commu-nication, that is the people communicating make no deliberateeffort, the message is conveyed by the way the things are . Forexample : the elaborate décor of one’s office room conveys thathe is holding a high position in the organization. We will divideour discussion into two categories.

Communication NetworkAn organization is a composite of many individuals workingtogether, towards its growth. They are constantly interactingwith each other and with people outside the company. Thecommunication network in an organization is of two types:1. Internal2. External

Internal Communication

Formal CommunicationInteraction between members of the same organizations calledinternal communication. It could be both formal and informal.Large organizations with hundreds of people working find itvery difficult to have direct interaction with each and everyone.They adopt a number of strategies, e.g., newsletters, annualreports to communicate the essential message. In such largesetups, it is neither possible nor necessary to transmit allinformation to every member.Some of the merits of formal communication network arediscussed below:1. Satisfy the information needs of the -organization - Formal

channels of communication are designed to cater to theinformational needs of the organization, i.e., when andwhere, what kind of information is required and who is toprovide it. Thus the formal communication channels areneeded for the very reason of activating information flow inthe organiza-tion.

2. Integrates the organization - Formal communicationchannels work as linking wires in a big sized organization,and thus integrate its functioning.

3. Coordination and control- By providing requiredinformation at right time to right places, the formalcommunication networks greatly facilitates coordination andcontrol in the organization.

4. Sorts the information for high-level executives - Formalcommunication channels facilitate the flow of selectiveinformation to the top executives. Otherwise they will befinding themselves in the midst of all relevant and irrelevantinformation.

5. Restricts unwanted flow of information - When a person issupposed to formally communicate some information tosome authority, that itself has a restrictive implication that heneed not disseminate this information anywhere else.

6. Reliability and accuracy of information - When informationmoves through formal channel, it has to have some basis tosubstantiate it. It is any time more reliable and accurate thanthe informally obtained information.

However, the formal communication network entails somelimitations also:


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1. Time consuming and expensive - Since formalcommunication channels involve lot many levels,information takes time to travel across. More-over, paperwork, involvement of executive’s time, and other facilitiesrequired for the communication network make it anexpensive proposi-tion.

2. It increases the workload of the line supervisor - Since mostof the reporting goes from down to up, generally linesupervisor is the person who has to devote a good deal oftime because in forwarding information, under formalchannels. This leaves him with little time to perform otherorganizational functions properly.

3. Information may get distorted - There are dangers ofmessages being lost, filtered or distorted as they passthrough many points.

4. Creates gaps between top executives and lower subordinates- Formal communication channels reduce the need of contactbetween the top executive and the subordinates at the lowestlevel. Many a times they do not even recognize each other.This adversely affects superior subordi-nate relationship.

Whatever these limitations are, the need for a formal networkof communica-tion cannot be done away with. An organizationhas to have a formal commu-nication structure. Of course onecan strive to make it more economic and efficient by not beingtoo rigid and too elaborate.

Informal CommunicationInformal communication network is not a deliberately formednetwork. It arises to meet needs that aren’t satisfied by formalcommunication. Employees form friendships, and cliquesdevelop, they talk in gatherings, the persons working at sameplace may talk just like that, and likewise. These in turn allowemployees to fill. in communication gaps within the formalchannels. Following are some of the’ sources of informalcommunication:1. Grapevine _. channel mostly associated with gossip and

rumors2. Social gatherings - organizational gatherings give a chance to

people of various ranks to meet and talk3. Management by walking around - where a manager

informally walks through the work area and casually talk toemployees

4. Secretaries/administrative assistants - It is very common thatthe secre-taries or administrative assistants of the top bossespass and receive much information informally.

Since grapevine is the most widespread and commonly usedinformal commu-nication network, we would discuss it in detail.The grapevine exists outside the formal channels and is used bypeople to transmit casual, personal, and social interchanges atwork. It is an expression of their natural motivation to com-muni-cate. It consists of rumors, gossip, and truthfulinformation. Its speed is very fast as compared formal communi-cation. For instance, a study conducted by Keith Davis revealedthat wife of a plant supervisor has a baby at 11.00 p.m. and aplant survey the next day at 2.00 p.m. showed that 46% of themanagement personnel knew of it through the grapevine.

Patterns of Grapevine CommunicationThe grapevine is active in almost every organization. Let’s take alook at how communication travels along the informalnetwork-the well-known grape-vine. There appear to be fourpatterns to this form of communication.• The single strand is the way in which most people view the

grapevine. In this, person A tells something to person B, hetells that to person C, he tells that to another person downthe line to Y and so on. This chain is least accurate in passingthe information.

• In the gossip chain, one person seeks out and tells everyonethe information that he has obtained. This chain is oftenused when information of an interesting but non-jobrelated nature is being conveyed.

• In the probability chain, individuals are indifferent aboutwhom they offer information to; they tell people at random,and those people in turn tell others at random. This chain isoften used when the information is mildly interesting butinsignificant.

• In the cluster chain, person A conveys the information to afew selected individuals; some of those individuals theninform a few selected others. Research evidence shows thatthe cluster is the most popular pattern that grapevinecommunications take. That is, a few people are activecommunica-tors on the grapevine. As a rule, only about 10per cent of the people in an organization act as liaisons whopass on information to more than one other person. Whichindividuals are active on the grapevine often depends on themessage. A message that sparks the interest of an employeemay stimulate him to tell someone else. However, anothermessage that’s perceived to be of lesser interest may never betransmitted further.

Grapevine show admirable disregard for rank or authority andmay link organization members in any combination ofdirections- horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. As Kieth Devisputs it, the grapevine flows around water coolers, downhallways, through lunchrooms, and wherever people gettogether in groups.

Merits of informal CommunicationThe informal communication has the following advantages:1. Satisfies social needs of members - Man being a social

creature needs to have social interaction. Informalcommunication satisfies this need very well. Also, it providesthe workers an outlet to freely express their fears, views andthoughts.

2. Better human relations - Informal communication is a verygood way to promote good human relations in theorganization.

3. Speed - The informal communication (specially grapevine) isa very speedy network to spread the information. Managersmay use the grapevine to distribute information throughplanned leaks or judiciously placed just between you andme” remarks.

4. It works as a linking chain - It links even those people whodo not fall in the official chain of command.


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5. It serves to fill the possible gaps in the formalcommunication.

Limitations of Informal CommunicationThe limitations of informal communication are as follows:1. Not authentic - Informal communication is not authentic.

Different per-sons may distort the message because ofdifferent interpretations.

2. Responsibility cannot be fixed - Informal communication isoral in nature and it is very difficult to fix the responsibilityof the communicator for the message transmitted. It maylead to generation of rumors in the organiza-tion.

3. Not dependable - Informal channels may not always beactive therefore is not dependable.

4. It may lead to the leakage of confidential information.5. Incomplete information - Grapevine information is generally

incomplete.Note that despite all these limitations, the informal communi-cation system permits employees to satisfy their need for socialinteraction, and works parallel to the formal network. It can beused positively to improve an organization’s performance bycreating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficientchannels of communication. The mangers can do this if theypay due attention to informal communication networks.

External CommunicationCommunication is an ongoing process. It does not only takeplace with people within the organization but with peopleoutside the organization as well. If a company has to survive inthe competitive environment, it has to adopt the latter form ofcommunication also. The image of the company is contingentupon the relationship that it maintains with people outside.External communication can take on a number of forms.1. Advertising2. Media interaction3. Public relations4. Presentations5. Negotiations6. Mails7. Telegrams8. LettersExternal communication could again be oral or written. Thefirst three forms of communication mentioned above, viz.advertising, media interaction, and public relations, fall mainlywithin the domain of corporate communications. Establishinggood relations, negotiating or conducting a deal, interactingwith clients, issuing tenders, soliciting proposals, sending lettersare all part of external communication. this is a different task asinteraction takes place and varies between a host of peoplebelonging to different disciplines, with different personalitiesand different expectations. As communication proceeds withexternal customers, almost all skills needed for adept communi-cation have to be brought to the fore to avoid anyembarrassment or lapse in performance.

While communicating at the internal level, an individual can, ona few occasions, be slightly relaxed. The same would not holdtrue if he is communicating at the external level. Much is atstake at the time of external communication as individuals arerepresentatives of the companies, they need to protect theimage of the organization and create a positive impression thathas long-lasting impact.

Dimensions of CommunicationWithin an organization, communication may flow downward,upward, horizontally, or diagonally. Following discussionpertains to these dimensions of communication networks:

Downward CommunicationDownward communication occurs when-ever messages flowfrom top of the organization through various levels to thebottom of the organization. There may be several types ofdownward commu-nications, namely-:1. Job procedures/instructions- directions about what to do or

how to do the things. For example, when you restock theshelves, put the new merchan-dise behind the old stock” isan instruction.

2. Job rationale- Explanation of purpose of doing a task in acertain way. For example, we rotate the stock like that so thatthe customers won’t wind up with stale merchandise” is astatement explaining the purpose of the instruction given inthe above example.

3. Policies and practices - Information about rules, regulations,policies, and practices to be followed. For example, II don’ttry to argue with the unhappy customers. If you can’t handlethem, call the manager” is an instruction about the practicefollowed in the organization.

4. Feedback/motivation - Telling the subordinates about theirperformance and. motivating them, like- life you keep up thegood work, you will be assistant manager by the end of theyear”.

Thus when we say downward communication, we mean thatcommunication is flowing from upper rung of the ladder ofthe organization to the lower one, no matter what form it takes.This communication helps the subordinates to know what isexpected of them and brings in greater job satisfaction andimproves morale of the employees.The main problem with the downward communication is thatwhen the information passes through various hierarchicalchannels, there are chances that it gets distorted by the time itreaches to the targeted person. Since the person giving themessage has different level of understanding than that of thereceiver, it may also happen that the way receiver interprets themessage is not what the sender wants to convey. Very often, inpractice, the recipient not having the ability to understand thecommunication may hinder communication. The message mayalso be insufficient or unclear. An example would be a commu-nication quoting the location of a meeting without anyinstruction on how to find that location. The message could betoo big to be fully understood in the time available. Anexample would be a manager attempting to explain too muchof a complex task at a time. The result may be confusion, or, atworst, exasperation.


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When the message passes through many channels, it may getdelayed. At times the message may get lost in between.However, these problems do not undermine the importance ofdownward communication. If the efforts are made to makedirect and clear communica-tions, these may be overcome.Upward Communication - Messages flowing from subordi-nates to superiors are termed as upward communication. Someof the examples are given below:“We will have the job done by tomorrow” - is a reply to anequity from the boss. “The problem with the machine iscontinuing. It stops working after every hour and has to berestarted.” -subordinate informing unsolved work problem tothe superior.Upward communication is important because It helps the topmanagement in knowing about the attitudes, behaviour,opinions, activities and feelings of the’ workers on the job. Onthe basis of such knowledge and information, the managementmay improve its behaviour, introduce motivational plans andimprove its controlling function. Subordinates get an outlet fortheir grievances, suggestions, and opinions, etc. They may feelthat they are contributing towards the goals of the organiza-tion. Despite the importance of upward communication,employees find it difficult to participate in it. Being frank withsuperiors can be risky, especially when the news is not what theboss wants to hear. Busy superiors may also be too occupied topay attention to employees. Most of the responsibility forimproving upward communication rests with managers. Theycan begin the process by announcing their willingness to hearfrom, subordinates. The management may use an open doorpolicy, grievance procedures, periodic inter-views, groupmeetings and the suggestions book, etc.

Horizontal and Lateral Communication - This is a commu-nication between persons of same hierarchical level. The mainobject of this type of communication is to coordinate theefforts of different but related activities. The most obvious typeof horizontal communication goes on between members ofthe same division of an organization; office workers in thesame department, co-workers on a construction project, Forexample – accounts department calls mainte-nance to get amachine repaired, hospital admission call intensive care toreserve a bed and so on.Horizontal communication helps in coordinating the activitiesof different departments at the same level. The departmentalheads may sit together and thrash out problems/wastage oftime, money, labor and-materials.

The main problem is the difference in approach and vision ofdifferent functionaries, who look the things from their ownangles.

Department Department A B

Diagonal or crosswise Communication - Diagonal commu-nication cuts across functions and levels in an organization.When a supervisor in the credit department communicatesdirectly with a regional marketing manager, who’s not only in adifferent department but also at a higher level in the organiza-tion,- they’re engaged in diagonal communication.Given the potential for problems, why would individuals resortto diagonal communication? The answer again is efficiency andspeed. In some situations, bypassing vertical and horizontalchannels expedites action and prevents others from being usedmerely as conduits between senders and receivers. Also, theincreased use of electronic mail systems in organizations hasmade diagonal communication much easier. A major problemwith this form of communication is that it departs from thenormal chain of command. To minimize communication gaps,most diagonal communications also encompass a verticalcommunication to superiors or subordinates who may havebeen bypassed.Communication is required at every level from every directiondepending upon the situational need. Formal network channelsfacilitate the flow of information in every direction-downward,upward, horizontal, and diagonal. Although communicationalong every dimension entails its own merits and problems, wecannot do without any of them.The Strengths and weaknesses of each communication methodare not just a factor of the media elements they can employ, butalso the broad categories that they fall into. There are fourindependent dimensions that help considerably in categorizingthe methods:• Recorded v live• Passive v interactive• Local v remote• Push v pull

Upward Downward Communication Communication


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Communication methods comparedIT IS NOW POSSIBLE to look at the applicability of each method by identifying where it sits against each of the four dimensionsand the media elements it is capable of employing.

RecordedRecorded communication is prepared in advance of itsdelivery. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printedmaterials; faxes; e-mails; intranet pages and some radio andTV broadcasts.

The advantages of recorded communication are that it deliversa consistent message each time; the message can be aconsidered one and the recipient can access the communicationat a time that suits them.

LiveLive communication is delivered as it happens, in real-time.Examples are live radio and TV broadcasts; one-to-ones;meetings; phone calls and video conferencing calls.

The advantage of live communication is that it is immediate.

InteractiveInteractive communication is two-way. Each party in theprocess is able to send and receive communication. Ex-amples are CD-ROMs (assuming they do not contain purelylinear material); letters, memos and e-mails (to the extentthat they are exchanged); the intranet (to the extent thatinteractive facilities are provided); one-to-ones; meetings;phone calls and videoconferencing calls.The advantages ofinteractive communication are the opportunities it providesfor feedback; the greater degree of confidence it provides thatthe message has been understood; the recipient can to someextent control the pace of the communication and themessage can be tailored to better meet the recipient’s needs.

PassivePassive communication is one-way. The receiver is not able torespond directly to the communication. Examples are audiotapes and CDs; videotapes; manuals; printed materials; faxes;radio and TV broadcasts.

The advantages of passive communication are that it requiresless effort from the recipient and that, because there are noopportunities for interaction, it is quicker.

LocalLocal communication is stand-alone and off-line. It occurswhere you are, even though it might have been originated at adistance. Examples are audio tape and CDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printedmaterials; one-to-ones and meetings. Faxes are local eventhough the process by which they are transmitted is not.Theadvantages of local communication are that no sacrifice has tobe made to quality because of bandwidth limitations and thatthere are fewer restrictions on where the media can be used orthe communication can take place.

Remote

Remote communication is delivered at a distance. It isnetworked, on-line, transmitted. Examples are e-mails; theintranet; radio and TV broadcasts; phone calls andvideoconferencing calls. The process by which faxes aretransmitted is also remote.

The advantages of remote communication are that there isno delay in getting the message to the recipient, whereverthey are and that communication can take place over largedistances. An advantage of remote, recorded media, such asintranet pages, is that they can be easily updated centrally.

Push Push communications are sent to specific recipients.Examples are letters, memos and reports; faxes and e-mails;one-to-ones; meetings; phone calls and videoconferencingcalls.The advantage of push communication is the greatercertainty that it provides that a message will reach its targetwithin an appropriate timeframe.

Pull Pull communications are made available to be accessedat the recipient’s discretion. Examples are audio tapes andCDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; manuals; printed materials; theintranet; radio and TV broadcasts.The advantages of pullcommunication are that it is less stressful for the recipientand that very large quantities of information can be madeavailable at any one time.


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Characteristics by dimension

Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userPassive , so requires less effort fromrecipient, quickerLocal, so potential for high quality,portablePull, so less stressful, good for largequantities of info


Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough non-verbal sounds can createemotional response, realism


When the message can be conveyedusing sound alone; when interactionis not required; when recipients haveaccess to players; when no othermedium is suitable, e.g. whentravellingTypical applications: education andtraining on the move

Audiotape/CD


Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough moving images can be directand memorable, attract attention,show motion, including bodylanguageThrough non-verbal sounds can createemotional response, realism

When the message requires highquality moving images; when youneed to create a memorable impres-sion; when interaction is notrequired; when the size of theaudience makes it cost-effective; whenrecipients have access to playersTypical applications: corporatecommunications

Video-tape

CD-Rrom Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredLocal, so potential for high quality,portablePull, so less stressful, good for largequantities of info

Through the written word can bespecific, self-paced Through thespoken word can be specific, conveytone of voice Through still images canbe direct and memorable, self-pacedThrough moving images can bedirect and memorable, attractattention, show motion, includingbody languageThrough non-verbalsounds can create emotional response,realism

When the message requires a widerange of media types; when interac-tion is required; when the messageneeds to be tailored to the recipient;when the size of the audience makesit cost-effective; when recipients haveaccess to playersTypical applications: training andpoint-of-sale programmes

Letters /memos /reports

Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredLocal, so potential for high quality,portablePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the written word can bespecific, self-pacedThrough still images can be direct andmemorable, self-paced

When the message can be conveyedusing text and still images; when it isimportant that you know therecipient will see the message; whenthe message needs to be tailored tothe recipient; when e-mail is notavailable, when portability is neededor when hard copy is essentialTypical applications: everydaybusiness communications where noon-line alternative

Manuals Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userPassive , so requires less effort fromrecipient, quickerLocal, so potential for high quality,portablePull, so less stressful, good for largequantities of info


When the message can be conveyedusing text and still images; when anintranet is not available, portability isneeded or hard copy is essentialTypical applications: reference, whereno on-line alternative


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When the message can be conveyedusing text and still images; whenquality is important; when the sizeof the audience makes it cost-effective; when an intranet is notavailable, portability is needed orhard copy is essentialTypical applications: corporatecommunications, marketing materials

Printedmaterials

Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userPassive , so requires less effort fromrecipient, quickerPush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the written word can bespecific, self-paced Through stillimages can be direct and memorable,self-paced

When the message can be conveyedusing text and still images; when it isimportant that you know therecipient will see the message; whenthe recipient is at a distance; when e-mail is not available; when therecipient has a fax machine;Typical applications: businessmessages if no on-line alternative

Fax

E-mailRecorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredRemote, so no delays, regardless ofdistancePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the written word can bespecific, self-paced When the message can be conveyed

using text alone; when it is impor-tant that you know the recipient willsee the message; when the recipient isat a distance; when the messageneeds to be tailored to the recipient;when both parties have e-mail accessTypical applications: everydaybusiness communications

Intranet Recorded, so consistent, considered,accessible when suits userInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredRemote, so no delays, regardless ofdistancePull, so less stressful, good for largequantities of info


When the message can be conveyedusing sound alone; when therecipient is at a distance; (if live)when communication needs to beimmediate; when the recipient has aradio receiverTypical applications: none

Radio Passive , so requires less effort fromrecipient, quickerRemote, so no delays, regardless ofdistancePull, so less stressful, good for largequantities of info

Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough non-verbal sounds can createemotional response, realism

When the message can be conveyedusing text and still images; when anintranet is not available, portability isneeded or hard copy is essentialTypical applications: reference, whereno on-line alternative


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Passive , so requires less effort fromrecipient, quicker Remote, so no delays,regardless of distancePull, so lessstressful, good for large quantities ofinfo


Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough moving images can be directand memorable, attract attention,show motion, including bodylanguageThrough non-verbal soundscan create emotional response,realism


When the message requires highquality moving images; when therecipient is at a distance; (if live)when communication needs to beimmediate; when the recipient has aTV receiver Typical applications:corporate communications usingsatellite

TV

Live, so immediateInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredLocal, so can take place anywherePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough moving images (in this casenormal sight) can be direct andmemorable, attract attention, showmotion, including body language

When the message requires theparties to see each other; wheninteraction is required; when commu-nication needs to be immediate;when the message needs to betailored to the recipientTypical applications: interviews,everyday business communications

One toOnes

Live, so immediateInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredRemote, so no delays, regardless ofdistancePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voice

When the message can be conveyedusing sound alone; when interactionis required; when communicationneeds to be immediate; when therecipient is at a distance; when themessage needs to be tailored to therecipient; when both parties haveaccess to a phoneTypical applications: everydaybusiness communications

Videoconfer-encing

Live, so immediateInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredRemote, so no delays, regardless ofdistancePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough moving images can be directand memorable, attract attention,show motion, including bodylanguage

When the message requires theparties to see each other; wheninteraction is required; when commu-nication needs to be immediate;when the recipient is at a distance;when the message needs to betailored to the recipient; when bothparties have access to videoconferencing facilitiesTypical applications: importantmeetings held at a distance

Phone

Live, so immediateInteractive , so opportunities forfeedback, can check message has beenunderstood, recipient can controlpace, message can be tailoredLocal, so can take place anywherePush, so message will reach target ontime

Through the spoken word can bespecific, convey tone of voiceThrough moving images (in this casenormal sight) can be direct andmemorable, attract attention, showmotion, including body language

When the message requires theparties to see each other; wheninteraction is required; when commu-nication needs to be immediate;when the message needs to betailored to the recipientTypical applications: presentations,seminars, reviews, briefing sessions,group decision-making

Meetings


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Importance of Communication

• Communication is important because it is about how information is sent and received within firms

• The way information is communicated is often governed by how firms are structured

Forms of Business Structure• Entrepreneurial - decisions made

centrally• Pyramid - staff have a role; shared

decision making; specialisation is possible

• Matrix - staff with specific skills join project teams; individuals have responsibility

• Independent - seen in professions where organisation provides support systems and little else

Illustrating Structures 1

The PyramidTraditional view of organisationsDecisions pass

down formal channels from managers to staff

Information flows up formal channels from staff to management

Illustrating Structures 2Entrepreneurial

Most small businesses have this structure

One or two people make decisions

Great reliance on key workers supporting decision makers

Quick to act but pressure on decision makers

Decision maker

Key worker Key

worker

Key worker

Key worker


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Illustrating Structures 3

Matrix

Marketing Production Finance

Project A

Project B

Project teams created

Staff with specialist skills

More on Business Structure

Centralisation• Managers keep

control• Decisions are made

in the interests of the whole business

• Costs can be cut by standardising purchasing and so on

• Strong leadership

Decentralisation• Empowering and

motivating• Freeing up senior

managers’ time• Better knowledge of

those closer to customers

• Good staff development

Channels of Communication

• Communication in organisations follows paths or channels

• Communication between managers and subordinates is known as vertical communication

• This is because the information flows up or down the hierarchy


• Communication in organisations follows paths or channels

• Communication between managers and subordinates is known as vertical communication

• This is because the information flows up or down the hierarchy


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• Channels between departments or functions involve lateral communication

• As well as formal channels of communication, information also passes through an organisation informally

• Communication is not complete until feedback has been received


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LESSON 4:PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND

IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

By The End of This Lesson You Should Be Able To

• Understand the principles of Effective communication

• Discuss the impact information technology

• Explain Email etiquettes

Students, in this lesson we will understand the importance ofeffective communication. Everyday we communicate with eachother but lets think for a while, are we communicating effec-tively? Communication, whether oral or written, is all aboutunderstanding. Our aim should be to communicate a messagesuccessfully so that it is received as we intended, without anymisunderstanding.Effective communication can be achieved by having a throughknowledge of the communication cycle, being aware of thebarriers, which exist, and by considering carefully the followingvital factors:• What is the objective of communication? Is it intended to

give information, to persuade, to request, to inform?• Who will receive the communication? What is the

relationship between the sender and the recipient? What isthe recipient’s background knowledge and experience?

• Under what circumstances is the communication takingplace? Why is the communication happening? Is it urgent,serious, dangerous, emotive or informative?

• How will the recipient react to the communication ? Howwill the message affect the recipient? Is it important? Will therecipient be offended or angered? Will it achieve the desiredaims?

Accomplishing any task with excellence is always a function ofmastering the basics. The six communication basics all of ushave to follow are1. Establish a warm atmosphere : The atmosphere you create

with your words and gestures determines the effectivenessof your sermon. Avoid beginning with a negative tone, self-centered anecdotes, or anything, which betrays insecurity onyour part. These focus the audience’s attention on yourneeds, not theirs. Your nonverbal signals are also importantbecause they communicate your general demeanor. Smiling atpeople demonstrates openness and invites them to listen.

2. Actively engage people’s interest : Many of us usetechniques to engage congregations that they believe areeffective, but actually disconnect them from listeners. Over-dramatization, excessive emotion, and yelling focus listenersupon your performance instead of content. A conversationalapproach works better.

3. Be Believable : Evaluate everything you say from the pulpitwith this question: Is it believable? If you can’t believeyourself when you say something, your audience won’t

believe it either. When your audience doesn’t believe you,your credibility—and their motivation to keep listening —evaporates. Speaking with authority is dependent uponspeaking truth. Often, speakers get into trouble when theyextrapolate a principle into a situation they don’t understand.If you’re speaking about how a certain principle would workin a business setting, but know nothing about business, itwill show.

4. Speak with your own voice : Listeners will disengage froma speaker who uses big words to impress his audience orwho appears to choose words for the sake of soundinggood. If your listener is conscious of your voice, it is adistraction. Choose your words the same way you chooseyour clothes; appropriate for the context, but not distracting.Your voice should contain fire, conviction, and accuratelyreflect what’s happening in your mind.

5. Use gestures well : The effective use of gestures reinforceswhat a pastor says. As with the voice, gestures shouldrepresent what is happening in the mind. Gesturing alsoincludes looking at people as you talk. Your eyes are almostas important as your voice. Make sure your eyes sweep acrossand make contact with people in every part of the audience,not just those in front of you.

6. Remember that your knowledge is limited : You may betempted to appear to know more than you do. Always keepin mind that someone in your audience may know morethan you do about your topic. Honestly communicate whatyou know.Effective communication is the key to mobilizing youremployees behind a new vision. Poor communication, onthe other hand, is the best way to demotivate youremployees and stall any progress. Not taking the time toexplain the vision, not explaining the vision in clear,understandable language, or not “walking the talk” are somecommon ways that organizations fail to achieve their goals.The seven principles below will help you to avoid mistakes.

Keep it simpleUnfocused, run-on sentences filled with jargon and buzz wordscreate confusion. Language is often an imprecise tool. The moreoften we repeat jargon the less clear the meaning becomes.Consider this example:• Version #1: Our goal is to improve our victim assistance

service delivery options so that they are perceptually betterthan any other service provider within the confines of thecountry. In a similar vein, we have targeted existing servicelines and delivery models for transition to more efficient andeffective service delivery options.

• Version #2: We are going to be the best victim servicesprogram of any police force in Canada. We will do this by


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having a look at what services we provide and how weprovide them, to see if we can do it better.

Which version do you think people will better understand —and respond to?

Use Metaphors and AnalogyMetaphors, analogy, examples, or just plain colorful languagehelps communicate complex ideas simply and effectively. Here’sa colorful vision statement from a large corporation that wasfacing fierce competition from a host of new, smaller compa-nies: “We need to be less like an elephant and more like acustomer-friendly Tyrannosaurus rex.”The language is imaginative, but also accurate. The transforma-tion from elephant to T-rex described exactly the direction thefirm wished to take: still big, but more effective.

Use Many Different Forums to SpreadThe WordSpread the word in big meetings, informal one-on-one orgroup talks and formal presentations. Encourage your employ-ees to read national broadcasts, divisional newsletters QuarterlyBusiness Magazines. When the same message comes at peoplefrom six different directions, it’s going to be heard.

Repeat Key MessagesFor the message to be repeated as often as possible, planongoing communication opportunities including developingyour key messages. Key messages are the ideas that you wantyour audiences (in your case, your employees) to take homewith them. Key messages should become a natural part ofmeetings, discussions, etc. When responding to a question,answer the question honestly, but also use it as a chance torepeat a key message if appropriate. One example of a keymessage is: “The employees of the Royal Canadian MountedPolice are committed to our communities.” This wouldprobably never be said as a single statement without exampleof how we demonstrate this commitment, but it is the essenceof what we want our listeners to take away and to repeat, orthink about later on.

Lead by ExampleIf you do the opposite of what you say, no one will listen toyou. You have to “walk the talk”.• We are promoting a new, client-focused vision, so

management should guarantee to listen to employeesconcerns and respond to their own employees within aspecified period.

• If we are encouraging empowerment and trust on paper, wemust put it into action, and give employees the support torun with ideas, assuming those ideas are well thought out.

• If we espouse community policing, leaders mustdemonstrate this to deliver service to all their “communities”which could include employees, bosses, government officials,and so on.

Explicitly Address InconsistenciesIf there’s a legitimate reason for inconsistent behaviour, explainyourself. For example, in times of belt-tightening, if spendingsome money up-front can save more in the long-run, explainthat openly and honestly to your employees, and listen with an

open mind to their suggestions. If there isn’t a legitimatereason for inconsistent behaviour, change the behaviour —quickly. Some may believe that management shouldn’t have toexplain itself to its employees. Those managers shouldn’t besurprised if their employees lose faith and interest.

Listen and Be Listened toA final rule: communication should be two-way. Explain thevision, then listen to the feedback. Don’t forget, a great manypeople at all levels of the organization have to actually imple-ment the vision to make it real, but they have to believe in itfirst.Communicating the vision effectively sets the stage for the nextphase: getting people to act.

Impact of Information TechnologyIn recent years there has been an information technologyrevolution. While paper-based manual systems for processinginformation and communicating are still very much evident,more and more office functions and procedures are now beingundertaken by computer-based technology. The implications ofsuch information technology on communication methodscannot be ignored. However the technology will always requirepeople, and in communication it is the input of the operatorthat will ensure effective communication (or otherwise).In the area of text creation, computer experts are trying to makethe task of creating documents much easier. Programs areavailable that will produce standard layouts for most businessdocuments when inputs or variables are keyed in. In otherwords, the originator does not decide on the layout, thecomputer program does. Sadly, computer experts who may notbe so expert in the modern display of business documentswrite many computer programs. Some of these standardlayouts leave much to be desired.The fundamental skills of structure, tone and composition willalways be of vital importance in ensuring effective communica-tion. As an originator of printed communications, you havecontrol over these factors. However, while technologicaldevelopments are making your role more interesting andchallenging, the basic presentational conventions should not beallowed to suffer. No matter how technology develops in thefuture, high standards must be set and maintained in order toensure that all your communications are not only appropriatelyworded and logically structured, but are also consistently andattractively presented.Information Technology has revolutionized business commu-nication with Emails. Tell me how many of you still writeletters to your friends, relatives? I guess very few of you andthat is because you would love to chat with your friends orsend an email rather than taking the pain in writing lettersgetting it posted and worrying whether your friend will receiveyour letter? By when? So on and so forth. Similarly in businessemails are used more as an internal communication tool whichsaves time, money and effort. Therefore lets now discuss aboutEmails.EMAILThe rapid growth of email has been the most exciting businesscommunication devel-opment in recent years. In just a short


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time, email has emerged as a mainstream form of businesscommunication.

Evaluating Email’s Pros and ConsThe reasons for this rapid growth are the advantages email hasover other communication forms, especially over its principalcompetitor, the telephone. Among the reasons, the followingare most significant:Conversely, .email saves the time of these busy people. They arespared the interruptions of telephone calls.• Email can. speed up the process of making business

decisions, because it permits rapid exchanges from aninvolved in the decisions.

• Email is cheap. It permits unlimited use at no more than thecost of an Internet connection.

Email also has its disadvantages. The following stand out:• Email is not confidential. “It’s just about as private as a

postcard you drop in the mail box.”• Email doesn’t communicate the sender’s emotions well.

Voice intonations, facial expressions, body movements, andsuch are not a part of the message. They are in telephone andface-to-face communication.

• Email may be ignored or delayed. The. volume of emailoften makes it difficult for some respondents to read .and acton all of their messages.

Including the Prefatory ElementsMuch of what you. do in constructing email messages isstandardized, especially the mechanical parts pertaining tostructure. But the second part of your effort, writing themessage, is far from standardized. Although the followingreview covers both, the writ-ing receives the greater emphasis. Itis here that you are likely to need the most help. Although thevarious email systems differ somewhat, the elements arestandardized. They include the following parts:.• To Here is placed the email address of the recipients.• Cc If someone other than the prime recipient is to receive a

courtesy copy, his or her address goes here.• Bcc This line stands for blind courtesy copy. The recipient’s

message will not show this information; that is, the or shewill not know who else is receiving a copy of the message. -

• Subject This line describes the message as precisely as thesituation permits. The reader should get from it a clear ideaof what the message is about.

• Attachments In this area you can enter a file that you desireto send along with the message. You should make certainthat what you attach is really needed.

• The message The information you are sending goes here.How to write it is the subject of much of the followingdiscussion.

Beginning The MessageTypically, email messages begin the recipient’s name. If writerand reader are acquainted, first name only is the rule. If not, thespecific situation may determine the first words. A “friendlygeneric greeting such as Greeting’s” is appropriate for a groupof people with whom you communicate. Use of the recipient’s

full name also is acceptable. The salutations commonly used inletters ( Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Dear Mr., Dear Ms. ) are rarelyused in email. When writing to someone or a group you do notknow, it is appropriate to identify yourself early in the message.This identification may include your propose and your com-pany. Your title and position also may be helpful.

Organizing the ContentsEven though email messages often are written under timepressure, you would do well to organize them carefully. Formost short, informative messages, a “top-down” order isappropriate. This plan, used in newspaper writing, involvespresenting the most important material first. The remaininginformation follows in descending order of importance. Suchan arrangement permits a busy reader to get the essential factsfirst, and the reader accessing email on a Web phone or othersmall screen to get the essential facts more easily. Many writersroutinely follow this practice.The longer, more complex, and formal email messagesfrequently follow more involved and strategic organizationpatterns. As you will see, these patterns vary depending on howthe reader will likely perceive the writer’s objective. In general,those messages that are likely to be received positively orneutrally are written in a direct pattern. That is, they get to thegoal right away and then present their contents systematicallyand quickly. Those messages that are likely to be receivednegatively are appropriately written in an indirect pattern. Theirnegative content is preceded by conditioning and explanationwords that prepare the reader for it.Some long email messages may resemble business reports.With these messages, you well may follow the organization andwriting instructions for business reports. You should use yourknowledge of report presentation in writing them. In fact,business reports can be communicated by email just as businessletters can. As you will see in the later lesson on internalcommunication, some memorandums are communicated byemail. The variety of email messages covers the entire spectrumof written business communication.

Writing the Message : FormalityConsiderationsA review of email writing is uncomplicated by the fact thatemail messages are extremely diverse. , they run the range “fromhighly informal to formal. The informal messages oftenresemble face-to-face oral communication; some’ even soundlike chit that occurs between acquaintances’ and friends. Emailmassages are often written in a fast- paced environment withlittle time for deliberation.Because of this diversity, discussing the formality of emailwriting is difficult. One approach is to view the language usedfrom three general” classifications; casual, informal, andformal.Casual By casual language we mean the language we use intalking with close friends in everyday situations. It includesslang and colloquialisms. It uses contractions and personalpronouns freely. Its sentences are short-sometimes incomplete.It uses mechanical emphasis devices and initializes (to bediscussed later).. Although in actual practice it may be subject to


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grammatical incorrectness, as we stress elsewhere this practice isnot helpful’ to the communication and should be avoided.Casual lan-guage is best limited to your communications withclose friends. Following is an ex-ample of casual language:Hi Cupcake.High-five me! Just back from confab with pinheads. They’rehigh on our marketing plan. But as you crystal balled it, theywant a special for the jumbos. ASAP, they said. Let’s meet, mycell, 10 A.M., Wed.?

TTFNBugger

Most of your personal email (messages to friends) are likely tobe casually written. This is the way friends talk and their emailshould be no different. Probably some of the email you willwrite in business also will fall. in this category. Much of it willbe with your fellow employees and friends in business. But heresome words of caution should be expressed. You would bewise to use casual language only when you know your readerswell-when you know they expect and prefer casual communica-tion. Never should you use words, initializes, emphasis devices,or such that are not cer-tain to communicate clearly and quickly.Informal: informal language retains some of the qualities. ofcasual writing. It makes some use of personal pronouns andcontractions. Its sentences are relatively short. It . occasionallymay use colloquialisms, but more selectively than in casualwriting. It has the effect of conversation, but it is properconversation-not chitchat. Its sentences are short, but they arewell structured and organized. They have varied patterns thatproduce an interesting literary style. In general, it is the writingthat you will find in most of the illustrations in Chapters 6-9. Itis the language that appears in the text of this book. Youshould use its most of your business email messages, especiallywhen writing to people you know only on a business basis. Anexample of an email message in informal language is thefollowing:

SmitaThe management team has heartily approved our marketingplan. They were most complimentary. But as you pre-dieted,they want a special plan for the large accounts. As they want it assoon as possible, let’s get together to work on it . Can we meetWednesday, 10 am my office Brandon’

FormalA formal style of writing maintains a-greater distance betweenwriter and reader than informal style. It avoids personalreferences and contractions. Its sentences are’ well structured andorganized. Although there is a tendency to create-longer sen-tences in formal writing, this tendency should be resistedFormal style is well illustrated in the examples of formal reportsin lesson 22/23 and it is appropriate to use email messagesresembling formal reports, in messages to people of higherstatus, and to people not known to the writer.

Writing the Message : GeneralConsiderationsInstructions for writing email messages are much the same asthose given in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 for other types of messages.

For the purpose of email writing, we may group the moreimportant of these instructions under three heads: conciseness,clarity, and eti-quette. A fourth, correctness is equally vital. Eachof these im-portant qualities for email writing is brieflyreviewed in the following paragraphs.

ConcisenessAs we have mentioned, email often is written by busy peoplefor busy people. In the best interests of all concerned, emailmessages should be as short as com-plete coverage of thesubject matter will permit. This means cutting the informationavailable and using only that which is essential. It means alsothat the information remaining should be worded concisely. Inthe words of one email authority, “Short messages are better,even – especially – the important ones”Frequently in email communication, a need exists to refer toprevious email messages. The easiest way, of course, is to tellyour mailer to include the entire message. Unless the entiremessage is needed, however, this practice adds length. It isbetter either to paraphrase the essentials from the original or toquote the selected parts that cover the essentials. All quotedmaterial should be distinguished from your own words by thesign > at the beginning and the sign < at the end of the quotedpart. Another technique is to place three of these signs (>>>)at the beginning of all parts you write and three of these signs(<<<) at the beginning of all parts you are quoting fromprevious messages.

ClarityEspecially important in email writing is clarity of wording. Youshould select words that quickly create clear meanings. Typically,these are the short, familiar ones. You should strive forconcreteness, vigor, and precision. Your sentences should beshort, and so should your paragraphs.

EqiquetteIt goes without saying that good business etiquette should bepracticed in all business relations. We all want to receivecourteous and fair treatment. In fact, this is the way we humanbeings prefer to act. Even so, the current literature has much tosay about anger among email participants. “Flaming,” as thepractice of sending abusive or offensive language is called, hasno place in business. Good business etiquette should prevail.The skillful use of positive language and your viewpoint alsocan be effective in email. So can the use of conversationallanguage. Nondiscriminatory language also helps, as canemphasis on sincerity. In act, virtually all the instructions givenon goodwill building apply here. Also in the interest of goodbusiness etiquette, you will want to let your reader know whenno response is required to your email message.

CorrectnessOne would think that the need for correctness in email writingwould be universally accepted. Unfortunately, such is not thecase. Because of the fast pace of email communication, somepractitioners argue that “getting the message out there is theimportant goal – that style need not be a matter of concern. Inthe view of one in this group, “You should not add stylisticsand grammatical refinements to your email messages becausethey’ll slow you down.”


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We cannot accept this view. How one communicates is verymuch a part of the message. As expressed by one authority,“People still judge you on how well you communicate…Commercial email represents your company and your brand.There’s no room for excuses.” Bad spelling, illogical punctua-tion, awkward wording, and such stand out like sore thumbs.Such errors reflect on the writer. And they can reflect on thecredibility of the message. If one knows correctness, it is easyenough to get it right the first time. What is the logic of doingsomething wrong when you know better? Clearly, an error-fieldmessage strongly suggests the writer’s ignorance.To avoid any such suggestion of ignorance, you should followthe grammatical and punctuation instructions presented inlesson 5 and 6. And you should follow the basic instructionsfor using words, constructing sentences, and designingparagraphs. Before pressing the Send button, proofread yourmes-sage careful1y.

Using Good Email Etiquette Helps Writers ConveyIntended Message

Using proper email etiquette is as easy as applying a bit of empathy to your messages: send only what you would want to receive. The following additional etiquette guides will help you consider a variety of issues when using email: • Is your message really

needed by the recipient(s)?

• Is your message for routine rather than sensitive messages ?

• Are you sure your message is not spam (an annoying message sent repeatedly) or a chain letter?

• Have you carefully checked that your message is going where you want it to go?

• Has your wording avoided defamatory or libelous language?

• Have you complied with copyright laws and attributed sources accurately?

• Have you avoided humor and sarcasm your reader may not understand as intended?

• Have you proofread your

message carefully? • Is this a message you

would not mind having • distributed widely? • Does your signature

avoid offensive Quotes or

• illustrations, especially those that are religious,

• political, or sexual? • Are attached files a size

that your recipient's system can handle?

• Are the files you are attaching virus free?

Closing The MessageMost email messages end with just the writer’s name – the firstname alone if the recipient knows the writer well. But in somemessages, especially the more formal ones, a closing statementmay be appropriate. “Thanks” and “Regards” are popular. Incasual messages, acronyms such as THX (thanks) and TTFN( ta-ta for now) are often used. The conventional complimen-tary closes used in traditional letters (sincerely, cordially) are notwidely used, but they are appropriate in message that involves

formal business relationships. In messages to other busi-nesses, it is important that you include your company andposition.Today most email software has a signature feature that willautomatically attach a signature file to a message. Most pro-grams even allow the writer to set up an alterna-tive signature;giving” users the flexibility to’ choose between a stm1dard, onealternate, and none attached at all: Writers sometimes set up a.formal full signature in one file and an informal-signature inanother. The important point to remember is to close with asignature that gives the reader the information he or she needsto know.

Using Emphasis DevicesWhen you write email messages, you may find that certainelements of style are miss-ing either on your system or on yourreaders’ systems. While most of the current ver-sions ofWindows and Macintosh email programs support mechanicaldevices such as underscoring, font variations, italics, bold, color,and even graphics, some older or mainframe-based systems donot. Email writers have attempted to overcome the lim-itationsof these older systems by developing alternative means ofshowing emphasis. To show underscoring, they use the sign -at the beginning of the words needing underscoring. They useasterisks (*) before and after words to show boldface. Solidcapital letters are another means of emphasis, although somecritics believe this practice is greatly overused. In the words ofone critic “Don’t use solid capital letters. People will think you’reshouting.” A sign they use to emphasize items in a list is thebullet. Since there is no standardized bullet character that willdisplay on all computers, many writers of email use substitutecharacters. One is the asterisk (*) followed by a tab space.Another is the dash (—) followed by a tab space. Probably thesedevices are used best in the email messages written in casuallanguages.

Using Initialisms CautiouslyProbably as a result of the early informal development of email,a somewhat standardized system of initialisms has developed.Their purpose has been to cut message length and to save thewriter’s time. In spite of these apparent advantages, you wouldbe wise to use them cautiously. They have meaning only ifreaders know them. Even so, you should be acquainted withthe more widely used ones, such as those below. You are likelyto find others created by your email correspondents.ASAP as soon as possibleBTW by the wayFAQ frequently asked questionFWIW for what it’s worthAs noted previously, initializm are appropriate primarily incasual messages. It is important to keep in mind that thesepractices and some of the other pointers given in this reviewapply only to current usage. Computers and their use are chang-ing almost daily. The techniques of email writing also are likelyto change over time.


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Why is email etiquette important?

l We all interact with the printed word as though it has a personality and that personality makes positive and negative impressions upon us.

l Without immediate feedback your document can easily be misinterpreted by your reader, so it is crucial that you follow the basic rules of etiquette to construct an appropriate tone.

The elements of email etiquette

l General formatl Writing long messagesl Attachmentsl The curse of surprises

l Flamingl Delivering informationl Delivering bad newsl Electronic Mailing Lists

General Format: The Basics

l Write a salutation for each new subject email.

l Try to keep the email brief (one screen length).

l Return emails within the same time you would a phone call.

l Check for punctuation, spelling, and grammatical errors

l Use caps when appropriate.

l Format your email for plain text rather than HTML.

l Use a font that has a professional or neutral look.

General Format: Character Spacing

l Try to keep your line length at 80 characters or less.

l If your message is likely to be forwarded, keep it to 60 characters or less.

l Set your email preferences to automatically wrap outgoing plain text messages.


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General Format: Lists and Bullets

When you are writing directions or want to emphasize important points, number your directions or bullet your main points.

For example,1) Place the paper in

drawer A.2) Click the green “start”

button.Another example, • Improve customer

satisfaction.• Empower employees.

General Format: Tone

• Write in a positive tone“When you complete the report.” instead of “If you complete the report.”

• Avoid negative words that begin with “un, non, ex” or that end with “less” (useless, non-existent, ex-employee, undecided).

• Use smiles ☺, winks ;), and other graphical symbols only when appropriate.

• Use contractions to add a friendly tone.(don’t, won’t, can’t).

General Format: Addresses

l Avoid sending emails to more than four addresses at once.

l Instead, create a mailing list so that readers do not have to scroll too much before getting to the actual message.

To: [email protected]

Attachments

l When you are sending an attachment tell your respondent what the name of the file is, what program it is saved in, and the version of the program.

l “This file is in MSWord 2000 under the name “LabFile.”


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General Tips for Electronic Mailing Lists

l Avoid discussing private concerns and issues.l It is okay to address someone directly on the

list. Ex, “Hi Leslie, regarding your question”l Change the subject heading to match the

content of your message.l When conflict arises on the list speak in person

with the one with whom you are in conflict.

Elevator Summary and Table of Contents

l An elevator summary should have all the main components of the email.

“Our profit margin for the last quarter went down 5%. As a result I am proposing budget adjustment for the following areas…”

l Table of contents“This email containsA. Budget projections for

the last quarterB. Actual performance for

the last quarterC. Adjustment proposalD. Projected profitability”

When your message is long

l Create an “elevator” summary.l Provide a table of contents on the first screen

of your email.l If you require a response from the reader then

be sure to request that response in the first paragraph of your email.

l Create headings for each major section.

Delivering Information About Meetings, Orientations, Processes

l Include an elevator summary and table of contents with headings.

l Provide as much information as possible.

l Offer the reader an opportunity to receive the information via mail if the email is too confusing.


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Delivering Bad News

Deliver the news up front:“We are unable to order

new computers this quarter due to budget cuts.”

Avoid blaming:“I think it will be hard to

recover from this, but what can I do to help?”

Avoid using “weasel words” or hedging:

“Our pricing structure is outdated.”

More examples of hedging are:

Intents and purposesPossibly, most likelyPerhaps, maybe

Writing a complaint

Ask for help and offer a resolution:“Please let me know what other options I may have

overlooked. I am willing to meet with the department head and the executive board to seek out a solution that is fair to the members and is good for the business of the organization. ”

Writing a complaint

• You should briefly state the history of the problem to provide context for your reader.

• Explain the attempts you made previously to resolve the problem.

• Show why it is critical for the problem to be resolved by your reader.

• Offer suggestions on ways you think it can be resolved or how you are willing to help in the matter.

Do not take your reader by surprise or press them to the wall

• Do not wait until the end of the day to introduce a problem or concern via memo or email.

• Avoid writing a litany of concerns that you have been harboring for a long period of time.


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Flaming in emails

• Flaming is a virtual term for venting or sending inflammatory messages in email.

• Avoid flaming because it tends to create a great deal of conflict that spirals out of control.

• Flame fights are the equivalent of food fights and tend to affect observers in a very negative way.

• What you say cannot be taken back; it is in black and white.

When you need to flame

l There are times when you may need to blow off some steam.

l Remember your audience and your situation before sending the email.

Here’s a way to flame:Flame OnYour messageFlame Off

Keep flaming under control

• Before you send an email message, ask yourself, “would I say this to this person’s face?”

• Calm down before responding to a message that offends you. Once you send the message it is gone.

l Read your message twice before you send it and assume that you may be misinterpreted when proofreading.

Responding to a flame

l Empathize with the sender’s frustration and tell them they are right if that is true

l If you feel you are right, thank them for bringing the matter to your attention

l Explain what led to the problem in question

l Avoid getting bogged down by details and minor arguments

l If you are aware that the situation is in the process of being resolved let the reader know at the top of the response

l Apologize if necessary


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When Email Won’t Work

l There are times when you need to take your discussion out of the virtual world and make a phone call.

l If things become very heated, a lot of misunderstanding occurs, or when you are delivering very delicate news then the best way is still face-to face.


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LESSON 5:PRACTICE CLASS

Upon completion of this lesson, you will understand the role ofcommunication in business. To achieve this goal you should be able to

• Study, analyze and solve the cases given below.

• Learn more on importance of communication in business

• Explain the communication model.

Students in this lesson we will solve some cases for which letsform groups and analyze the case. You may have to give apresentation once you are through with your answers/ solutions.

Critical Thinking Exercises1. Nikita is one of the 12 workers in Department X . She has

strong leadership qualities and all her co-workers look up toher. She dominates conversations with them and expressesstrong viewpoints on most matters. Although she is a goodworker , her dominating personality has caused problems foryou , the new manager of department X. Today you directedyour subordinates to change a certain work procedure. Thechange is one that has proven superior wherever it has beentried. Soon after giving the directive, you noticed the workerstalking in a group, with Nikita the obvious leader. In a fewminutes she appeared in your office . “We’ve thought itover” she said. “ Your production change won’t work.”

• Explain what is happening.• How will you handle the situation?2. After noticing that some workers were starting work late and

finishing early , a department head wrote this message tosubordinates: It is apparent that many of you are not givingthe company a full day’s work. Thus the followingprocedures are implemented immediately:

• After you clock in , you will proceed to your work stationsand will be ready to begin work promptly at the start of thework period.

• You will not take a coffee break or consume coffee on the jobat eh beginning of the work period. You will wait until yourdesignated break times.

• You will not participate in social gatherings at any timeduring the workday except during designated break periods.

• You will terminate work activities no earlier than 10 minutesprior to the end of the work period. You will uses he 10minutes to put up equipment, and check the work area.

• You will not queue up at the exit prior to the end of thework period.

The message was not well received by the workers. In fact it ledto considerable anger , misunderstanding and confusion.Using the model of communication as a base , analyse themessage and explain g the probable causes of the difficulties.3. After being introduced to a candidate for the presidency of

their company, two workers had the following discussion .

One worker is Himanshu, a college - age man who isholding a full time job while going to school - part time.The other is Akash, an old-timer – a self made man andmaster craftsman.

Himanshu: I like the candidate. He appears young, energetic andbright.Akash: He’s young all right. Too young! Too bright ! That fancyHarvard degree won’t help him here. Why I’ll bet he hasn’tspent one day in a working man’s shoes.Himanshu: Now that’s not fair. He was trained to be anadministrator , and he has had experience as an administrator –high level experience . You don’t need experience as a soldier tobe a general.Akash: Don’t tell me what this company needs. I’ve spent 40years here. I know. I was here when old J.P (the companyfounder) was president. He started as a machinist and workedto the top. Best presidident any company could have. We lovedthe man . He knew the business and he knew the business andhe knew the work we do.Himanshu: But that doesn’t happen today. Administratorshave to be trained for admiistration. They have to knowadministration, finance, marketing – the whole business field .You don’t get that in the shop.Akash: All you kids think that knowledge only comes frombooks. You can’t substitute book knowledge for experienceand common sense . I’ve been here 40 years, son I know.The dialogue continued to accelerate and soon led to harshwords. Neither Himanshu nor Akash changed positions.Analyse the dialogue using the model of communication as thebase.Further ReadingMyths of Effective Communicationby Brian H. Spitzberg, Ph.D.Dr. Spitzberg is professor in the School of Communication atSan Diego State University. He is co-author of InterpersonalCommunication Competence (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA,1984), Handbook of Interpersonal Competence Research(Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989), and co-editor of The DarkSide of Close Relationships (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Mahwah, NJ, due June, 1998).Could Harry S. Truman be elected in the today’s politicalcontext? Probably not. A candidate who really tells it like it iswould likely alienate too many factions of the voting public.Instead, contemporary candidates employ vague symbols suchas peace, prosperity, democracy, freedom, and resoundingphrases such as a “thousand points of light” and “bridge intothe 21st century.” So, as a society, we greatly value clarity, specific-ity, and honesty. Yet, we only elect leaders who are equivocal anddistinctly reluctant to discuss specifics. Such a mismatch between


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public ideology and actual leadership practice is a good exampleof the “dark side” of human behavior.What is the dark side of human interaction? It is many things.First, the dark side refers to things we cannot see, things lurkingin the shadows of ignorance, either not observed or notunderstood. Second, it concerns actions we presume to bepositive and valuable, which actually can function in negativeand destructive ways. For example, honesty is highly valued, butyou may be exploited if you are completely honest in the earlystages of negotiation. Third, the dark side draws attention toencounters that strike us intuitively as unethical, unpleasant, ordysfunctional, but that are in fact productive, in often surprisingways. A manager lays off well-liked employees and creates aclimate of uncertainty and dissatisfaction. But in the long run,the efficiencies gained may produce a working climate that ismore productive and desirable. This dark side exposes anumber of common myths that a leader needs to appreciate.

The Myth of ClarityThe ideology of clarity, accuracy, and understanding runs deep inthe ethos (and mythos) of our businesses, governments, andrelationships. Yet, if we carefully consider these concepts, werapidly reveal them to be problematic. Several examples shouldillustrate.Politeness is considered a universal goal. Without basicpoliteness, society begins to fall apart. Yet, much of what passesfor politeness is deceptive. “Hi Jennifer, how are ya?” “Fine.”Jennifer may be feeling ill, concerned about not getting therecent promotion, and apprehensive about her husband’ssuspected affair. But she says “fine” as a pleasantry, and perhapsto avoid appearing less than competent in a competitiveenvironment. If we are this duplicitous in casual conversation,consider the possibilities when we communicate about issueswith larger strategic interests.Getting the message across, avoiding communication break-downs, and being “clear” are “good terms” in most people’sminds. Even a best selling self-help book admonishes us thatwe “just don’t understand,” as if this is one of the worst sinsof human relations. Yet, as humans, we thrive on ambiguity andstrategic misunderstanding. We often use ambiguity to copewith predicaments, difficult situations, and conflict situations. Ateam member who just gave a fairly bad but somewhatinconsequential presentation, may ask “How did I do?” Howdo you respond? You may say something like: “Probably betterthan I would have done,” or “I’ve never seen a presentation likeit.” Such messages may not satisfy the other person, but theyassist you in managing a difficult situation and preserving thepeace of work relations.Leaders often must rely on equivocal and ambiguous messagesif they are to bring diverse groups together. People find itdifficult to agree on much of anything specific, but almosteveryone can agree on the values of freedom, prosperity, and soforth. People agree to these things in their leaders, withouthaving any real idea of what these ideas mean in terms ofpolicy. Through the use of such equivocal symbols, peoplecome together and make progress toward goals, even if theydon’t all have the same image of those goals.

The Myth of AdaptabilityAdaptability, the ability to change one’s actions as the situationrequires, is essential to interpersonal skills. Or is it? In the worldof athletics, proficiency is often based more on performanceconsistency than flexibility. In many realms we define excellenceby how “single-minded” and focused a person is, and how shepursues the goal to its end with dogged determination.Change brings unpredictability, uncertainty, and often, adiminished performance because a person has left his or herdomain of expertise. Adaptable people can come across like achameleon as they change their “face” for each person withwhom they interact. This is itself somewhat unnerving. But ifeveryone is adapting to everyone else’s adaptations, peoplebecome chameleons in a paisley room, disabled by the shiftingpattern of their social context. Persistence and consistency maybe hobgoblins of little minds, but they can accomplish greatthings when applied in a focused manner.

The Myth of CreativityThe gurus of creativity tout advantages in innovation, unfore-seen solutions to problems, and new perspectives toward theworld at large. But creativity as an end in itself can result in ahost of potential problems. Brainstorming groups, forexample, can produce so many ideas that the best tree of an ideacan get lost in the forest of alternatives. Creativity thrives onhorizontal thinking, but occasionally a vertical solution is bestfor vertical problems. Here’s a fruitful example. With a son anddaughter fighting over the only orange in the house, the motherasks them what they want it for. The boy wants it for a snackand the girl wants it for a recipe that calls for orange peel. Themother could get creative and try to think of alternative,divergent, or numerous solutions, but in this case, there’s asingularly obvious solution. For many routine tasks, the bestsolutions are known well in advance.Conformity, by contrast, has the stigma of the old, thetraditional, and the boring. But it’s conformity that permitssociety, organizations, and culture, to exist at all. Conformity ishighly efficient because people don’t have to expend mental andbehavioral energy figuring out what you’re going to do. You dowhat everyone else does in this situation, and things work.Certainly, conformity is probably dysfunctional in the extreme,as no source of growth and evolution will exist, but it hardlyseems as dark as it’s often depicted.

The Myth of AssertivenessFor the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, many therapists andexperiential group facilitators got wealthy hyping the key tointerpersonal effectiveness: assertiveness training. We were allwimps, and assertiveness skills were going to make us power-ful, successful, and charismatic. A funny thing happened on theway to this self-actualization. Research found that when youobserved someone else being assertive, that person appeared tobe competent. However, recipients of assertive behavior tend tosee it as effective, but also rather inappropriate and unlikable. Sothousands of us were being trained “how to lose friends andinfluence people.”Appropriate, even passive, behavior, has its place in social andtask interaction, as it serves to balance power disparities and


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smooth tensions among people who, after all, perceive that theyhave the right to be right as well. Finally, it’s sometimespreferable to lose a battle so as to win the war.

The Myth of CompetenceCan a person be competent by behaving incompetently? At firstblush, this may seem an absurd proposition. But consider theconcept of passive aggressiveness. A person dislikes a particulartask relative to other jobs that he is not currently assigned. Byfouling up on his own task, eventually he may get reassigned toa task he likes more. A student whowants to shine, can shine more in a normal class than anadvanced class, and may choose this alternative by performingless than optimally on selection tests.There’s a logical reverse of this concept called “skilled incompe-tence.” A person or group may do everything in a skilled way;that is, in a normal way that has always worked in the past andseems to fit all the requirements of effective behavior. Yet,when all the dust clears, the outcomes are deeply flawed. Astudy of the fatal spacecraft Challenger disaster is a case in point.Everyone was an expert, everyone was competent, everyone wasdoing what they were supposed to, and everyone was makingthe best decision they could at the time. And most of thepeople made the wrong decision.

How Dark is the Dark Side?So the dark side isn’t so dark after all. And the bright sidedoesn’t look so bright anymore. Does this mean you should bemore ambiguous, rigid, traditional, unassertive, and incompe-tent? Of course not. The myths above are not myths becausetheir opposites are always true. They are myths because youalready engage in equivocal, consistent, persistent, normative,passive, and less than optimal communication, and yet, you areprobably not banished from meetings, slapped in the face on aregular basis, or treated like a social pariah.The point of this analysis of interpersonal communicationmyth-making isn’t to recommend incompetent forms ofcommunication, but to draw attention to two conclusions.First, the ideologies we profess about interpersonal communi-cation are false when taken to the extreme. Business textbookstend to treat clarity as an inherent “good,” rather than exploringthe functional uses of non-clarity. Second, to understand suchfalseness requires that people stop getting their interpersonalwisdom from talk shows, motivational speakers, and people ill-equipped to either conduct original research or interpret otherscholars’ scientific work. After all, we all know that clarity,adaptability, creativity, assertiveness, and competence areintrinsically good. Right?


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LESSON 6:AID TO CORRECT WRITING

After Completing This Lesson You Will

• Brush up your basic grammar

• Study more about nouns, pronouns, gerunds and infinitives, verbs and adverbs

• Learn to make subjects and verbs agree.

• Brush up your understanding in phrases and clauses.

Students, this lesson will make you go back to your primaryclasses where you were taught about basic grammar. It isimportant to ensure that your language in all business commu-nication is grammatically correct. Therefore let’s start by thebasics:

Nouns

What is a noun?A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. Every sentence musthave a noun as its subject

Examples: The bear sleeps. Toronto is a city.

Types of Nouns

• Proper Nouns• Common Nouns

Forms of Nouns

• Plural Nouns• Possessive Forms

Proper NounsA proper noun is the name of a person, place or thing. Propernouns should always be capitalized.

Examples: Toronto Mr. Brown Sally

Common NounsA common noun is any noun that is not a proper noun.Common nouns are not capitalized.

Examples: the city a leader this woman

Plural FormsThe plural form of a noun indicates more than one. The pluralform is usually formed by adding an s or es.

Examples: One week, two weeks a house, many houses

One box, two boxes

Nouns that end in a consonant followed by a y are made pluralby dropping the y and adding ies.

Example: one country, two countries

Nouns that end in a vowel followed by a y are made plural byadding s.

Example: one toy, two toys

Nouns that end in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves.

Example: one leaf, two leaves

Certain irregular nouns have special plural forms.

Examples: one foot, two feet a mouse, many mice

To find the plural form of a noun that you are unsure of, checkthe Gage Canadian Dictionary.

Possessive FormsThe possessive form of a noun indicates ownership ormodifies another noun. The possessive form is usually formedby adding ‘s to the end of a noun.

Examples: the player's equipment the woman's job

Canada's government

Using Pronouns ClearlyBecause a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKESTHE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correctpronoun so that your reader clearly understands which nounyour pronoun is referring to.

Therefore, pronouns should

1. Agree In NumberIf the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you haveto use a singular pronoun.If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy aparking sticker.(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buya parking sticker.)Remember The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY,ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY, SOMEONE, APERSON, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)NOTE: Many people find the construction “his or her”wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as yourantecedent so that you can use “they” as your pronoun, itmay be wise to do

UNIT 1CHAPTER 2: USE OF ENGLISH


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so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes thegender clear, then it is permissible to use just “his” or “her”rather than “his or her.” See our handout on Non-sexistLanguage for more information.

2. Agree in PersonIf you are writing in the “first person” ( I), don’t confuseyour reader by switching to the “second person” ( you) or“third person” (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you areusing the “second person,” don’t switch to “first” or“third.”When a person comes to class, he or she should have his orher homework ready.(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have yourhomework ready.)

3. Refer Clearly To A Specific Noun.Don’t be vague or ambiguous.NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was notdamaged. (Is “it” the motorcycle or the tree?)NOT: I don’t think they should show violence on TV. (Whoare “they”?)NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice,the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. Thismay be his life’s work. (What word does “this” refer to?)NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can referto it. (What does “it” refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

Pronoun CasePronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are threecases.1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or

prepositions.3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Pronouns as SUBJECTS

Pronouns as OBJECTS

Pronouns that show

POSSESSION I me my (mine) You you your (yours) he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its) We us our (ours) They them their (theirs)

Who whom whose

The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICHdo not change form.

Some problems of case:1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a

noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment.Then you can see which case you want.

NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.(Would you say, “me travel”?)

NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.(Would you say, “he gave the flowers to I”?)NOT: Us men like the coach.(Would you say, “us like the coach”?)2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:He is taller than I (am tall).This helps you as much as (it helps) me.She is as noisy as I (am).Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omitwords, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above.If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choosethe correct case for the pronoun.NOT: He is taller than me.(Would you say, “than me am tall”?)3. In formal and semiformal writing:Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.FORMAL: It is I.INFORMAL: It is me.Use whom in the objective case.FORMAL: To whom am I talking?INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, andInfinitivesThere are three types of verbals : gerunds, participles, andinfinitives.Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in aseparate section of this handout because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a sentence. Finally, since theycan both function as nouns in a sentence despite their differentforms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted inthe last section below.

GerundsA gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kindsof verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or astate of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, itoccupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarilywould, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement,and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

• Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.• The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new

experiences.Gerund as direct object:• They do not appreciate my singing.• They do not appreciate my assistance.

Gerund as subject complement:

• My cat’s favorite activity is sleeping.• My cat’s favorite food is salmon.

Gerund as object of preposition:

• The police arrested him for speeding.


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Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

PunctuationA gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to Remember

1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s),

object(s), and/or complement(s).3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require

punctuation.

Exercise on GerundsUnderline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the followingsentences and label how they function in the sentence (subject,direct object, subject complement, object of preposition).1. Swimming keeps me in shape.2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.3. Telling your father was a mistake.

4. The college recommends sending applications early.5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.

ParticiplesA participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and mostoften ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that aparticiple, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verband therefore expresses action or a state of being. However,since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns orpronouns. There are two types of participles: present participlesand past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Pastparticiples end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked,eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.• The crying baby had a wet diaper.• Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.• The burning log fell off the fire.• Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of aparticiple and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or nounphrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s),or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in theparticiple, such as:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

• The police arrested him for criminal activity.A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerundand the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s)that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), orcomplement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund,such as :


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Placement : In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrasemust be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, andthe noun must be clearly stated.• Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *• Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or whatis performing the action expressed in the participle carrying.Certainly foot can’t be logically understood to function in thisway. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier errorsince the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying anyspecific noun in the sentence and is thus left “dangling.” Since aperson must be doing the carrying for the sentence to makesense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in theplace immediately after the participial phrase, as in the secondsentence.Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, acomma should be placed after the phrase.• Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.• Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore

muscles.If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of asentence, it should be set off with commas only if the informa-tion is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.• Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.• The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning ofthe sentence, no commas should be used:• The student earning the highest grade point average will

receive a special award.• The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a commausually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in thesentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word itmodifies.• The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the

streets.(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)

• ·Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

Points to Remember1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d,

-t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying anoun or pronoun.

2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s),object(s), and/or complement(s).

3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close tothe nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and thosenouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.

4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comesat the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as anonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentenceand is separated from the word it modifies.

Exercise on ParticiplesUnderline the participial phrase(s) in each of the followingsentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they

hadn’t worked hard enough in high school.3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association

revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offerremedial English classes emphasizing composition.

4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.

InfinitivesAn infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb(in its simplest “stem” form) and functioning as a noun,adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive,like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb andtherefore expresses action or a state of being. However, theinfinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subjectcomplement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although aninfinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form,deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes beconfusing.• To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.

(subject)• Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)• His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)• He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)• We must study to learn. (adverb)Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of toplus a verb—with a prepositional phrase beginning with to,which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, tocatch, to belongPrepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house,to the mountains, to us, to this addressAn Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of aninfinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or nounphrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirectobject(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed inthe infinitive, such as:


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Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitivephrase could be roughly characterized as the “subject” of theaction or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhatmisleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitivephrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Alsonotice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in theobjective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs,when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for theinfinitive phrase; others can’t have an actor. Still other verbs cango either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Verbs That Take Infinitive ObjectsWithout Actors

agree begin Continue decide

fail hesitate Hope intend

learn neglect Offer plan

prefer pretend Promise refuse

remember start Try

Examples

Most students plan to study.We began to learn.They offered to pay.They neglected to pay.She promised to return.

In all of these examples no actor can come between theitalicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-objectphrase.

advise allow Convince remind

encourage force Hire teach

instruct invite Permit tell

implore incite Appo in t order

ExamplesHe reminded me to buy milk.Their fathers advise them to study.She forced the defendant to admit the truth.In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicizedmain (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.Verbs that use either pattern

a sk expect (would) l ike wan t

ExamplesI asked to see the records.I asked him to show me the records.Trent expected his group to win.In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take aninfinitive object with or without an actor.

Exercise on InfinitivesUnderline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in thesentence, adding any punctuation as needed.1. I want to go.2. I want you to go home.3. We want to see the play.4. To see a shooting star is good luck.5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.

Forget and RememberThese two verbs change meaning depending on whether agerund or infinitive is used as the object.

ExamplesJack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn’tremember now.)Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn’t remem-ber sometime later.)Making Subjects and Verbs Agree1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more

nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns areconnected by or or nor, use a singular verb.


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LESSON 7: PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTION AND PUNCTUATION

By the end of this lesson you will learn more about :

• Prepositions

• Conjunction

• Punctuation

Students this lesson is a continuation of lesson 6 and will helpyou recall and brush up your understanding about preposi-tions, conjunctions and punctuation.

PrepositionsWhat are prepositions?Prepositions are used before nouns to give additional informa-tion in a sentence. Usually, prepositions are used to show wheresomething is located or when something happened.

Prepositions Showing

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In(to)Prepositions that express movement toward something: to,onto, and into. First, the prepositions will be introduced as agroup. Then, the special uses of each one will be discussed.To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositionsof location at, in, and on.

Introduction

1. The basic preposition of a direction is “to.”TO : signifies orientation toward a goalWhen the goal is physical, such as a destination, “to” impliesmovement in the direction of the goal.

(1) Sa'id returned to his apartment.

When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action,“to” marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expressespurpose. The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase inorder.2. Sudeep washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:

2. The other two prepositions of direction are compoundsformed by adding “to” to the corresponding prepositions oflocation.

The preposition of location determines the meaning of thepreposition of direction.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward

the interior of a volume

(“To” is part of the directional preposition toward, and the twomean about the same thing.)3. With many verbs of motion, “on” and “in” have a

directional meaning and can be used along with “onto” and“into”.

(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This iswhy “to” is inside parentheses in the title of the handout,showing that it is somewhat optional with the compound

Location Time Action and Movement

above at at

below on by

over by from

under before into

among from on

between since onto

beside for off

in front of during out of

behind to

next to until

with after

in the middle of

on

in

at


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prepositions. Thus, the following sentences are roughlysynonymous:

(4) Anil jumped in/into the pool.

(5) Reena fell on/onto the floor.

(6) The crab washed up on/onto the shore.

To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposi-tion conveys the completion of an action, while the simplepreposition points to the position of the subject as a result ofthat action. This distinction helps us understand how direc-tional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in therelationship of cause and effect.

Completion of an Action Position of

Subject

(7) Jean fell on(to) the floor.

Jean is on the floor.

(8) Neeta dived in(to) the water.

Neeta is in the water.

Uses of “to”To occurs with several classes of verbs.1. verb + to + infinitiveVerbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, orobligation.• Willingness: be willing, consent, refuse• Desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer• Intention: intend, plan, prepare• Obligation: be obligated, have, need

Examples:

(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.(10) I’d like to ask her how long she’s been skiing.(11) I plan to graduate this summer.(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar’s office.

2. In other cases “to” is used as an ordinary preposition.• Verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate,

appeal (in the sense of ‘plead,’ not ‘be attractive’)• Werbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/

ride/drive/ fly, travelExcept for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as wellas to. However, “to” suggests movement toward a specificdestination, while “toward” suggests movement in a generaldirection, without necessarily arriving at a destination:

(13) Drive toward the city limits and turn north.

(Drive in the direction of the city limits; turnoff may be before arriving there.)

(14) The plane was headed toward a mountain.

(It was headed in the direction of a mountain; it may not have reached or hit the mountain.)

(15) Take me to the airport, please.

(I actually want to arrive at the airport.)

Uses of “onto”1. “Onto” can generally be replaced by “on” with verbs ofmotion.

(16) John jumped on(to) the mat.

(17) Manish fell on(to) the floor.

(18) Athena climbed on(to) the

back of the truck.

2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subjectcauses itself or some physical object to be situated in a certainplace (compare #15-17 above).Of these verbs, some take only “on”. Others take both on andonto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers.(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto

the tree)(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)


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(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.Verbs taking only “on” are rare: set may be another one, and soperhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise,scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.(27) We’re adding on a wing at the back of the building.(28) We’re adding a porch onto the house.In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is asimple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly importantand general rule:Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compoundprepositions cannot.Note also that in (27), the word “on” has its ordinary meaningof a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is verticalrather than horizontal— the side of a building. The use of“onto” in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above.3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which

are formally like “add on” but have the meaning “ofcontinuing or resuming an action” when used in theimperative mood.

(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except forhang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only withon. The meanings of these combinations, some of which areidiomatic, are given in parentheses.• Hang on(to the rope)! (‘continue to grasp tightly’)• carry on (‘resume what you were doing’)• sail on (‘resume or continue sailing’)• dream on (‘continue dreaming’; a humorous way of saying

‘that is an unattainable goal’)2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subjectcauses itself or some physical object to be situated in a certainplace (compare #15-17 above).Of these verbs, some take only “on”. Others take both on andonto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers.(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto

the tree)(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.Verbs taking only “on” are rare: set may be another one, and soperhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise,scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.(27) We’re adding on a wing at the back of the building.(28) We’re adding a porch onto the house.

In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is asimple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly importantand general rule:Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compoundprepositions cannot.Note also that in (27), the word “on” has its ordinary meaningof a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is verticalrather than horizontal— the side of a building. The use of“onto” in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above.3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which

are formally like “add on” but have the meaning “ofcontinuing or resuming an action” when used in theimperative mood.

(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except forhang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only withon. The meanings of these combinations, some of which areidiomatic, are given in parentheses.• Hang on(to the rope)! (‘continue to grasp tightly’)• Carry on (‘resume what you were doing’)• Sail on (‘resume or continue sailing’)• Dream on (‘continue dreaming’; a humorous way of saying

‘that is an unattainable goal’)• Lead on (‘resume or continue leading us’)• Rock on (‘continue playing rock music’)

Uses of “into”1. With verbs of motion, “into” and “in” are interchangeable

except when the preposition is the last word or occursdirectly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.In this case only in (or inside) can be used.

(29) The patient went into the doctor’s office.(30) The patient went in. (not into)(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door

yesterday. (‘to take up residence in a new home’)(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so theobject of the preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, inan information question, “into” also can be last word except foran adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh- word:(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only “on” or “in”

with the ordinary meanings of those prepositions.If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted,the construction may have an idiomatic meaning.


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(36) The cat sat on the mat.

(37) The doctor is in his office.

(38) The doctor is in. ('available for consultation')

In(to) has two special uses with move.3. When “move in” is followed by a purpose clause, it has the

sense of “approach”.(39) The lion moved in for the kill.(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside thebuilding.In (39) and (40) “in” is part of the verb, so “into” cannot beused; We cannot say: “The lion moved into for the kill.”4. When “into” is used with move, it functions as an ordinary

preposition to convey the idea of moving something fromone place to another.

(41) We'll move your brother's old bed into your room.

This use of “into” is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27)and (29).

Prepositions of Location: at, in, onPrepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds:prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Bothkinds may be either positive or negative. Prepositions oflocation appear with verbs describing states or conditions,especially be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs ofmotion. It deals with positive prepositions of location thatsometimes cause difficulty: at, on, and in.

Dimensions and PrepositionsPrepositions differ according to the number of dimensionsthey refer to. We can group them into three classes usingconcepts from geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.• PointPrepositions in this group indicate that the noun that followsthem is treated as a point in relation to which another object ispositioned.• SurfacePrepositions in this group indicate that the position of anobject is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.• Area/VolumePrepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within theboundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.Notice that although in geometry surface and area go togetherbecause both are two-dimensional, in grammar area andvolume go together because the same prepositions are used forboth.In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified asfollows:

at ....... point

on ....... surface

in ....... area/volume

The meanings of the three prepositions canbe illustrated with some sample sentences:


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1) My car is at the house.

2) There is a new roof

on the house.

3) The house is i n Tippecanoe county.

4) There are five rooms in the house,

which has a lovely fireplace in the living

room.

All of these sentences answer a question of the form, “Where is_______?” but each gives different information. Before goingon, explain to yourself the spatial relations shown in eachsentence.1) locates a car in relation to a house, understood as a fixedpoint. 2) treats the house as a surface upon which anotherobject, the roof, is placed. 3) locates the house within a geo-graphical area. 4) treats the house as a three-dimensionalstructure that can be divided into smaller volumes, namely,rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace.

Using “at”At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific ofthe prepositions in its spatial orientation, it has a great varietyof uses.Here are some of them

Location

5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at the bank.

5b) Sue spent the whole

afternoon at the fair.

Destination

6a) We arrived at the house.

6b) The waiter was at our

table immediately. Direction

7a) The policeman leaped at the assailant.

7b) The dog jumped at my

face and really scared me.

“in” and “on”1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window,

take both on and in. The prepositions have their normalmeanings with these nouns: on is used when the space isconsidered as a surface, in when the space is presented as anarea:

Three players are practicin g on the field. (surface)

Three cows are grazing in

the field. (area)

The frost made patterns on the window. (surface)

A face appeared in the

window. (area)

Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas onimplies only that the following noun denotes a surface and notnecessarily an enclosed area:

The sheep are grazing in the pasture. (enclosed by a fence) The cattle are grazing on the open range. (not enclosed by a fence )

Three players are on the basketball court. (not enclosed)

Three players are on the soccer field. (not enclosed)

Two boxers are in the ring. (enclosed by ropes)

2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries,such as when field means “academic discipline,” in is used:


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She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street . The first

two follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The thirdis an idiom that must be learned as a unit.

a) The children are playing in the street.

b) Our house is on Third Street.

c) He declared bankruptcy last week, and now he's out on the street.

(This is an idiom meaning that he's poor.)

In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by thesidewalks on either side. Compare b) with the discussion ofsentence 3) in the first section. Here on locates the house oneither side of Third Street: it doesn’t mean that the street is asurface on which the house sits. Because the street is under-stood as a line next to which the house is situated, on functionsmuch like at in its normal use: it locates the house in relation tothe street but does not specify the exact address. For thatpurpose, at is used because the address is like a particular pointon the line. Compare: “Our house is at 323 Third Street.” In c)out on the street is an idiom meaning “poor” or “destitute.”4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is

used with a car, on with public or commercial means oftransportation:

in the caron the buson the planeon the trainon the ship

Some speakers of English make a further distinction for publicmodes of transportation, using in when the carrier is stationaryand on when it is in motion.My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.

Prepositions of Time, of Place, and toIntroduce ObjectsOne point in time

On is used with days:I will see you on Monday.7The week begins on Sunday.At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time ofday:My plane leaves at noon.

The movie starts at 6 p.m.In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years,with seasons:He likes to read in the afternoon.The days are long in August.The book was published in 1999.The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended TimeTo express extended time, English uses the following preposi-tions: since, for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in• She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has

not returned.)• I’m going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks

there.)• The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in

August and ending in October.)• The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in

spring and ending in fall.)• I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in

the evening.)• We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a

year.)

PlaceTo express notions of place, English uses the followingprepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to expresssomething contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, totalk about a general vicinity, at. For more detail, see ourhandouts on Prepositions of Location and Prepositions ofDirection.• There is a wasp in the room.• Put the present inside the box.• I left your keys on the table.• She was waiting at the corner.

Higher than a PointTo express notions of an object being higher than a point,English uses the following prepositions: over, above• He threw the ball over the roof.• Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a PointTo express notions of an object being lower than a point,English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath,beneath, below.• The rabbit burrowed under the ground.• The child hid underneath the blanket.• We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.

• The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a PointTo express notions of an object being close to a point, Englishuses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between,among, opposite.• She lives near the school.


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• There is an ice cream shop by the store.• An oak tree grows next to my house• The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.• I found my pen lying among the books.• The bathroom is opposite that room.

To Introduce Objects of VerbsEnglish uses the following prepositions to introduce objects ofthe following verbs.At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare• She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)• You didn’t laugh at his joke.• I’m looking at the computer monitor.• We rejoiced at his safe rescue.• That pretty girl smiled at you.• Stop staring at me.

Of : Approve, Consist, Smell• I don’t approve of his speech.• My contribution to the article consists of many pages.• He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of (or about) : Dream, Think• I dream of finishing college in four years.• Can you think of a number between one and ten?• I am thinking about this problem.

For : Call, Hope, Look, Wait, Watch, Wish• Did someone call for a taxi?• He hopes for a raise in salary next year.• I’m looking for my keys.• We’ll wait for her here.• You go buy the tickets and I’ll watch for the train.• If you wish for an “A” in this class, you must work hard.

Brief Overview of Punctuation:Semicolon, Colon, Parenthesis, Dash,Quotation Marks and ItalicsPunctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, wecan pause, stop, or change our tone of voice. In writing, we usethe following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarifywhat we mean. Punctuation marks discussed in other OWLdocuments include commas, apostrophes, quotation marks,and hyphens.

SemicolonIn addition to using a semicolon to join related independentclauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon toseparate items in a series if the elements of the series alreadyinclude commas.Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; TonyAluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.

Colon :Use a colon

Parentheses ()Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra,nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates,sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest ofthe sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses alwaysappear in pairs.Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it wasa relic of frontier days) caught fire.

DashUse a dash (represented on a typewriter, a computer with nodashes in the type font, or in a handwritten document by a pairof hyphens with no spaces) . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but don't overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact.

To some of you, my proposals may seem radical--even revolutionary. In terms of public legitimation--that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators--English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.

for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.

The boys--Jim, John, and Jeff--left the party early.

As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses(used in pairs to set off a comment within a larger sentence)and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material


after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment illustrating or explaining the statement.

The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and classified ads. The strategies of corporatist industrial unionism have proven ineffective: compromises and concessions have left labor in a weakened position in the new "flexible" economy.

in a business letter greeting. Dear Ms. Winstead:

between the hour and minutes in time notation.

5:30 p.m.

between chapter and verse in biblical references.

Genesis 1:18


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illustrating or emphasizing the immediately preceding state-ment). But comments set off with a pair of dashes appear lesssubordinate to the main sentence than do comments inparentheses. And material introduced after a single dash may bemore emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetoricalpurposes than material introduced with a colon.

Quotation Marks “ “Use quotation marks . . .


to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark in conventional American usage; colons and semicolons go outside; and placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation (see our quotation marks document).

He asked, "Will you be there?" "Yes," I answered, "I'll look for you in the foyer."

to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way; but don't overuse quotation marks in this sense, or they will lose their impact.

History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."

Underlining and ItalicsUnderlining and italics are not really punctuation, but they aresignificant textual effects used conventionally in a variety ofsituations. Before computerized word-processing was widelyavailable, writers would underline certain terms in handwrittenor manually typed pages, and the underlining would be replacedby italics in the published version. Since word processing todayallows many options for font faces and textual effects, it isgenerally recommended that you choose either underlining oritalics and use it consistently throughout a given document asneeded. Because academic papers are manuscripts and not finalpublications and because italics are not always easily recognizedwith some fonts, many instructors prefer underlining overitalics for course papers. Whichever you choose, italics orunderlining should be used . .

.


to indicate titles of complete or major works such as magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television programs, long poems, plays of three or more acts

Faulkner's last novel was The Reivers . The Simpsons offers hilarious parodies of American culture and family life.

foreign words that are not commonly used in English

Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most college students.

words used as words themselves

The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of color."

words or phrases that you wish to emphasize

The very founding principles of our nation are at stake!

The ApostropheThe apostrophe has three uses

1. To form possessives of nouns2. To show the omission of letters3. To indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or fornoun plurals, including acronyms.

Forming possessives of nounsTo see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrasearound and make it an “of the...” phrase. For example:• The boy’s hat = the hat of the boy• Three days’ journey = journey of three daysIf the noun after “of” is a building, an object, or a piece offurniture, then no apostrophe is needed!• Room of the hotel = hotel room• Door of the car = car door• Leg of the table = table legOnce you’ve determined whether you need to make a posses-sive, follow these rules to create one.• add ‘s to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):the owner’s carJames’s hat• Add ‘s to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children’s gamethe geese’s honking

• Add ‘ to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:houses’ roofsthree friends’ letters

• Add ‘s to the end of compound words:my brother-in-law’s money

• Add ‘s to the last noun to show joint possession of anobject

• Todd and Anne’s apartment

Showing Omission of LettersApostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word(or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers)have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission.Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing.To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostro-phe where the omitted letter(s) would go.

Here are Some Examplesdon’t = do notI’m = I amhe’ll = he willwho’s = who isshouldn’t = should notdidn’t = did notcould’ve= could have (NOT “could of”!)’60 = 1960

Forming Plurals of Lowercase LettersApostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear inlowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical thangrammatical, e.g. “three ps” versus “three p’s.” To form the


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plural of a lowercase letter, place ‘s after the letter. There is noneed for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters,numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that someeditors, teachers, and professors still prefer them).

Don’t use Apostrophes for PossessivePronouns or for Noun PluralsApostrophes should not be used with possessive pronounsbecause possessive pronouns already show possession — theydon’t need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are allpossessive pronouns. Here are some examples:wrong: his’ bookcorrect: his bookwrong: The group made it’s decision.correct: The group made its decision.(Note: Its and it’s are not the same thing. It’s is a contraction for“it is” and its is a possessive pronoun meaning “belonging toit.” It’s raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remem-ber this rule is the fact that you don’t use an apostrophe for thepossessives his or hers, so don’t do it with its!)wrong: a friend of yours’correct: a friend of yourswrong: She waited for three hours’ to get her ticket.correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.


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LESSON 8 :PRACTICE CLASS

Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to use the accepted standard of English grammar ad punctuation in written business communication. Toreach this you should be able to:

• Punctuate message correctly. ·• Write complete grammatically correct sentence .

Practice ClassAdverb or adjective?

• I feel (bad)_______ about what happened yesterday. Ididn’t know you were going to take everything so(serious)________.

• This beer tastes too(bitter)_________ for my liking.• She looked at me (tender)________ and said (soft)______

that I looked (good) _______in my chequered shirt.• I could (easy) _______ convince him not to become too

excited with all the media attention.• He turned the car(cautious)__________ as not to drive into

the (nice) ___________ laid-out border of the neighbours.• Have you ever been (wrong)_______________ accused of

something?• “My brother is an (incredible)___________ successful

businessman”, he said (cynical)____________ “he’s justgone bankrupt for the fifth time!”

• (Unfortunately)__________all the milk has gone(sour)_________ overnight.

• She (haste)_________ ran down thestairs,(picked)_________ picked up her coat and umbrellaand disappeared in the (unusual)____________ mysteriousnight.

• The number of visitors to the exhibition dropped(considerable)_________ in the second week.

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to):ExerciseComplete the following sentences with the correct preposition:to, toward, on, onto, in, or into. Some sentences may havemore than one possible correct answer. Remember that a fewverbs of motion take only “on” rather than “onto.”1. Anna has returned ______ her home town.2. The dog jumped ______ the lake.3. Are the boys still swimming ______ the pool?4. Thomas fell ______ the floor.5. The plane landed ______ the runway.6. We drove _____ the river for an hour, but turned north

before we reached it.7. The kids climbed ______ the monkey bars.8. Joanna got ______ Fred’s car.9. The baby spilled his cereal ______ the floor.10. We cried to the man on the ladder, “Hang ______!”11. I just called ______ say I love you.12. Matthew and Michelle moved the table ______ the dining

room.13. Allan left your keys ______ the table.14. Dr. Karper apologized for interrupting us, and told us to

carry ______ with our discussion.15. I’d like ______ ask you a question.16. Pat drove Mike ______ the airport.17. Glenn almost fell ______ the river.18. The waitress noticed that there was no more Diet Pepsi

______ Marty’s glass.19. Lee and Sarah took the bus that was heading ______ the

university.20. Mary Sue jumped ______ the stage and danced.

Exercise 2Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition:at, in, or on.1. Will you wait for me _____ the bus stop?2. Jane is _____ her bedroom.3. Daria’s books are lying _____ the floor.4. The girls didn’t want to spend a long time _____ the

carnival.5. I let the cat sit _____ my lap, but then suddenly it jumped

_____ my face!


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6. Do you live _____ the city or _____ the country?7. Trent arrived _____ the school building just in time.8. The rancher built a fence to keep his cows _____ the

pasture.9. Kevin and Mack are out practicing _____ the football field.10. From afar, Heathcliff could see a light _____ the window.11. The old house had so much grime _____ the windows

that Bradley could hardly see inside.12. The shepherd boy grazed his flock _____ the grassy

hillside.13. The audience threw tomatoes _____ the terrible comedian.14. Wrestling isn’t real; those guys _____ the ring are just

pretending.15. David works _____ the field of network administration,

while Marty works _____ web design.16. The car stalled and got stuck _____ the street.17. Audrey lives _____ Third Street.18. If William doesn’t make any money on his book, he’ll be

out _____ the street.19. I’ll use my cellular phone when I’m _____ the bus, but

never while I’m _____ the car.20. Passengers are not allowed to use electronic devices _____

airplanes during takeoff and landing.

Apostrophes: ExercisePunctuate the following sentences with apostrophes accordingto the rules for using the apostrophe.1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year?2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps

jaws.3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to

fall apart.4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again.5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow?6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I

remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wickedstepmother.

7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smithschildren looked so disappointed that we found anotherspot.

8. Its important that the kitten learns to find its way home.9. She did not hear her childrens cries.10. My address has three 7s, and Tims phone number has four

2s.11. Didnt he say when he would arrive at Arnies house?12. Its such a beautiful day that Ive decided to take a sun bath.13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldnt

identify the manufacturers name on it.14. Little girls clothing is on the first floor, and the mens

department is on the second.15. The dogs bark was far worse than its bite.

16. The moons rays shone feebly on the path, and I heard theinsects chirpings and whistlings.

17. Theyre not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though thechoice is not theirs.

18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his twoweeks vacation in the mountains.

19. I found myself constantly putting two cs in the wordprocess.

20. Johns 69 Ford is his proudest possession.

Sentence Fragment Exercises—#1The sentences below appeared in papers written by students.Act as their editor, marking a C if the sentences in the group areall complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is afragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments areincomplete sentences?____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior highthat was a bad experience.____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sunsending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of variousshades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind.____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes offhis notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did notencourage students’ questions.____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choosefrom. It was difficult to distinguish between them.____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a barfor a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, theywere ready for anything.____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional.Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that youshould be in control.____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated,prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a valuejudgment and in circumstances not a true premise.____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out forfootball. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Notrealizing at the time that we would never enter that door in herhome again.____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking backinto my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights.To think about this makes me happy.____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozenred roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology.____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe’soldest and best friends had a little too much to drink.____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelvemiles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepowermotor seemed like a high-speed job to me.____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached forthe pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boilingwater to spill.


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____15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size andstyle. With no difference except the color.

____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we firstjoined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.

PossessiveTick on the correct possessive form in the sentences below.• According the Department of Energy, if we were to set up

an area of solar cells equal to 0.25 the area currently coveredby our roads, these cells could supply our entire (nations /nation’s / nations’) electrical needs.

• With a rear-facing child seat, the top of the seat and the(infants / infant’s / infants’) head will be in the deploymentzone of the air bag.

• When you receive my (boss / bosses / boss’s / boss’ /bosses’) memo requesting your participation, please respondto her that your job description, as written, will not allowyou to perform that type of work.

This section explains the function of each technique anddescribes (its / it’s / its’) advantages and disadvantages.


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LESSON 9:ORAL COMMUNICATION

By the end of this lesson you should be able to

• Explain the importance of oral communication

• Outline the steps needed to structure effective oral communication

• Barriers to communication

• Understand what Noise is

• Tips for Presentations

Conversation is so basic to human existence that any study of itinevitably leads to some of life’s most important rules—rulesthat lead to trouble if ignored. Consider the following list ofconsequences of poor conversation skills.Ask yourself if any of these basic emotions and conditions is apersistent part of your social and business life:

Disrespect rejection frustration anger being misunderstood being misinterpreted depression giving offense being insulted disappointment

Embarrassment exhaustion failure fear humiliation loneliness powerlessness weakness being overlooked impatience

Good conversation skills, on the other hand, lead to success,and success leads to more success. Good verbal abilities usuallypromote good relations with others, influence, respect, and areputation for leadership and effectiveness. People with theseadvantages go through life feeling the emotions and talentslisted below.

stimulated energized passionate motivated excited challenged determined flexible contributing effective comfortable confident resourceful

empowered vital centered respected well-liked included focused fortunate rewarded in control satisfied lucky

We all feel the above emotions and conditions, good and bad,from time to time. But do you have the feeling that the negativefactors occur too persistently in your life? Do you feel that some

of these harmful conditions are crippling your family life andyour social and career progress? Do you wonder how you canincrease the good elements and decrease the bad?Well, as stated above, most of life’s successes and problems arefounded in the quality of your communication skills. Humanbeings are social animals. Our vast civilizations exist andfunction only because each of us has learned to control ourbehavior in very intricate ways. Still, some of us have a bettergrasp than others of the complex systems in which we live.Those who have the deepest awareness and understanding ofthe core rules are the ones who succeed and prosper. This is abook of rules, rules many people live and die without ever fullycomprehending.Society’s rules aren’t always obvious. The rules that allow us toget by and survive are fairly simple (don’t run red lights, don’tmake bank robbery a career). But other rules, the ones thatconfer real success, not mere survival, can sometimes be asdifficult to detect as black holes in deep space.When your career progress bogs down, when your relationshipsare weak or troubled, when you have a hard time makingfriends, when you have difficulty making yourself heard, andwhen people take advantage of you, it is because you have animperfect comprehension of those shadowy rules that allowyou to focus social power to your advantage.No one in our world succeeds strictly on his or her own. Trueaccomplishment requires that you efficiently influence thosearound you in positive ways. The primary tool of influence iscommunication, and like society itself, communication has rulesthat few fully understand.

IntroductionCommunication is a composite of speaking and listening.Honing skills in both these areas is absolutely essential if thecommunicator wishes to impress the receiver. The initial impactis made by speaking abilities of the sender. Equally important isthe ability to listen carefully. If the overall effectiveness of thesetwo components is considered. It would e seen that he abilityto listen rather than to speak fluently impress more.The two activities viz, speaking and listening, cannot besegregated. Both are closely intertwined an overall impact iscreated if both these skills are used effectively. Let us use theword ‘ IMPRESS’ as an acronym to understand the basicfeatures of communication or concept, which, if once under-stood, would define helps us to impress the other person.

I – IdeaThe first step in the process of communication is to decide onthe idea which needs to be communicated. There may be a hostof ideas passing through the mind of the sender. Dependingupon the situation and the receiver, the speaker selects the ideasuited to the occasion.

UNIT ICHAPTER 3 : ORAL COMMUNICATION


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M – MessageOnce the idea has been selected, it needs to be clothed in alanguage that is comprehensible to the receiver. The encodingof the message has to be done keeping a number of factorsinmind. What is it that needs to be stated? What is the languagethat is going to be understood y the receiver? Does the ideanecessarily pertain to the interest of the receiver? What is it thatthe receiver actually needs to know? Framing of the message , ifdone(keeping answers to these question in mind), woulddefinitely make an impact on the receiver.

P - Pause/ ParagraphsThe significance of pauses cannot be underestimated. Pausesshould be juxtaposed at just the right minute so that thereceiver can assimilate the impact of the message. The use ofpauses would be best understood in the context of a presenta-tion. The presenter should, at the time of making apresentation, use this device suitably. Excessive usage of thisdevice can lead the presentation into being one that is prettyboring and monotonous. The right use of pauses actuallystimulates the audience. The impact is often so great andforceful that the receiver actually leans forward in their chairswhen the presenter pauses, as if urging him to resume thepresentation. This device, in the course of the interaction, lastsfor barely a few seconds. However, the impact is long andmeaningful. In written communication pauses get translatedinto paragraphs. If the decision to use a certain number ofparagraphs is right and the division of points in these para-graphs is also correct, then written communication becomesmeaningful and creates a positive impression.

R - Receiver.The receiver is the most important person in the process ofcommunication who could, if he so desires, also prove to bethe most difficult. He is the one who is generally led into theinteraction. In order to draw his attention, it is imperative thatthere be an extra plus that would retain his interest and makehim attentive to the ensuing communication. To satisfy thiscriterion the sender should address himself to the needs andexpectations of the receiver. Formulating the statementsaccording to a mutually accepted goal is a good way of proceed-ing and drawing his attention.

E - EmpathyIn communication empathy should be used to help usunderstand the other individual, the strategies that. he adoptsand the responses that he gives at a particular moment. Itwould be worthwhile to note that all communication issituation bound. The same individual in two different situa-tions might use the same words but his intention might betotally different. Gauging the exact meaning of an utterance canonly”be done when we literally put ourselves in the shoes ofthe other person and try to understand the situation from theperspective of the sender.Each individual, as a sender has, what we refer to as, a ‘logicbubble’ that enables him to formulate his message in aparticular fashion. The same holds true for the receiver or thelistener. The greater the empathy between them, the higher thelevel of understanding and more the receptivity to messages

word, namely, “sympathy”, which is different in connotation.Sympathy is placing the sender on a higher pedestal and viewingthe other in a sympathetic light.

Empathy

S - SenderThe communication process hinges on the sender. He initiatesthe interaction and comes up with ideas and concepts that hewishes to share with the receiver. His role is the most crucial.The success or failure of interaction depends on him and on thestrategies he adopts to get his message across by securing theattention of the receiver. A cautious sender would understandthat there is a difference between the mental frames of theparticipants. Such a difference could be a result of discrepancy ininterpretation of words, perception of reality, and attitudes,opinions and emotions. Message, if formulated, with aware-ness along these areas, is sure to bring success to the sender.

S - Security CheckEffective communication necessitates that the receiver listenscarefully to the utterances of the sender so that the end resultsare positive. The primary rule is: never be in -a rush to commencecommunication. Sufficient time and effort should be put informulating the message. Suppose the sender wishes tocommunicate five points. The sequencing and necessarysubstantiation of points with facts and figures should be doneprior to the actual beginning of the communication process.This would build confidence in the message and eliminatepossibility of errors in the statements.To sum up, the sender, in order to impress the receiver should,at the start, have an idea encoded in the form of a message. Atthe time of encoding, the sender does a thorough security checkto ascertain that all points have been dealt with in a desiredorder. The message is then transmitted to the receiver with therequired voice articulations and pauses so as to heighten theimpact. Finally, the response of the receiver should be viewedempathetic ally. Once all these factors have been understood, itproves easy to prevail upon the receiver.There could, however, be moments when, in spite of effortsbeing made to make the interaction informative and meaning-ful, all communication links fall apart and the process ends in a


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meaningless rumble of words and sounds. This disturbing ordistracting factor is what we refer to as Noise. This may be onthe part of the sender or the receiver; it can be voluntary orinvoluntary.

NoiseNoise can be defined as a physical sound or a mental distur-bance that disrupts the flow of communication as the sender orthe receiver perforce gets distracted by it. According to thisdefinition, noise can be classified into two categories:1. Physical2. Psychological.Physical noise is that sound which emanates from the sur-roundings and hampers’ the listening process, e.g. whilespeaking on the telephone, disturbances might hinder thesmooth transmission ofmessage or just at the time when the sender wishes to transmitan important point, there might be a queer squeaking sound.Physical noise is not all that difficult to manage. It can be doneaway with at the time of communication by ensuring that allchannels are in proper functioning order. For example, often,companies have a soundproof room for discussions.While care may be taken to eliminate possibilities of physicalnoise, problems arise at the time when psychological noiseplagues either the sender or the receiver. Whenever there ispsychologicalnoise, it results in (un)welcome ideas or thoughts crowding themind, which are of more relevance than the’ ensuing communi-cation to either of the participants. Listening, as a result, ishampered and responses are not well formulated. Some of thecommon forms of noise are mental turbulence, preoccupation,ego hang-ups, anxiety, tiredness, pre-conceived ideas andnotions. These are mostly involuntary and no cause can beassigned to them.What is important is awareness about these factors. The senderat a particular moment might be disturbed by psychologicalnoise. If he is aware of the mental turmoil and knows that itwould disturb his listening process he should, at the time ofcommunicating, carry a piece of paper and a pen or pencil to jotdown points or comments of the receiver. On the other hand,the receiver might also be distracted by psychological noise.Outward manifestations of this disturbance would be in theform of restless tapping on the table, looking in other direc-tions, shifting restlessly, changing positions, etc. These are justsome of the means through which the sender can gauge thepresence of psychological noise in the mind of the receiver. Tomake more meaningful and successful communication, thesender should try through certain strategies to draw theattention of the receiver. He can do this by entering into aquestion answer session or asking for advice. Both these deviceswould, to a great extent, remove the element of psychologicalnoise.

Types

Causative Factors

Remedies

Physical Disturbances and distractions in the environment

Ensuring that all channels are clear and free of noise

Psychological Mental turbulence, preoccupation, ego hang-ups, anxiety, tiredness, preconceived ideas and notions

Entering into Question/ Answer sessions, Securing advice

Barriers To CommunicationAn activity as complex as communication is bound to sufferfrom setbacks if conditions contrary to the smooth functioningof the process emerge. They are referred to as barriers becausethey create impediments in the progress of the interaction.Identification of these barriers is extremely important. Accord-ing to the role observed by the two participants, let uscategorize the barriers as:• Sender-oriented• Receiver-oriented.

Sender-oriented BarriersSender-oriented barriers could be voluntary or involuntary. Atany cost, efforts should be made on the part of the sender toidentify and remove them. As the sender is the originator ofcommunication, he should be extremely careful not to erectbarriers. If his interaction gives rise to or indicates that there arebarriers, the communication comes to a grinding halt. Some ofthe barriers that are sender-oriented are as follows:1. Badly Expressed Message.

Not being well versed in the topic under discussion can createproblems of this nature. The sender may not be able tostructure his ideas accurately and efficiently. What he wishesto say and what he finally imparts may not be the same. Thediscrepancy emerges as soon as the words are uttered. In fact,one of the important criteria at the time of initializing a pieceof communication is that ideas should be concrete and themessage should be well structured. The receiver should notfeel that the interaction is a waste of time. The moment thisfeeling crops up, the listener totally switches off and thusceases the process of effective communication.

2. Loss In Transmission.This is a very minor issue but one that gains in magnitudewhen it leads to inability in transmitting the actual message.Once again, if the choice of the channel or medium is notright, the impact of the message is lost. This is mostly aphysical noise. However, the responsibility lies with thesender, as he should ensure that all channels are free of noisebefore commencing communication.


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3. Semantic ProblemHigh and big sounding words definitely look and soundimpressive. But if the receiver is not able to comprehend theimpact of these words, or if they sound ‘Greek’ or ‘Latin’ tohim, the entire exercise proves futile. This problem couldarise in the interpretation of the words or overall meaningof the message It is also related to the understanding of theintention behind a particular statement. For the receiver, e.g.,the sanctity associated with the word “white” might beviolated when the receiver uses it in a careless fashion.The idiosyncrasies of the receiver should be well understoodby the sender if he does not wish these barriers to crop up atthe time of communication. The look on the face of thelistener should be sufficient to warn the sender that he hasoverstepped his limits or he has been misunderstood.

4. Over/ Under CommunicationThe quantum of communication should be just right.Neither should there be excess information nor should it betoo scanty. Excess information may confuse the receiver as hehas to figure out the exact import of the message, and scantyinformation would make him grope for the actual intent ofthe message .The sender should ,as far as possible try to getthe profile of the receiver so that at the time ofcommunication he knows how much material is needed andhow much can be done away with. Suppose he starts withsome information that the receiver already possesses, thelatter might lose interestas it is merely repetition of what healready knows . So b the time he arrives at the core of hematter , he had already lost the attention of the receiver.

5. ‘I’ -Attitude.Imagine a piece of communication that begins and endswith the pronoun “I”. How tedious it is going to be for thelistener to sit through the entire piece of interaction. If thesender starts every sentence with “I”, it gradually leads towhat is referred to as the I-syndrome. He would not bereceptive to changes, if suggested by the receiver; as such,changes would go against his personal formulation ofcertain views.

6. Prejudices.Starting any piece of communication with a bias or know-it-all attitude can prove to be quite detrimental to the growthof communication process. Though it is easier said thandone, still, when communication commences, all sorts ofprejudices should be done away with, and the mind shouldbe free of bias. This would enable the sender to formulatehis message, Mind, free of keeping only the receiver and hisneeds in mind. Thoughts like “Last time he said this...” or“Last time he did this...” or “He belongs to this group...”can totally warp the formulation of the message. This barriercan also be extended to the receiver. If the respondent startswith prejudices in mind, he too would be unable to listen tothe intent of the message. His understanding of themessage is going to be warped. The messages are going to beunderstood in relation to the prejudices that a receiverharbors against the sender.

Exhibit 11.3 Sender-oriented Barriers

Participant Barrier Causative factors Remedies

Sender/Encoder/ Speaker

1. Loss in Impact

Badly expressed message

Think prior to speaking

2. Ineffective grasp of message

Loss in transmiSSion

Remove physical noise

3. Misunderstood statements

Semantic problem

Use simple language

4. Groping for the right message

Over/Under communication

Make the quantum of communication just right

5. Lack of collaborative effort

"I-attitude" Minimise usage of "I"

6. Biased communication Prejudices

Formulate messages with an open mind

Rules for Overcoming Sender - OrientedBarriers.These barriers are not insurmountable. Care and constantpractice on the part of the sender can remove these barriers.Some of the rules for overcoming sender-oriented barriers areas follows:1. Plan and clarify ideas.

Ideas should be carefully formulated/thought out beforebeginning any kind of communication. This can be done byfollowing few steps. Primary among them is to test thinkingby communicating with peers and colleagues. It is said thattwo minds are always better than one. Ideas, when discussedaloud with another person, necessarily take on a shape andform. Errors of logic, if any, get sorted out. In this processthe concepts of others can also be collated and incorporatedto make the communication richer and more fruitful. Asthese steps require preplanning and extra time, the sendershould be highly motivated. Unless he is sufficientlymotivated, he will not spend extra hours in planning themessage and clarifying it by facilitating discussions with othermembers in the organization.

2. Create a climate of trust and confidence.In order to win the trust and confidence of the receiver, thesender has to put in extra effort through which he is able towin the trust and confidence of the recipient. This is what wenormally refer to as establishing sender credibility. If thereceiver is convinced that the sender has his best interests atheart, he would be willing to pay attention to all that is beingsaid and try to grasp the import of the message in themanner in which it is intended.

3. Time your message carefully.Different occasions and different hours necessitate a changein the encoding of the message. The sender has to be carefulof the time and the place he makes his statements. As allcommunication is situation bound, a statement made at an


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incorrect moment, or a wrong place can stimulate anundesired response. The most prudent step is to measurethe import of the message in relation to the situation andthen impart it.

4. Reinforce words with action.Whatever statements are made should be reinforced byaction on the part of the sender. The receiver should not feelthat there are two codes at play, one for transmittal and theother for action. If there is harmony between the two, thedecoder is mentally at peace, for his grasp is more accurateand thorough.

5. Communicate efficiently.The sender can only ascertain whether communication hasbeen effective when he confirms with feedback. The receiveron his part is also wary as he knows that he would berequested for feedback. Soliciting and receiving feedback is thesimplest and the surest way of removing any barriers thatmight crop up in the course of communication as a result ofeither over communication or a semantic problem.Once all barriers to communication have been overcome,communication, it is said has been meaningful andpurposeful.

Receiver-Oriented BarriersReceiver can also have some barriers in the course of theinteraction. Although his role in the initial phase is passive, hebecomes active when he starts assimilating and absorbing theinformation. He is equally to blame if the situation goes awryand communication comes to a stop, or there is miscommuni-cation. Some of the barriers emanating from the side of thereceiver are as follows:1. Poor retention.

Retention is extremely important during interaction. If thereceiver has poor retention capability, he would probably getlost in the course of the proceedings. There would beno connection between what was said initially and what isbeing said now. He might counter statements instead ofseeking clarifications that might lead to clamping on the partof the sender. If the decoder feels that his retentioncapacities are not good, a judicious strategy for him would beto jot down points. It does not portray him in a poor light.On the contrary, it shows how conscientious he is to get themessage right.

2. Inattentive listening.The mind has its own way of functioning. It is very difficultto exercise control over ones mind. Listening is more of anexercise in controlling the mind and exercising it to assimilatemessages. The errors in listening arise primarily because thereceiver is either not interested in what is being said, or hasother things to concentrate on. The art of listening is anexercise in concentration.

3. Tendency to evaluate.Being judgmental and evaluative are both the starting pointsfor miscommunication. Remember, one mind cannotperform two activities at the same time. If it is evaluating,listening cannot take place. Evaluation should always be a

sequel to the listening process. It cannot be donesimultaneously with listening. The minute sender opens hismouth, if the listener starts mentally pronouncingjudgments concerning his style or content, he has actuallymissed out on a major part of what has been said. Hisresponses naturally are then going to be incorrect or exposehis misunderstanding.

4. Interests and attitudes.“I am not interested in what you are saying” or “My interestlies in other areas”. Starting any piece of communicationwith this kind of indifference can thwart any attempts atcommunication. Fixed notions of this kind should bedispensed with. It is not possible to be interested in all thatis being said. But to start any communication with thisnotion is hazardous.

5. Conflicting information.Dichotomy in the information that the receiver possessesand that which is being transmitted can create confusion andresult in miscommunication. Conflict between the existinginformation and fresh one results in elimination of the latterunless and until the receiver is cautious and verifies with thesender the reliability and validity of the message. The sendershould convince the receiver that whatever is now being saidis correct and relevant to further proceedings.

6. Differing status and position.Position in the organizational hierarchy is no criterion todetermine the strength of ideas and issues. Rejecting theproposal of a subordinate or harboring a misconception thata junior cannot come upwith a “eureka” concept is not right. In fact, many companieshave started encouraging youngsters to come up with ideas/solutions to a particular problem. These ideas are thendiscussed among the senior managers and their validity isascertained keeping the workings and the constraints of thecompany in mind. The basic purpose of this upwardtraversing of ideas is that fresh and innovative minds cancome up with unique solutions. If an individual has beenworking in a particular company for some years, it is naturalthat his mind gets conditioned in a particular manner.Challenging newcomers to innovate,as a part of companypolicy takes care of ego problems that may arise if this is nota accepted norm.

7. Resistance to change.Fixed ideas, coupled with an unwillingness to change ordiscuss, hampers listening and results in miscommunication.Novae concepts that require discussion before they can reallymaterialize, if rebuked, fall flat. The onus lies directly on thereceiver who is unreceptive and unwilling to change. Peoplewith dogmatic opinions and views prove to be very poorcommunicators and erect maximum number of barriers.

8. Refutations and arguments.Refutations and arguments are negative in nature. Trying tocommunicate with the sender on the premise thatrefutations and arguments can yield fruitful results wouldprove to be futile.Communication is a process in which the


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sender and the healthyreceiver are at the same level. Theminute refutations or discussions arguments begin, there is ashift in balance between the two participants, after which thereceiver moves to a conceived higher position and the senderremains at the same level. In case there are somecontradictions that need to be resolved, discussion is theright way to approach. Listening to the views of the other,trying to understand or at least showing that there has beenunderstanding, appreciating and, finally, positing own viewsshould be the sequence to be followed. The strategy adoptedshould not make the sender feel small or slighted.

Exhibit 11.4 Receiver-oriented Barriers

Participant Barrier Causative factors

Remedies

Receiver! Decoder!

1. Dichotomy in reception and comprehension

Poor retention Jot down points

Listener 2. Partial grasp of topic

Inattentive listening

Keep the mind open

3. Distancing from the speaker

Tendency to evaluate

Delay evaluation

4. Lack of interest

Differences in nterests and attitudes

Find an area of interest

5. Mental turbulence

Conflicting information

Check reliability and validity

6. Superior attitude

Differing status/Position Self-experience

Listen to ideas

7. Mental block Resistance to change

Be open to changes

8. Lack of provision of correct feedback

Refutations and arguments

Enter into healthy discussions

Article

A Strategic Focus on Face-to-face CommunicationBy Jim ShafferSuperior communication management should help improveorganizational performance. Its job is to focus people on what’srequired to win and build an environment that gives them theinformation needed to improve performance. It should do itsjob as effectively and efficiently as possible. Three factors havereinvented the way we must manage communication: technol-ogy, increased global competition and the emerging partnershipbetween an organization and its members.Technology hasreplaced layers of management that frequently blocked commu-nication back in the days when the communication process wasthought to be a hierarchic, cascading, up and down process.

Technology now allows anyone with E-mail to move informa-tion throughout the organization, posing questions orsuggesting new product ideas to any individual, regardless oftheir location or status.Increased competition has forced us to look for ways to doeverything exponentially better, faster and at less cost. It’s causedus to challenge all the rules, processes, policies, programs andstructures. Self-direction, virtual offices, spiderweb organiza-tional structures and telecommuting has forced manyorganizations to adopt more efficient and effective ways ofmoving information among people who need that it. A newpartnership has evolved from a recognition that assets such ascapital, raw materials and technology are inert until people dosomething with them. Those firms that can get the right peopledoing the right things at the right time with precious finiteassets will be tomorrow’s winners. Communication in itsbroadest form is a critical enabler that can engage people andunlock the discretionary effort that’s needed to win. Organiza-tions that understand these factors and managecommunications well have adopted or are adopting thefollowing two best practices.1. Using a concept commonly called open book

leadership, they’re creating businesses of businesspeople where everyone thinks and acts like a businessowner.In these organizations, often considered the model ofcommunication management, everyone knows how theenterprise makes money and how to track businessperformance. Everyone knows that a large part of the job isto move the numbers in the right direction. The incomestatement, cash flow statement and balance sheet are theprimary communication media. Everyone works to managethese three statements prospectively. (For instance, if avariance in material usage is projected on next month’sincome statement, employees who can influence materialusage work to avoid the variance. This effort may involvefrontline employees; it may involve others. Focusingcommunication primarily on frontline people at theexclusion of others could too often circumvent people whohave valuable contributions to improving the organization’sfinancial health.

2. They’re seeking faster, more focused ways to getrelevant information into the hands of those who canmost influence business performance.These businesses understand that some organizationcapabilities or processes drive the business more than others.In a world of finite resources, it’s often strategically efficientto focus on these needed-to-win capabilities or successdrivers. For instance, if an electric power company weredeficient in a needed-to-win capability such as creatingstrategic partnerships, it should direct its attention ateliminating this deficiency. This may or may not involvefrontline employees but would address a major competitiveissue.

If a retail store were deficient in a core driver such as increasingin-store traffic, it would want to fucus on this activities thatwould increase in-store traffic. This might include merchandis-


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ing, advertising, perceived product quality, atmosphere, retailskills, leadership skills and a host of other activities that couldincrease in-store traffic. This probably would involve frontlinepeople, but not to the exclusion of others.Essentially, best practice companies focus communicationmanagement where it has maximum strategic impact. Thisrequires involving people who bring a mix of competenciesfrom various places within the organization. In these organiza-tions, ‘frontline’ isn’t part of the lexicon. ‘Frontline’ is ahierarchic remnant.In the new model, everyone is critical to the value chain.Everyone is part of the business. Everyone is engaged in apartnership.This emerging model represents a fundamental shift in the waywe think about our organizations and how we share informa-tion. Part of this shift renders the historical frontline employee/supervisor discussion obsolete. In this new model, the way wemove information should be situational. Sure, face-to-face maybe ideal. It can capture the essence of human interaction betterthan E-mail, fax, courier services, video or teleconference. But,try telling someone at Hewlett-Packard in Palo Alto, Californiathat she should communicate cash flow reports face-to-face tosomeone in the Asia-Pacific office and she’d be justified ingiving us a quick lesson in business economics and the need forspeed in today’s competitive environment. Lionize face-to-faceas an ideal, but be prepared to seek better ways to moveinformation among telecommuters who have child careobligations. Face-to-face may have significant advantages, butperhaps not at the expense of dragging a world-wide sales forceto London for a monthly sales meeting.Organizations are changing dramatically. Work gets donedifferently. Structures are fluid. Businesses will continue tometamorphose as customers’ needs and members’ needschange.Communication practitioners should be hard at work lookingfor new ways to help adapt to a new business environment.They should be looking for better ways to engage everyone inachieving increasingly higher levels of performance throughimproving information sharing. Doing this effectively willrequire a mind set change and a fresh view of the needs of theemerging organization. It will mean letting go of the past whenit doesn’t serve today’s business needs - however painful lettinggo might be.

BiographyJim Shaffer, is one of the world’s leading thought leaders andconsultants in generating employee commitment to achievingimproved organizational performance. His new book TheLeadership Solution has been hailed by CEOs as a “practicalcommon sense look at how leaders use communication tosolve business problems.” Jim pioneered performance-basedcommunication management, the process for improving criticalperformance indicators such as quality, service, speed, costs,innovation or productivity by improving the way businessesmanage communication. He leads the JimShaffer

Generally, people retain

• 10% of what they READ• 20% of what they HEAR• 30% of what they SEE• 50% of what they SEE and HEAR• 70% of what they SAY• 90% of what they SAY and DO

Business Communication Goals

• Receiver Understanding• Receiver Response• Favorable Relationship• Organizational Goodwill

Sender is responsible for these goals.


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Say what you are going to say, say it, then say what you have just said.

Parts of a presentation

• Introduction• Body• Conclusion• Questions

Guidelines for Effective Introductions

• Always prepare your opening• Tell people what the presentation is about• Keep the opening short and simple• Only use anecdotes that are relevant• Use caution with personal experiences• Stay away from inappropriate humor

Guidelines for Effective Closings

• Always prepare a closing• Always restate the main point, and, perhaps,

the key supporting points• Say clearly what happens next• If appropriate, make a call to action• Thank the audience

Communication Barriers/Noise

• Word choice– too difficult, too technical, etc.– overused words such as, “good”, “excellent

value”, etc.• Connotations VS Denotations

– Examples sender denotes rec. connotes– “Cheap” inexpensive poorly made– “Flexible” offers choice no standard– “Compromise” adjust give in


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Communication Barriers/Noise• Inferences • Pace of the delivery

– Speaking too fast or too slow

• Poor grammar, spelling, etc.• Appearance and performance of the presenter• Use of gender bias terms or stereotypical

terms• Positive VS Negative terms

– We have a full year warranty. VS Warranty is only for the first year.

Handouts

• When to use and distribute handouts– @ beginning if audience needs them during

presentation– during presentation, have someone else hand

them out– at end if possible

• Running handouts two, three or six to a page

10 common presentation mistakes (and suggestions for avoiding them)

• #1 Accepting an inappropriate invitation– personally decline, retain opportunity for

company

• #2 Neglecting to research the audience– take the time to find out who you are talking to

What you should know about your audience

• How large is the audience?• What are the audience members’ relevant

characteristics?• Why are people attending?• What are the audience’s specific needs,

interests, and concerns?• How much do people already know?• How are people likely to respond to your

message?


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• #3 Procrastinating, then punting.– Do not try to organize your talk and create your

slides simultaneously.

• #4 Getting a late start.– Always plan to arrive early for your

presentation.


• #5 Assuming all projectors are the same.– Be sure you know the equipment or bring your

own.

• #6 Failing to heed Murphy’s Law– Always assume the equipment will NOT work.


• #7 Backing up to the wrong media– Check your back-up media before leaving for your

presentation.

• #8 Telling tasteless or offensive jokes– A greater awareness of your audience can determine if

they will find your sense of humor funny or offensive.


• #9 Relying on the World Wide Web live Web connection– Create a copy on your hard drive.

• #10 Having too little to say– Be prepared!


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• Always use a title slide. Put it up about five minutes before your presentation begins.

• The presentation should set the tone of the message. – If you are sharing good news, your presentation

can use a lot of fun art, audio and video. If you have bad news, stick to the points.

Tips on PowerPoint Presentations

• Sales are down!

• We are going to have to down size.

Sample Slide


• Keep the presentation look simple. You don’t want to distract from the content of the slide/presentation.

• Keep a consistent look from slide to slide.• Create high contrast between the

background and the text.• Consider creating a company specific

background for sales presentations.


• Clip art should match your audience. • Art should match a key word or phase in the

slide.• When using art, keep the images balanced

on the page. Use the rule of thirds.• Use art judiciously.• All of the rules apply to sound (even more

so!).


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• One of the significant advantages of using presentation software packages is that you have access to color. Use it wisely and judiciously.– Keep it simple and consistent.– Use no more than five colors for charts or graphs.– Choose no more than two colors for text.– Be careful with the use of red because the eye will

naturally go there first.


• One of the significant advantages of using presentation software packages is that you have access to color. Use it wisely and judiciously.(cont)– Use complimentary colors together.– Never use red and green together unless you want

your audience to think of Christmas!


• Limit your bullet points to three or four items.

• Try to have no more than 24 words on any one slide.

• Be careful when using abbreviations, acronyms, and special phases on your slides. Explain them quickly or you lose your audience.


• Fonts are like colors, just because you have a lot of them to choose from you don’t have to use them all! No more than two or three per slide.

• Be consistent from slide to slide.• Don’t overdo the use of italics, bolding and

shadows and like e-mail, do NOT use all caps.



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• It is important to explain how to read your chart or graph as soon as you put it on the screen.

• Do not say anything important within ten seconds of putting up a chart. People won’t be listening, they’re too busy figuring out the chart.



• Have a final slide that lets the audience know that the presentation is over.


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LESSON 10: LISTENING SKILLS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand:

1. How important listening is in oral communication

2. Common faults we make while listening

3. How we can improve our listening skill

4. Different approaches to listening

Students, today, lets learn about the importance and listening .Do you think you are a good listener? I do hear a loud Yesfrom you all!!! At the end of the lesson we have some exerciseto evaluate your listening skills.

Introduction“It’s a pity that Raman didn’t receive the promotion he wanted,but he has one big fault: he doesn’t know how to listen.” Thisremark was made by a department head in a manufacturingfirm. Listening is a skill, an art necessary for success in life andwork.Do you know that we devote about 40 to 45 per cent of ourworking hours to listening? And do you know that, if you havenot taken steps to improve this skill, you listen at only 25 percent efficiency?For a long time most persons assumed that listening was anatural trait, but practically, not all people are good listeners.Evidence indicates that many persons do not know how tolisten - that listening is a skill that must be developed. InShakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Marc Antony realizes that personsdon’t listen readily, for he begins his famous oration by saying,“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”As you will learn in the following pages, listening effectively ishard work. It involves far more than sitting passively andabsorbing others’ words. It occurs far more frequently thanspeaking, reading, or writing and is just as demanding andimportant.

What Listening is Johnson defines listening as “the ability to understand andrespond effec-tively to”Oral communication.”Thus, we can state at the outset that hearing is not listening.Listening requires more than hearing; it requires understandingof the communication received. Davis states it this way:“Hearing is with the ears, but listening is with the mind.”

Consider the Following Examples“I told him we were meeting this Tuesday, not next Tuesday.Now we have to reschedule the meeting. It will cost us a week’stime and we will not be able to meet the deadline.”He said he was listening, but he’d obviously made up his mindbefore I started. He didn’t give me a minute to talk before hestarted interrupting.”

Note that in both the cases, the listener has not listened to theactual message. In the first case, listener has taken the messagewithout giving proper attention to understand it, and in thesecond case, the listener has a blocked mind to listen anythingother than his own notions. Situations like this are disturbinglycommon in business. They show that listening failures canprove to be very costly. Because of listening mistakes, lettershave to be retyped, appointments rescheduled, shipments re-routed, productivity is affected and profits suffer. Thus poorlistening habits can keep an organization from functioningproperly.Industrial firms have recognized the importance of the listeningskill to manag-ers for some time. Dr. Earl Planty, in his role asexecutive counselor at Johnson and Johnson, has said: “By farthe most effective method by which executives can tap ideas ofsubordinates is sympathetic listening in the many day-to-dayinformal contacts within and outside the work place. There isno system that will do the job in an easier manner. Nothing canequal an executive’s willingness to listen.”The benefits of applied listening skills are impressive. Goodlisteners make a company a more effective organization. Theyhave better rapport with others, they get more out of meetingsand are more effective in conferences, and they are better atunderstanding the needs of others.

Common Faults of ListeningResearch studies shows that our listening efficiency is no betterthan 25 to 30 per cent. That means the considerable informa-tion is lost in the listening process. Why? Some reasons follow-1. Prejudice against the speaker – At times we have conflict

in our mind as to the speaker. Whatever he speaks seems tobe colored and we practically don’t listen what he says.

2. Rehearsing – Your whole attention is on designing andpreparing your next comment. You look interested, butyour mind is going a mile a minute because you arethinking about what to say next. Some people rehearsewhole chains of responses: I’ll say, then he’ll say, and so on.

3. Judging negatively – Labeling people can be extremelylimiting. If you prejudge somebody as incompetent oruninformed, you don’t pay much attention to what thatperson says. A basic rule of listening is that judgmentsshould only be made after you have heard and evaluated thecontent of the message.

4. Identifying – When using this block, you take everythingpeople tell you and refer it back to your own experience.They want to tell you about a toothache, but that remindsyou of your oral surgery for receding gums. You launchinto your story before they can finish theirs.


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5. Advising – You are the great problem solver. You don’thave to hear more than a few sentences before you beginsearching for the right advice. However, while you arecoming up with suggestions and convincing someone tojust try it, you may miss what is most important.

6. Sparring – This block has you arguing and debating withpeople who never feel heard because you are so quick todisagree. In fact, your main focus is on finding things todisagree with.

7. Being Right – Being right means you will go to greatlengths (twist the facts, start shouting, make excuses oraccusations, call up past sins) to -avoid being wrong. Youcan’t listen to criticism, you can’t be corrected, and you can’ttake suggestions to change.

8. Derailing – This listening block involves suddenlychanging the subject. You derail the train of conversationwhen you get uncomfortable or bored with a topic. Anotherway of derailing is by joking.

9. Placating – Right. . . Absolutely. . . I know. . . Of courseyou are. . .Incredible ... Really? You want to be nice,pleasant, supportive. You want people to like you. So youagree with everything.

10. Dreaming – When we dream, we pretend to listen butreally tune the other person out while we drift about in ourinterior fantasies. Instead of disciplining ourselves to trulyconcentrate on the input, we turn the channel to a moreentertaining subject.

11. Thinking speed – Most of us speak between 60 to 180words per minute, and people have capacity to think at therate of 500 to 800 words per Minute. The difference leavesus with the great deal of mental spare time. While it ispossible to use this time to explore the speaker’s ideas, wemost often let our mind wander to other matters - from theunfinished business just mentioned to romantic fantasies.

12. Premature evaluation – It often happens that weinterrupt the speakers before they complete their thought,or finish their sentence, or state their conclusions. Directly asa result of our rapid thinking speed, we race ahead of whatwe feel is the conclusion. We anticipate. We arrive at theconcluding thought quickly although often that is quitedifferent from what the speaker intended.

13. Semantic stereotypes – As certain kind of people botherus, so too do certain words. When these words are repeatedtime and again, they cause annoyance in the mind andeffective listening is impaired.

14. Delivery – A monotonous delivery by the speaker can putlisteners to sleep or cause them to loose interest.

15. External distractions – The entire physical environmenteffects the listen-ing. Among the negative factors are noisyfans, poor or glaring lights, distracting background music,overheated or cold rooms, a conversation going on nearby,and so on.

How to Improve Listening SkillThe ability to listen more effectively may be acquired throughdiscipline and practice. As a listener you must be physically

relaxed and mentally alert to receive and understand themessage. Effective listening requires sustained concentration(regardless of the length of the message), attention to the mainideas presented, note-taking (if the conditions are appropriate),and no emotional blocks to the message by the listener. Youcannot listen passively and expect to retain the message. If youwant to be an effective listener, you must give the communica-tor of the message sufficient attention and make an effort tounderstand his viewpoint. Here are some practical suggestionsfor effective listening, which, if followed, can appreciablyincrease the effectiveness of this communicative skill.1. Realize that listening is hard work – You must appreciate

the art of listening, and make conscious effort to listenothers.

2. Prepare to listen – To receive the message clearly, thereceiver must have the correct mental attitude. In your dailycommunications, establish a permissive environment foreach communicator. .

3. Have positive attitude – If you have to do it, do it with apositive attitude.

4. Resist distractions – Tune out internal and externaldistractions by facing and maintaining contact with thespeaker. If you experience some negative environmentfactors, you can sometimes move to another loca-tion in theroom. Good listeners adjust quickly to any kind ofabnormal.

5. Listen to understand, not refute -Respect the viewpointof those you disagree with. Try to understand the pointsthey emphasize and why they have such feelings (training,background, etc.). Don’t allow your personal biases andattitudes to influence your listening to the message.

6. Keep an open mind – A good listener doesn’t feelthreatened or insulted, or need to resist messages thatcontradict his beliefs, attitudes, ideas, or personal values. Tryto identify and rationalize the words or phrases mostupsetting to your means.

7. Find an area of interest – Good listeners are interestedand attentive. They find ways to make the message relevantto themselves and/ or their jobs. Make your listeningefficient by asking yourself ‘what is he saying that I can use?Does he have any worthwhile ideas? Is he conveying anyworkable approaches or solutions? G. K Chesterton oncesaid, There is no such-thing as an uninteresting subject;there are only uninteresting people.

8. Concentrate on the context – Search out main ideas.Construct a mental outline of where speaker is going. Listenfor transition and progression of ideas. If need be, youmay reinforce the mental outline by physically taking downthe notes.

9. Capitalize on thought – speed – Most of us think atabout four times faster than the communicator speaks. It isalmost impossible to slow down our thinking speed. Whatdo you do with the excess thinking time while someone isspeaking? The good listener uses thought-speed toadvantage by applying spare thinking time to what is beingsaid. Your greatest handicap may be not capitalizing on


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thought-speed. Through listening training, it can beconverted into your greatest asset.

10. Combine verbal delivery with nonverbal cues – F. S.Pearls, author of Gestalt Theory Vibration, said “Don’tlisten to the words_ just listen to what the voice tells you,what the movements tell you, what the posture tells youwhat the image tells you”.

11. Show some empathy – Empathy means placing yourself inthe shoes of speaker and try understand his viewpoint fromthere. If we show some empathy, we create a climate thatencourages others to communicate honestly and openly.Therefore, try to see the communicator’s point of view.

12. Hold your fire – Be patient. Don’t interrupt. Don’tbecome over-stimulated, too excited, or excited too soon,by what the speaker says. Be sure you understand what thespeaker means; that is, withhold your evaluation until yourcomprehension is complete. Mentally arguing with acommuni-cator is one of the principal reasons so littlelistening takes place in some discussions. Don’t argue. Ifyou win, you lose.

13. Listen critically and delay judgment – Good listenersdelay making a judgment about the communicator’spersonality, the principal points of the message, and theresponse. Ask questions and listen critically to the answers.Then, at the appropriate time, judgment can be passed in anenlightened manner.

Approaches to ListeningJust as a carpenter or a chef uses different tools to tackle a job,listeners can take advantage of several skills for listening andresponding to messages at work. Different approaches tolistening are discussed below-:Passive listening - Sometimes the best approach to listening isto stay out of the way and encourage the speaker to keep going:“Uh-huh”, “really”, “Tell me more”, and so on. Non-verbalcues like eye contact, attentive posture, and appropriate facialexpressions are an important part of the passive listening.Generally this approach is used when there is one to oneconversation or the speaker is giving a formal presentation.Questioning - Sincere questions are genuine request forinformation: “when did you find that fuel was leaking from thebarrel?”, “When did you inform your manager?”, and the like.These questions may be used to gather facts and details, clarifymeanings, and encourage a speaker to elaborate.Paraphrasing - Paraphrasing occurs when a listener restate thespeaker’s ideas in his own words in order to ensure that he hasunderstood them correctly. This is often preceded by phrasessuch as, “Let me make sure I understand what you are say-ing...”, “or “in other words you are saying...” and the like. Weoften think that we understand other person but we may bewrong at times. Paraphrasing is a practical technique that canhighlight misunderstandings.“It is the recipient who communicates. The so calledcommunica-tor, the person who emits the communication,does not communi-cate. He utters. Unless there is someonewho hears, there is no. communication. There is only noise”.Peter Drucker

Points to ponderHere are some hints and tips to make you a better listener:1. Listen carefully to what the speaker says. Pick out the key

words in any information. It’s easier to remember one ortwo important words than a whole sentence.If you’re taking a message for someone it’s easier to writedown key words to help you remember the message than itis to try to write everything out. You can add to yourmessage after you’ve finished listening to the information.

2. Give each new stage in a set of instructions a number, itwill help you remember them later.

3. Repeat the instructions or the information you’ve beengiven back to the person who gave them to you. If you’vegot anything wrong the person will correct you and therepetition will help you to remember.

4. Ask questions about anything that you are unsure of, orreplay the recorded message.

5. Go through the complete sequence in your mind so that itis clear. If you’re taking a message for someone elseyou might want to rewrite it using complete sentencesso that it will make sense to the reader.

6. If you are with someone you need to do some extra thingswhile you are listening, because you are part of a two-wayprocess and you want to encourage the other person.Look interested in what they are sayingMaintain eye contactIf the person is giving you directions, pay attention to thedirection they are pointing. Gesture can be very importantand can often make the speaker’s meaning much clearer.


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The Secrets to Listening Well“Listening is as powerful a means of communication andinfluence as to talk well.” - John MarshallThere must be a lot of frustrated people out there, a lot ofpeople who feel like they aren’t listened to, a lot of peoplethrowing up their arms and saying, “You just don’t get it, doyou?”There seems to be a growing realization of the importance oflistening and communication skills in business. After all, lack ofattention and respectful listening can be costly - leading tomistakes, poor service, misaligned goals, wasted time and lackof teamwork.You can’t sell unless you understand your customer’s problem;you can’t manage unless you understand your employee’smotivation; and you can’t gain team consensus unless youunderstand each team member’s feelings about the issue athand. In all of these cases, you must listen to others.However, listening is less important than how you listen. Bylistening in a way that demonstrates understanding and respect,you cause rapport to develop, and that is the true foundationfrom which you can sell, manage or influence others.”I like to listen. I have learned a great deal from listeningcarefully. Most people never listen.” - Ernest HemingwayFollowing are some keys to listening well:• Give 100% Attention: Prove you care by suspending all other

activities.• Respond: Responses can be both verbal and nonverbal

(nods, expressing interest) but must prove you received themessage, and more importantly, prove it had an impact onyou. Speak at approximately the same energy level as theother person...then they’ll know they really got through anddon’t have to keep repeating.

• Prove understanding: To say “I understand” is not enough.People need some sort of evidence or proof ofunderstanding. Prove your understanding by occasionallyrestating the gist of their idea or by asking a question, whichproves you, know the main idea. The important point is notto repeat what they’ve said to prove you were listening, butto prove you understand. The difference in these twointentions transmits remarkably different messages whenyou are communicating.

• Prove respect: Prove you take other views seriously. Itseldom helps to tell people, “I appreciate your position” or

“I know how you feel.” You have to prove it by beingwilling to communicate with others at their level ofunderstanding and attitude. We do this naturally byadjusting our tone of vice, rate of speech and choice ofwords to show that we are trying to imagine being wherethey are at the moment.

Listening to and acknowledging other people may seemdeceptively simple, but doing it well, particularly when disagree-ments arise, takes true talent. As with any skill, listening welltakes plenty of practice.”I think one lesson I have learned is that there is no substitutefor paying attention.” - Diane SawyerOnly about 25 percent of listeners grasp the central ideas incommunications. To improve listening skills, consider thefollowing:

Poor Listener Effective Listener

tends to "wool-gather" with slow speakers

thinks and mentally summarizes, weighs the evidence, listens between the lines to tones of voice and evidence

subject is dry so tunes out speaker

finds what's in it for me

distracted easily fights distractions, sees past bad communication habits, knows how to concentrate

takes intensive notes, but the more notes taken, the less value; has only one way to take notes

has 2-3 ways to take notes and organize important information

is overstimulated, tends to seek and enter into arguments

doesn't judge until comprehension is complete

inexperienced in listening to difficult material; has usually sought light, recreational materials

uses "heavier" materials to regularly exercise the mind

lets deaf spots or blind words catch his or her attention

interpret color words, and doesn't get hung up on them

shows no energy output holds eye contact and helps speaker along by showing an active body state

judges delivery -- tunes out judges content, skips over delivery errors

listens for facts listens for central ideas

Exercise 1Choose one of the following topics and discuss it in groups of4. Prepare a statement in which you list the arguments for andagainst. To begin the discussion, each person in the group musttake a particular stance:• Comment on the positive elements of the proposal• Suggest problems with implementing the proposal• Suggest the people who will need to be involved


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• Suggest practical/organizational issues which will need to bedealt with.

The group should also come to a consensus on how to proceedwith the proposal you are discussing. Note that consensusmeans that you come to a group view. It is different from a votein which the majority rules.Nominate someone to lead the group, someone to take notesand someone to act as a ‘critical friend’. Keep a personal recordof the roles you play, so that you have an opportunity to takedifferent roles throughout the semester.

The Leader of the Group Should1. Encourage all people to contribute — make sure that

everyone has a turn at speaking2. Ensure that the discussion sticks to the topic

The Note Taker Should1. Record the names of group members2. Keep notes of the main points raised3. Record the group’s point of view (arrived at by consensus)4. Report back to the class

The Critical Friend Should1. Observe the way the group functions (including body

language).2. Report on how each member participated, including whether

they contributed and whether they allowed or encouragedothers to contribute.

Scenario 1

You are concerned about water usage in your school. Youwould like to put in a tank to use rainwater for drinkingpurposes.

Scenario 2

You would like to organize an overseas tour of students to acountry which speaks the language you are studying (e.g. Italy,France, China, Indonesia, Japan, Germany)

Scenario 3

You are concerned about the amount of litter in your school orlocal area. You would like to improve student attitudes towardsrecycling.

Listening to OthersReflect on the group discussion that you have been involved inwhile completing the above exercises. Did everyone speak forabout the same length of time? How easily was consensusachieved? How often did the group stray from the topic (e.g. bytalking about personal matters). Did anyone ask questions ofother group members?Consider the characteristics of listeners. Who are people whomyou consider to be good or bad listeners? What is it about themthat leads you to make this judgment?

A Good Listener May1. Work co-operatively and concentrate.2. Be sympathetic to the speaker (e.g. concerned about their

welfare)

3. Picks up cues, which ask for a particular response. Forexample:What do you think?’

4. Ask questions about something that has been said (to clarifyor expand)I don’t understand the point about…Did you consider trying to…Does that mean it won’t work?or in informal conversationWhat did he say to that?What did you wear?What are you going to say to them?

5. Use eye contact to show concentration on the person6. Using facial expressions (smiles or frowns, nods or shakes

of the head) to show interest or concentration7. Use confirming words and phrases

Yes.Really?Go On!You don’t say!Oh no!

8. Uses the person’s name when speaking to them9. Allow the speaker to make a point or tell a story without

interruption10.Encourage others to take a turn, and to respond when

someone presents a different view during discussion

A Poor Listener May1. Not focus on the speaker (e.g. look around the room)2. Interrupt when another speaker is taking their turn, or before

the person has finished3. Talk about themselves only4. Maintain a blank face5. Show no interest in the topic or not understand the points

being made (e.g. lack background in the topic)6. Not ask questions about what has been said7. Aggressively disagree with the points being made (although

this may be because the listener is appalled by the ideas beingpresented!)

The Speaker’s BackgroundThe background or relationships of the speakers/listeners canalso have an impact. For example, suppose that you arelistening to someone put a point a view about race relations inAustralia. Discuss how your response might differ if the personputting the point of view is:• A friend• A member of your group in a discussion• Your employer• Your teacher• A politician invited as a guest speaker to your class• An aboriginal guest speaker invited to your class


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ContextThe place where the conversation is taking place is also signifi-cant. In particular, the level of formality can affect a listener’sresponse.

Body LanguageOur body language can send messages to others in a conversa-tion or discussion. In groups, consider the impact of thefollowing body language. Then draw a table like the one below.Use this table to record whether the actions are likely to help orhinder a discussion.It may be useful to ask group members to act out theseexamples so that you can more easily assess their impact.

Help Hinder Comment

Folding arms Suggests a ‘closed’ approach to the discussion. Puts a barrier between speaker and listener.

Nodding Suggests agreement with the speaker and encourages them to continue.

• Folding arms• Putting arms behind head• Frowning• Smiling• Nodding/shaking the head• Sneering• Fidgeting with hands or an object (e.g. a pen)• Scribbling• Rocking on the chair• Leaning forward• Leaning back• Looking around the room• Staring at the speaker• Maintaining occasional eye contact with the speaker .

Active Listening Skills

The Heart of Empathic Understanding

Reflecting

n Purpose¨To show that you understand how the person

feels.

n Action ¨Reflects the speaker’s basic feelings.

n Example:“You seem very upset.”


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Clarifying

n Purpose ¨ To help you clarify what is said.¨ To get more information.¨ To help the speaker see other points of view.

n Action¨ Ask questions.¨ Restate wrong interpretation to force the speaker to explain

further.n Example

¨ “When did this happen?”¨ “Do I have this right? You think he told you to give him the

pencil because he doesn’t like you?”

Encouraging

n Purpose¨ To convey interest.¨ To encourage the other person to keep talking.

n Action¨ Don’t agree or disagree.¨ Use neutral words.¨ Use varying voice intonations.

n Example ¨ “Can you tell me more…?”

Summarizing

n Purpose ¨ To review progress.¨ To pull together important ideas and facts.¨ To establish a basis for further discussion.

n Action ¨ Restate major ideas expressed, including feelings.

n Example ¨ “These seem to be the key ideas you’ve expressed…”

Restating

n Purpose ¨ To show you are listening and understanding what is

being said.¨ To help the speaker see other points of view.

n Action¨Restate basic ideas and facts.

n Example¨ “So you would like your friends to include you at

recess, is that right?”


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The Keys to Effective ListeningThe Keys to Effective ListeningThe Good ListenerThe Good ListenerThe Bad ListenerThe Bad ListenerKeys to Effective Keys to Effective

ListeningListeningStays with the speaker, mentally summarizes the speaker, weighs evidence, and listens between the lines

Tends to daydream1. Capitalize on thought speed

Listens for central or overall ideas

Listens for facts2. Listen for ideas

Listens for any useful information

Tunes out dry speakers or subjects

3. Find an area of interest

Assesses content by listening to entire message before making judgments

Tunes out dry monotone speakers

4. Judge content, not delivery

Withholds judgment until comprehension is complete

Gets too emotional or worked up by something said by the speaker and enters into an argument

5. Hold your fire

Sources: Derived from N Skinner, “Communication Skills,” Selling Power, July/August 1999, pp 32-34; and G Manning, K Curtis, and S McMillen, Building the Human Side of Work Community (Cincinnati, OH: Thomson Executive Press, 1996), pp 127-54.

Validating

n Purpose ¨To acknowledge the worthiness of the other person.

n Action¨Acknowledge the value of their issues and feelings.¨Show appreciation for their efforts and actions.

n Example¨ “I truly appreciate your willingness to resolve this

matter.”


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The Keys to Effective Listening The Keys to Effective Listening (continued)(continued)

The Good ListenerThe Good ListenerThe Bad ListenerThe Bad ListenerKeys to Effective Keys to Effective ListeningListening

Gives the speaker full attention

Does not expend energy on listening

6. Work at listening

Fights distractions and concentrates on the speaker

Is easily distracted7. Resist Distractions

Listens to both favorable and unfavorable information

Shuts our or denies unfavorable information

8. Hear what is said

Treats complex presentations as exercises for the mind

Resists listening to presentations of difficult subject manner

9. Challenge yourself

Takes notes as required and uses visual aids to enhance understanding of the presentation

Does not take notes or pay attention to visual aids

10. Use handouts, overheads, or other visual aids

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1 Lesson 11 – Non Verbal Communication

After completion of this lesson you will be able to:

• Understand the meaning and importance of non-verbal communication.

• Categories of Non verbal communication • Ways in interpreting the non verbal cues • Steps to improve non verbal communication

Students, this is the last lesson of Unit one and here we shall learn about nonverbal communications. The blank faces I see today is also a nonverbal communication wherein the class tells me how prepared they are for the lesson. Ok, lets proceed.

Why do we study nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal messages communicate emotions

As we know, it forms the bulk of our communication. Most of that communication is about emotional information, which in turn is a powerful motivator in human behavior. We base our feelings and emotional responses not so much upon what another person says, but upon what another person does.

Because of nonverbal communication, you cannot not communicate

The very attempt to mask one's communication communicates something in and of itself. If you are playing poker with someone who has been talking normally, but who suddenly stops talking and goes "stone-faced," that person has communicated something. It may be a very good hand, or a very bad hand, but at the least the poker player has communicated a desire to hide what is there. Long periods of silence at the supper table communicate as

clearly as any words that something may be wrong.

Nonverbal communication is strongly related to verbal communication

Nonverbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize, or regulate verbal messages. For instance, if someone asks us which way the restroom is, we may simply point down the hall. We may compliment someone's new haircut while our faces give away the real feeling of dismay we have. We may describe a fish we caught with a motion of our hands to emphasize the monster-like proportions. And most certainly we regulate the flow of conversation nonverbally by raising an index finger, nodding and leaning forward, raising eyebrows, and/or changing eye contact. Problems of studying nonverbal communication Studying nonverbal communication presents a whole range of challenges that are unique to its nature. They include:

Nonverbal cues can be ambiguous

No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and context, but by degree of intention, i.e., you may not be intending to communicate (in the absence of nerve disorders, people seldom talk out loud when they don't intend to). A random gesture may be assumed to have meaning when none at all was intended. Plus, some people who may feel emotion strongly nevertheless find that their bodies simply do not respond appropriately, i.e., someone who is feeling happy may not necessarily smile. Nonverbal cues are continuous This is practically related to the last point. It is possible to stop talking, but it is generally not possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a subject has changed, for instance, or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of analysis.

Nonverbal cues are multichannel

While watching someone's eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture. Everything is happening at once, and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously. This has both advantages and disadvantages. Because we interpret nonverbal cues subconsciously and in a "right-brained", holistic fashion, it can happen quickly and fairly accurately. However, because it is not conscious and more "right-brained" it is difficult to put one's finger on exactly why one got a certain impression from someone, or even to put it into "left-brained" wording.

Nonverbal cues are culture-bound

Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown when unhappy. A few other gestures seem to be universal. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected from any "essential meaning" than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one culture (like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another culture. Categories of nonverbal communications The major categories of nonverbal communications include the following:

personal space eye contact position posture paralanguage expression gesture touch locomotion pacing adornment context physiologic responses

Personal Space: This category refers to the distance which people feel comfortable approaching others or having others approach them. People from certain countries, such as parts of Latin America or the Middle East often feel comfortable standing closer to each other, while persons of Northern European descent tend to prefer a relatively greater distance. Different distances are also intuitively assigned for situations involving intimate relations, ordinary personal relationships (e.g., friends), social relations (e.g., co-workers or salespeople), or in public places (e.g., in parks, restaurants, or on the street.) Eye Contact: This rich dimension speaks volumes. The Spanish woman in the Nineteenth Century combined eye language with the aid of a fan to say what was not permissible to express explicitly. Eye contact modifies the meaning of other nonverbal behaviors. For example, people on elevators or crowds can adjust their sense of personal space if they agree to limit eye contact. What happens if this convention isn't followed? This issue of eye contact is another important aspect of nonverbal communication. Modern American business culture values a fair degree of eye contact in interpersonal relations, and looking away is sensed as avoidance or even deviousness. However, some cultures raise children to minimize eye contact, especially with authority figures, lest one be perceived as arrogant or "uppity." When cultures interact, this inhibition of gaze may be misinterpreted as "passive aggressive" or worse. Position: The position one takes vis-a-vis the other(s), along with the previous two categories of distance between people and angle of eye contact all are subsumed under a more general category of "proxemics" in the writings on nonverbal communications .

Posture: A person's bodily stance communicates a rich variety of messages. Consider the following postures and the emotional effect they seem to suggest:

slouching stiff slumped twisted (wary) cringing towering crouching angled torso legs spread pelvis tilt shoulders forward general tightness kneeling angle of head jaw thrust

Paralanguage: "Non-lexical" vocal communications may be considered a type of nonverbal communication, in its broadest sense, as it can suggest many emotional nuances. This category includes a number of sub-categories: Inflection (rising, falling, flat...) Pacing (rapid, slow, measured, changing...) Intensity (loud, soft, breathy,... ) Tone (nasal, operatic, growling, wheedling, whining...) Pitch (high, medium, low, changes...) Pauses (meaningful, disorganized, shy, hesitant...)] Facial Expression: The face is more highly developed as an organ of expression in humans than any other animal. Some of these become quite habitual, almost fixed into the chronic muscular structure of the face. For instance, in some parts of the South, the regional pattern of holding the jaw tight creates a slight bulge in the temples due to an overgrowth or "hypertrophy" of those jaw muscles that arise in that area. This creates a characteristic appearance. The squint of people who live a lot in the sun is another example. More transient expressions often reveal feelings that a person is not intending to communicate or even aware of. Here are just a few to warm you up:

pensive amused sad barely tolerant warning pouting anxious sexually attracted startled confused sleepy intoxicated

Gesture: There are many kinds of gestures:

clenching fist shaking a finger pointing

biting fingernails tugging at hair squirming

rubbing chin smoothing hair folding arms

raising eyebrows pursing lips narrowing eyes

scratching head looking away hands on hips

hands behind head rubbing nose rocking

sticking out tongue tugging earlobe waving

These, too, have many different meanings in different cultures, and what may be friendly in one country or region can be an insult in another . Touch: How one person touches another communicates a great deal of information: Is a grip gentle or firm, and does one hold the other person on the back of the upper arm, on the shoulder, or in the middle of the back. Is the gesture a push or a tug? Is the touch closer to a pat, a rub, or a grabbing? People have different areas of personal intimacy, and this refers not only to the sexual dimension, but also the dimension of self-control. Many adolescents are particularly sensitive to any touching that could be interpreted as patronizing or undue familiarity. Even the angle of one's holding another's hand might suggest a hurrying or coercive implicit attitude, or on the other hand, a respectful, gentle, permission-giving approach . Locomotion: The style of physical movement in space also communicates a great deal, as well as affecting the feelings of the person doing the moving

slither crawl totter walk stroll shuffle hurry run jog spring tiptoe march jump hop skip climb swing acrobatics swim slink

Pacing: This is the way an action is done.

jerky pressured nervous gradual graceful fatigued tense easy shaky deliberate furtive clumsy

A related variable is the time it takes to react to a stimulus, called "latency of response." Some people seem to react to questions, interact in conversations, or are slower or faster "on the uptake" than others. Adornment: Our communications are also affected by a variety of other variables, such as clothes, makeup, and accessories. These offer signals relating to context (e.g. formal vs. informal), status, and individuality. The ways people carry cigarettes, pipes, canes, or relate to their belts, suspenders, or glasses also suggests different semiotic meanings. (Semiotics is the science of the emotional or psychological impact of signs, appearances–not words–that's "semantics"-- but of how things look.) Context: While this category is not actually a mode of nonverbal communication, the setting up of a room or how one places oneself in that room is a powerfully suggestive action. Where one sits in the group is often useful in diagnosing that person's attitude toward the situation. Group leaders need to be especially alert to the way the group room is organized. Consider the following variables and imagine how they might affect the interaction:

- amount and source of light - color of the lighting - obvious props, a podium, blackboard - the size of the room - colors of the walls, floor, furniture - seating arrangements - number of people present - environmental sounds, smells, and temperature - the numbers and ratios of high-status and low status people - the positioning of the various people in the space, who sits next to whom, who sits apart, who sits close, etc. Physiological Responses: This, too, is an exceptional category, because it cannot be practiced voluntarily. Still, it's useful for therapists and group members to become more aware of these subtle signs of emotion. It often helps to comment on these observations, as it implicitly gives permission to the person experiencing the emotion to more fully open to that feeling; or, sometimes, to more actively suppress it. Either way, the existence of that signal is made explicit in the group process. Some of the clues to physiological processes include:

shaking flaring of nostrils trembling chin sweating blanching cold clammy skin blushing moisture in eyes flushing blinking swallowing breathing heavily

While a few of these behaviors can be mimicked, for the most part these reactions happen involuntarily. The only exercise is to watch for these reactions in oneself or others, at least mentally note their occurrence, and consider what the meaning of that emotional reaction might be.

Interpreting nonverbal cues

Immediacy

Immediacy cues communicate liking and pleasure. We move toward persons and things we like and avoid or move away from those we dislike. Generally, we instinctively decide whether we like someone or not and then later find "reasons" to back up our feelings. We can summarize the nonverbal behaviors then by saying that cues that move or lean or otherwise open up or go toward the other person communicate liking.

Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, mutual eye contact, touching, leaning forward, and touching.

Arousal

Arousal in this usage is similar to animation. That is, when we are interested in communicating with someone else, we tend to be more animated. A flat tone of voice and very little movement indicate a lack of interest.

Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, varied vocal cues, animated facial expressions, leaning forward, movement in general.

Dominance

These cues indicate something about the balance of power in a relationship. They communicate information about relative or perceived status, position, and importance.

For instance, a person of high status tends to have a relaxed body posture when interacting with a person of lower status. High-status people tend to have more space around them, such as bigger offices, and more "barriers" such as more hallways, doors, and gatekeepers such as secretaries.

Furniture, clothing, and location also tend to communicate in this dimension.

Improving nonverbal communication

Check context

Don't try to interpret cues isolated from other such cues, from the verbal communication, or from the physical or emotional context. As we've said in class, someone's arms being crossed may indicate nothing more than physical discomfort from a cold room.

Look for clusters

This is the nonverbal context itself. See if the arms being crossed are accompanied by a resistance to eye contact and a flat tone of voice.

Consider past experience

We can more accurately interpret the behavior of people we know. For one thing, we notice changes in behavior more than the behavior itself. Unless we know someone, we

can't know that something has changed. For another thing, we interpret patterns of behavior. Your mother may always cry when you come home from school with an A, and so you learn that this represent happiness in that particular situation.

Practice perception checking

This is basically the art of asking questions. For instance, you come home and announce to your significant other that you have received a great promotion that requires you to move to another state. Your announcement is met with silence. Rather than assume that s/he is upset, ask, "Does your silence mean that you're opposed to the move?" You may find out that s/he is simply stunned at the opportunity. Recognize that you are interpreting observed behavior, not reading a mind, and check out your observation.

SIX WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it that can make the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication. Some major areas of nonverbal behaviors to explore are:

• Eye contact • Facial expressions • Gestures • Posture and body orientation • Proximity • Para linguistics • Humor

Eye contact:

Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audiences increases the speaker's credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility.

Facial expressions:

Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:

• Happiness

• Friendliness • Warmth • Liking • Affiliation

Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more.

Gestures:

If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening.

Posture and body orientation:

You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class.

Proximity:

Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Some of these are:

• Rocking • Leg swinging • Tapping • Gaze aversion

Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.

Paralinguistics:

This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:

• Tone • Pitch • Rhythm • Timbre • Loudness • Inflection

For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices.

Humor:

Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It fosters a friendly environment that facilitates learning.

Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a colleague in communications to suggest refinements.

PERCEPTIONS, ATTITUDES, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS AND EXPERIENCES AND THEIR IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION Human beings constitute the integral part of any communication. It is people who give out messages. It is people who receive messages. It is people who understand messages and act on them. Herein lies the significance of human behavior and its impact on communication. Human beings are extremely divergent and no two individuals are identical in all respects. Man is not just a physical being or a rational being. He is a social and an emotional being. These factors bring in a new dimension to the entire process of communication. Effective communication becomes more challenging. It is rightly observed, "meaning is in people, not in words". Human beings interpret the words. They translate the messages they receive. In translating the messages, in interpreting the words, each individual brings into the process his or her total personality. The literal and mechanical dimension apart, the behavioral dimension assumes significance. Human behavior in any given context is the product of his or her perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, values, norms and experiences. They distinctly influence a person's role and response in communication as the sender and the receiver. In order to ensure the effectiveness of communication, it is, therefore, very essential that we understand the meaning and impact of each one of them. Each one of them may bring in a bias or an

expectation that will affect communication. Let us, therefore, take a brief look at each of them. Perception The word perception has many shades of meaning as per the dictionary. It can mean "act or power of perceiving' or 'discernment' or 'appreciation of any modification of consciousness'. It could also be used to indicate 'the combining of sensations into a . recognition of an object' or ' reception of a stimulus' or 'action by which the mind refers its sensation3 to external object as cause' and so on. Perception implies discernment, reception of a stimulus and an act by which the mind refers its sensations to an external object as cause. In other words, perception is a process of making sense out of events. It is we who perceive the meaning of any event. In the organisational context, the commonly used word is "role perception". As against a defined role, there is a perceived role. The definition mayor may not be adequate. It is the attitude of the individuals that will influence their perception of the role-whether to continue in the defined role or go beyond it. Great leaders and achievers bring their own perceptions to the legally or organizationally defmed roles. It is such positive perceptions that help people become more creative and make human endeavour much more meaningful. Good or Bad Beautiful or Ugly Sincere or Manipulative Fair or Unfair Precise or Exaggerated These are not absolutes. They have an element of judgment. Perception is the action by which the mind refers its sensations to these external stimuli and the individual draws his own interpretations. A good communicator has to have a good understanding of the perceptions of the persons with whom he is communicating. He has to recognize the fact that others may not necessarily perceive his intentions as he himself does. MAKING SENSE OUT OF EVENTS Perception is the process of making sense out of events. A classic example is that of two salesmen of a shoe making company who visit a remote village and make the following observations: Salesman A: "There is absolutely no scope. No one wears shoes here". Salesman B: "No one wears shoes here. There is tremendous scope". .

Although the event or information base is the same, the inferences are quite different. Attitude The dictionary provides several meanings to the word attitude. Attitude means a >posture or position or affected posture; settled behaviour, as indicating any condition of things or persons viewed as expressing some thought, feeling etc.

Attitudes exercise a strong influence on human relationships .in any sphere" be it family, society, group, organisation or nation. Attitudes can be both positive and negative. Positive attitudes contribute to the _,effectiveness of any process. Negative attitudes hinder-or vitiate the process. Attitudes, however, are not necessarily permanent in nature. It is possible, with conscious efforts, to change the’ attitude of a person or group of persons. Organisations and businesses are all the time making efforts to change attitudes to make them more positive. Negative attitudes bring negative: feelings that undermine achievement of personal and organisational objectives. Deficiencies in service by the staff at the counters and the front line staff, in service organizations like banks can be attributed to attitudinal factors as well. They can communicate better, they can interact more meaningfully by developing the right attitude. In the training programmes organised by various organisations, the attitudinal and behavioural aspects are recognised to be as important as imparting of knowledge and development of skills. Beliefs The word belief again has different shades of meaning: faith-, intuition, judgement, trust or confidence, acceptance as true or existing of any fact or statement, persuasion of the truth of anything etc.

Like perceptions and attitudes, people have their beliefs as well. They are not easily changed. Beliefs can cover different areas. Belief in God, fate, superstition, religion and belief in future. So strong are such beliefs, that quite often people spend much time, energy and efforts in pursuing those beliefs. While it is appropriate to recognise the existence of beliefs, it is not always desirable to make a judgement on various beliefs. The fact that one individual, or a group of persons, believes-in a particular father judgement does not mean that all others have to necessarily subscribe to it. Organisations generally exhibit a degree of tolerance to accommodate such beliefs as long as they do not affect their functioning. Every country, every race, every group has its share of beliefs developed over the years, which must be recognised. Values Values constitute yet another dimension of human behaviour. Values exist at various levels. There are individual values, social values, organisational values, national values and one can even refer to global values. They are so integral that often one can see the existence of a value system within a group or community. Values refer to a certain intrinsic quality or worth. Values are seen as standards or criteria that people develop for guiding their actions. Values are Cleve loped or adopted in terms of various influences, upbringing, group identification, needs, expectations and c<5mparative standards. Values and ethics often go together. Ethics relates to the treatment of morality or duty. Ethics deals with that branch of philosophy which is concerned with human character and conduct. When we refer to values we are also referring to the ethical dimensions, i.e., the human character, conduct and moral values.

It is widely accepted that any business or organisation can achieve sustainable success only when its activities are governed by a sound value system. Every- profession has to have its set of values. There are values in teaching, in banking, in trading, in corporate governance etc. These values cover various groups of people with whom interaction takes place. These are values in relation to employees, values in relation to customers, values in relation to competitors, values in relation to community and so on. The process of communication is influenced _Y.. values and value systems. It would be necessary to take note of the degree of congruence or divergence in values. When there is a high degree of congruence, communication is easy. If the values are highly divergent, communication becomes more complex. Norms and experiences Norms and experiences are also among the factors which influence the process of communication. A norm relates to a rule, a pattern or an authoritative standard. It is also understood as the ordinary or most frequent value or state. While discussing the norms, it is also appropriate to refer to the normal standards. Every business or profession normally adopts and articulates such norms or standards. They may be in the nature of expectations, compliances or prescriptions. Norms may also relate to a set of do's and don'ts. We often talk about prudential norms, priority sector norms (in banking), entry norms, and the like. Similarly human beings face a variety of experiences in their lives and work situations. People naturally tend to relate events and messages to their previous experience in dealing with them. People associated with the process of communication should necessarily take cognizance of this. Based on their past experience, people may categories communicators and communications like boring speaker, impatient listener, not very articulate, prone to exaggeration, evasive, contradicts himself, persuasive, well informed, insightful, etc. A good communicator makes it a point to be in the know of such perceptions and impressions. He tries to overcome negative impressions through conscious efforts. Various aspects of human behavior generally come into play in any human interaction and thereby make the communication process more complicated. There are both positive and negative aspects. Some of them exercise a strong influence, others don't. Some of the negative factors may exist and will have to be removed so as to make communication effective. A good communicator is one who develops a clear insight into human behavior and uses that knowledge to his advantage.

Honing Your Nonverbal Communication Skills THE BOTTOM LINE: To improve your communication skills use body language such as eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to make your conversation more interesting.

The words you use have only a 7% impact on your communication; your tone of voice, another 38%. But your nonverbal body language has a 55% impact on the message you're trying to communicate.

Body language refers to the way you sit, stand, move and look when talking to others. Without it, your conversations would be boring and less effective. These five nonverbal communication skills will help you add vitality to your conversations.

EYE CONTACT

Where you look is one of the most obvious aspects of behavior when talking to another person. Looking directly at the person as you speak helps to communicate your sincerity and increases the directness of your message. It shows you respect the person, which helps create a more positive relationship.

Even more importantly, avoiding eye contact can make you seem sneaky, guilty, bashful or frightened. The common expression “He couldn't look me in the eye” is often used to describe a person's guilt.

While using eye contact, be careful not to stare, squint or blink your eyes rapidly. It's more natural to look away from time to time in a relaxed, comfortable manner.

BODY POSITION

Observe how people stand or sit while talking to others. You'll be surprised how many people talk with their bodies turned away from those they're speaking to.

Standing side by side may disconnect you from your partner, and standing face to face may seem confrontational. Instead, stand or sit at an angle from the other person. And, whenever possible, sit or stand at the same eye level as the other party, which signals you're equals and decreases any feelings of intimidation.

Posture also matters. Good posture reflects your confidence and helps ensure others will pay more attention to your message.

DISTANCE

Pay attention to how close you are to another person. Some people feel comfortable with physical closeness; others may be offended. Many cultures also place limitations on such closeness. If you sense someone feels uncom�fortable, put a little more space between you.

GESTURES

Gesturing with your hands adds life and meaning to your message. Practice in front of a mirror using your hands to emphasize important points. When not gesturing, don't cross your arms; that signals anger or a lack or openness. And don't play with your clothing, jewelry, pencils, etc., which is distracting. Instead, relax your arms at your side.

FACIAL EXPRESSION

Have you ever seen someone trying to express anger while smiling? It just doesn't come across. Effective assertions require an expression that agrees with the message. If you're sending mixed messages, others will believe your facial expression, not your words. For example: A forced smile makes you appear insincere. Tension can be seen in your face with a wrinkling forehead or a pursed or tight-lipped moutb. Rolling your eyes and other disapproving looks can have powerful negative effects on communication.

If you have to say something negative, sit down and have a meaningful discussion with the other person; your body language will naturally coincide with your verbal message.

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT

Try to use these five skills each day to improve your nonverbal communication. Others will find you more enjoyable to talk to, and you'll communicate more persuasively, interestingly and effectively.

By Harriet Meyerson, president of the Confidence Center in Dallas.


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LESSON 12: PRACTICE CLASS

Upon completion of the lesson , you will be able to listen well andunderstand non verbal communication. To reach these goals , you have to

• Participate in the following exercises and know your listening skills.

• Explain the listening problem and how to solve it.

Practice Class

Listening SkillsThe group should be divided into subgroups of three. Therewill be three roles in each subgroup: speaker, listener, andobserver. Everyone will take each role once in this practice, sodivide into your subgroup and decide who is going to takewhich role first.

DirectionsObjective—The point of the practice session is to give eachperson the opportunity to learn how to use verbal and non-verbal minimal encouragers and become a better listener.To the speaker—Your task is to talk about something that isimportant to you: your job, your family, a decision, or aquestion. The practice will be more helpful if you talk aboutsomething youreally care about, although role-playing is possible. You mayfind yourself in the midst of discussing something importantwhen the allotted time runs out. If this happens, you couldmake an agreement with the person listening to carry on later,after work or during a break.To the listener—Your task is to practice the skills of thesession: eye contact, body language, silences, and verbal minimalencouragers. Don’t panic! Just concentrate on following thespeaker’s train of thought. Try to limit your responses to theskills discussed in this session.To the observer—Your task is to observe the listener’s verbaland non-verbal skills. Observe and count only as manybehaviors (eye contact, body posture, verbal minimal encourag-ers, topicjumps) as you can manage and still be relatively accurate.

ProcedureThe first speaker will talk with the listener for three or fourminutes. The listener will then discuss the listening experiencewith the two other members of the subgroup. (To the listener:What was comfortable? Difficult? Did you stay with thespeaker?) Then the speaker will share his or her feelings aboutthe listener’s listening. (To the speaker: Did you feel listened to?Was it helpful? Did the listener have any habits you founddistracting?) The observer will then share observations. Thissharing process should take about three or four minutes. Now everyone change places. Have the listener become thespeaker, the speaker the observer, and the observer the listener.Go through the five minutes of talking and listening and five

minutes of exchanging remarks twice more so that each persontakes each role once. The entire practice session should takeabout 25 minutes.When you are finished, form the large group. Your facilitatorwill help you share your practice experiences. How are theseskills relevant to your work? Where else would they be useful?Go around the group so that participants have a chance to shareat least one thing they have learned about themselves in thispractice session.

Listening SkillsQuestions, Reflections, SummarizationForm subgroups of three and practice using question asking asa listening skills. Each member of your subgroup should taketurns being the speaker, the listener (who practices the skill ofquestioning), and the observer.To the speaker: In the speaker role, we ask you to sharesomething that is a real concern to you. Obviously, we are notasking that you share anything that is very private or that mightbe embarrassing. Sharing a real part of your life, however, willmake this practice both interesting and useful. (And you mightfind it helpful to have someone carefully listen to your concern).Or, you can tell of situations that occur in work—we all have astorehouse of work problems that give us difficulty.The qualifier on being “real” in the practice sessions, however, isthat we are here to give the listener a chance to practice interactiveskills. If you, as the speaker, take all of the practice time in amonologue about yourself, the listener will not have a chance topractice listening skills. So, be sure to pause often to encouragethe listener to respond, even though this may seem a bitunnatural. Try to share information that allows the speaker topractice the skill of the session—the art ofquestioning. If you give the complete details of your concern,for example, it may be difficult for the listener to find anythingto ask questions about. Or, if your story is completely factualand does not include your personal feelings or opinions, thelistener may have difficulty asking questions with a speakerfocus. As the speaker in the practice session, part of your job isto help your listener practice listening skills.To the listener: In this session try to concentrate on askingquestions, reflecting, and, at the end, summarizing even thoughthis may seem difficult. You may use minimal encouragersoccasionally, as long as your primary responses are questions.Vary your responses between open and closed questions andvary the focus of your questions (i.e., on speaker, topic, orothers). By using both open and closed questions you will alsosee how your question and its focus can determine the courseof the conversation.


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To the observer: Keep track of the listener’s responses.Include the number of open and closed questions used by thelistener and the focus of each question; note the use of feelingand factual reflection, and the effectiveness of the listener’ssummary.

ProcedureThe speaker and listener will have a conversation of three orfour minutes duration. The observer can also time the conversa-tion, gently announcing “stop” when the time is up.After the conversation, take a few minutes: First, the listener willshare thoughts about how they used questions; second; thespeaker will comment on his/her experience during the conversa-tion and the listener’s use of the skill; finally, the observer willshare observations and comment on the conversation.Now change roles and repeat the practice.Each listener practice should take eight to ten minutes:• Three or four minutes for the initial conversation and three

or• Four minutes to review it—to share the listener’s and the• Speaker’s impressions and the observer’s reactions (l/2

hour).When exchanging observations about a conversation, pleasegive the listener accurate feedback about how he or she used theskills. If the listener is having difficulty asking open questions,reflecting, or summarizing, say so and help him/her learn howto do so better. Remember that the purpose of practice is forthe listener to learn the listening skill. Feedback and sugges-tions from both speaker and observer are essential to thelearning process.


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LESSON 13: INTRODUCING THE BUSINESS LETTER

After completion of this lesson you will be able to

• Understand the meaning and importance business letters

• Carry out an audience analysis

• Know about the general format of a business letter

Students, we have talked much about the verbal skills, now inthis lecture let us learn about writing skills particularly letterwriting. You need to be equally good in writing as you are inyour speaking skills. Tell me how many of you have writingletters, I am not talking about personal letters. Is there anyonein the class who have written a letter to any company to enquireabout its products and services? Did you get a reply to it ? withall the queries answered. I guess not for a simple reason thatwhile writing letters we tend to forget that we are actuallywriting a letter and not an essay or writing notes. Meaning tosay we tend to write too long a letter or too short a letter whichwill wither confuse the receiver as to what do you want to know.Therefore students, lets us today hone our letter writing skills.

Definition of a Business LetterThe business letter is the basic means of communicationbetween two companies. It is estimated that close to 100million Business Letters are written each workday. It is a docu-ment typically sent externally to those outside a company but isalso sent internally to those within a company.Most business letters have a formal tone. You should write abusiness letter whenever you need a permanent record that yousent the information enclosed. Because you generally sendbusiness letters to other professionals, always include a formalsalutation and closing.

Purpose of a Business LetterYou will write business letters to inform readers of specificinformation. However, you might also write a business letter topersuade others to take action or to propose your ideas.business letters even function as advertisements at times.Consider the letters long-distance phone companies send tothose not signed up for their services or the cover letter to yourresume. Both of these serve to promote or advertise.Business letters can be challenging to write, because you have toconsider how to keep your readers’ attention. This is particularlythe case if your readers receive large amounts of mail and havelittle time to read.Writing business letters is like any other document: First youmust analyze your audience and determine your purpose. Thenyou gather information, create an outline, write a draft, andrevise it. The key to writing business letters is to get to the pointas quickly as possible and to present your information clearly.

Audience AnalysisWriting a business letter is like any other type of technicalcommunication. First you have to analyze your audience and

determine your purpose. The typical audience is other profes-sionals. However, you might also write business letters to yourco-workers. These audiences generally require you provide adetailed background about your purpose.As a student, you may have to write business letters to yourinstructor or classmates. When composing academic businessletters, consider what this audience already knows about thesubject.For example, if you are writing a business letter to accompany apaper, does your audience already know what the paper isabout? What further information do they require? What do yourequire from them as a result?Because a business letter is a communication from one personto another, a letter must convey a courteous, positive tone.Look at the situation from your reader’s point of view andadjust the content and tone to meet the audience’s needs.

Audience DefinitionAn audience is a group of readers who reads a particular pieceof writing. As a writer, you should anticipate the needs orexpectations of your audience in order to convey information orargue for a particular claim. Your audience might be yourinstructor, classmates, the president of an organization, thestaff of a management company, or any other number ofpossibilities. You need to know your audience before you startwriting.

Determining your Audience TypeWriters determine their audience types by considering:• Who they are (age, sex, education, economic status, political/

social/religious beliefs);• What Level of Information they have about the subject

(novice, general reader, specialist or expert);• The Context in which they will be reading a piece of writing

(in a newspaper, textbook, popular magazine, specializedjournal, on the Internet, and so forth).

You’ll need to analyze your audience in order to write effectively.

Three Categories of AudienceThree categories of audience are the “lay” audience, the “mana-gerial” audience, and the “experts.”The “lay” audience has no special or expert knowledge. Theyconnect with the human-interest aspect of articles. They usuallyneed background information; they expect more definition anddescription; and they may want attractive graphics or visuals.The “managerial audience may or may have more knowledgethan the lay audience about the subject, but they need knowl-edge so they can make a decision about the issue. Anybackground information, facts, statistics needed to make adecision should be highlighted.

UNIT 2CHAPTER 4: BUSINESS LETTER


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The “experts” may be the most demanding audience in termsof knowledge, presentation, and graphics or visuals. Experts areoften “theorists” or “practitioners.” For the “expert” audience,document formats are often elaborate and technical, style andvocabulary may be specialized or technical, source citations arereliable and up-to-date, and documentation is accurate.

Academic AudiencesAssuming you are writing a paper for a class, ask yourself whois the reader? The most important reader is probably theinstructor, even if a grader will look at the paper first. Askyourself what you know about your teacher and his or herapproach to the discipline.Do you know, for example, if this teacher always expects papersto be carefully argued? Has this teacher emphasized theimportance of summarizing cases accurately before referring tothem? Will this professor be looking for an “argumentsynthesis,” showing how the cases all support one point or willthis professor be more interested in seeing how the casescomplicate one another? In other words, take the time tobrainstorm about what you’ve learned about the teacher to helpyou meet his or her expectations for this paper. You probablyknow more about the teacher than you think, and askingquestions about how the teacher treats this material in class willhelp you remember those details to help you shape your paper.

Nonacademic AudiencesNonacademic audiences read your writing for reasons otherthan to grade you. (Some teachers assign papers specificallyasking students to write for nonacademic audiences). They willgain information from your writing. Think about writing anewsletter or a resume: an audience read these for information,only how they use the information varies. A nonacademicaudience involves more than writing. Consider the following:• You’ll have to determine who the audience is.• You’ll have to think about what is an appropriate format to

use.• You’ll have to consider what is and is not an appropriate

topic for your audience. (If you don’t have one already.)• You’ll have to determine how your topic will fit the format.

Audience Invoked Versus AudienceAddressedAn audience addressed versus an audience invoked is basicallyyour real audience versus the reader you create through your textand introduction. In a way, you tell the reader who you wantthem to be. In a conference paper I’m writing, I start off byassuming that we’re (the reader and myself) sharing somepresumptions. By saying that, I’m almost telling the reader whoI want them to be. I’m creating an audience position that “Yes,there exists some reality.” But I’m also trying to create it forpeople who are going to approach this and say, “Okay there arethings I think we all hold in common. I don’t say that in mytext, but my text invokes it. The other audience, the realaudience, is those who will be at the conference. Who’s at theconference and who reads the journal are not always the same.

Teacher as AudienceFor most academic papers, the teacher is the explicit audience.But even within the same discipline, professors might expectquite different formats for papers. For example, in sociology,one professor might ask you to write mainly about your ownexperiences and your reactions to your experience. Anotherprofessor might want you to do library or field research about asocial problem and never refer to your own experiences orattitudes toward that problem.Teachers will often try to give students more experience withwriting to different audiences by targeting particular readers for agiven paper. Then students address the target audience (classmembers, members of a business community, congressionalrepresentatives, and so on), including the teacher as a secondaryaudience.When asked who their audience is, many students say, “It’s myteacher.”I think it’s useful for students to widen their sense of audiencein order to realize that their specific teacher is, in fact, a represen-tative reader from a particular academic field or discoursecommunity. Their teacher may be a composition teacher, anEnglish literature teacher, a historian, a chemist, a psychologist,or a biologist—and they want and expect writing that isappropriate for their field.In terms of their expectations about effective writing, each ofthese teachers “wants’ something slightly different, and thosedifferences reflect the expectations of different academic areas. Acomposition teacher may want an introduction that graduallyleads into the topic; a journalist may want an article that beginsimmediately with the most startling fact or event; a chemist maywant to begin with a review of the research. Psychologists,literature professors, and historians may or may not want youto use your own personal experience, depending on the level(informal to formal) of the writing. Not all-academic writinghas the same requirements, and those requirements are not somuch personal whims (Professor Jones hates it when I usefirst-person or “I”!) as they are the expectations of thatparticular academic discourse.So when you are writing an essay, imagine writing not just foryour teacher, but for your teacher as a representative of a largergroup of readers who belong to that particular academic area.That awareness may help you see that the requirements of thatassignment are not just strange or quirky, but make some sensein the larger context of that particular academic discourse.

General FormatWhen you write a business letter, you will follow a generalformat. However, your instructor or your company may havespecific requirements that you must use. For instance, acompany might have a particular way of presenting a salutationor may even use a specific type of letterhead.Because a business letter is an effective way to communicate amessage, its format should allow readers to quickly graspinformation. Information should stand out to readers as theyscan the document. Remember, a business letter reflects yourprofessionalism.• Heading or Return Address• Inside Address


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• Attention Line• Subject Line• Salutation• Body• Complimentary Close and Signature• Reference and Enclosure Lines• Copy Line

Letterhead or Return AddressReaders should always be able to quickly locate your contactinformation. This information is located at the top of thebusiness letter in the return address or by using the company’sletterhead. This includes:• Name• Address• Phone number• Company logo or letterheadThe letterhead and the date the letter will be sent (usuallyprinted two lines below the letterhead) make up the heading.When printing on blank paper, use your address (without yourname) and date as the heading.Print only the first page of any letter on letterhead stationary,with subsequent pages on blank paper, with the headinglooking like this:Ms.Lata MaheshwaritPage 2May 23, 1999Do not number the first page.

Inside AddressThe inside address is your reader’s full address. This includesthe reader’s:• Name• Position• Organization (as the company calls itself)• Complete mailing addressIf your reader has a courtesy title, such as Professor, then use it.Otherwise use Mr. or Ms., unless you know the reader prefersMiss or Mrs. These should also appear identically on theenvelope. For example:Dr. Ram Malhotra, ProfessorICU Technical CollegeNew Delhi, 110004

Attention LineWhen you cannot address a business letter to a particularperson, use an attention line:Attention: Human Resource ManagerUse the attention line if you want an organization to respondeven if the person you write to is unavailable. In this instance,put the name of the organization or division on the first lineof the inside address, and the attention line immediatelyafterwards:

Department of Journalism,New Horizon UniversityABC Lane,BanglaoreAttention: Dr. Anil Mehta, Department Chair

Subject LineUse a brief phrase or keywords to describe the content of thebusiness letter:Department of Journalism,New Horizon UniversityABC Lane,BanglaoreAttention: Dr. Anil Mehta, Department ChairSubject: Admission Requirements

SalutationA business letter should always include a salutation. This is towhom the letter is addressed. Salutations add a personal touchto your letter. If unsure to whom you should address a letter,always call an organization to find a contact. You should alsouse a colon rather than a comma because a comma is lessprofessional.Dear Dr. Mehta:Dear Sir or Madam:If you have no attention or subject line,put the salutation twolines below the inside address. The traditional salutation is Dearfollowed by the reader’s courtesy title and last name.When addressing a group of people, use one of the followingsalutations:Ladies and Gentlemen:Gentlemen: (if all the readers are male)Ladies: (if all the readers are female)

BodyThe body of a business letter is typically single-spaced and hasthree paragraphs:• Introductory paragraph• One or more body paragraphs• Concluding paragraphLike essays written for college courses, a business letter intro-duces one main idea and then supports this idea. At the end ofthe letter, always include a way for your readers to contact you.Finally, consider how your letter looks. If you have nothing butparagraph after paragraph of text, you might use lists to drawattention to specific information. Lists are effective ways topresent information because they break down large amounts oftext and are visually pleasing. Lists are especially useful when youhave to convey steps, phases, years, procedures, or decisions,and can be bulleted or numbered.When creating a list, consider writing phrases, fragments or evenquestions and answers. By avoiding full sentences in a list, yourinformation is concise and more likely to engage your readers.For example, to receive a degree in engineering, you mustcomplete the following:• Core Courses• Elective Courses


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• Senior Design

Complimentary Close and SignatureBusiness letters should end with a closing, such as:• Sincerely,• Cordially,• Best regards,• Yours very truly,Capitalize only the first word in the complimentary close, andfollow all phrases with a comma.You should also remember to sign and type your name underthe closing.

End NotationsIf someone else types your letters, the reference line identifiesthis person, usually by initials. It appears a few spaces below thesignature line, along the left margin. The writer’s initials comefirst, and they are capitalized.For example, if Nina sharma wrote a letter that Ajay Singhtyped, it would appear like this:

NS/AS.If the envelope contains any documents other than the letteritself, identify the number of enclosures:Enclosure orEnclosure (1) , which means two documentsIn determining the number of enclosures, count only theseparate items, not the number of pages.

Copy LineThe copy line is used to let the reader know that other peopleare receiving a copy of the document. Use the followingsymbols:• c: for copy• pc: for photocopy• bc: blind copyFollow the symbol with the names of the other recipients,listed either alphabetically or according to organizational rank.If you do not want your reader to know about the other copies,type bc on the copies only, not the original.

Effective WritingEven though no one formula exists for a perfect business letter,some basic guidelines will help you, regardless of the form,purpose, and audience of the document.Many executives still prefer a written document over otherforms of communication, because the document can serve as acontract, the facts will be on record in writing, and executives donot have to rely on memory.This is why it is important to write a good business Letter, andthe principles below will help you do so.• Empathy• Persuasion• Tone• Service Perspective

EmpathyEmpathy means to care about someone’s feelings or ideas. Awell-written business letter will convey the feeling that the writerdoes care about the reader and is genuinely interested inworking together to solve a problem or discuss a concept.To write a good letter, put yourself in the reader’s shoes and tryto anticipate the reader’s reaction to your comments. By doingthis, you are more likely to choose more appropriate words anduse the correct tone.

PersuasionEvery business letter is in some degree a sales letter, because youare always requesting a response or course of action. Therefore,the following principles of persuasion will help you composeand efficient and effective Business Letter:• Plan according to the reader’s reaction• Write with the “you” attitude- the state of mind where you

always emphasize the benefits to the reader and subordinateyour interests. This can be accomplished by using empathyand the words “you” and “your” often

• Adjust the language to the reader and use terms andconcepts that the reader is familiar with

• Write positively and with confidence

ToneTone is the use of accent and inflection to express a mood oremotion in speaking or writing. Many times it is not what yousay in a business letter, but how you say it. It is a good idea toalways consider your tone so that you do not risk upsetting thereader, thereby lessening the chances your requests and com-ments will be respected.You can avoid making mistakes with tone by using thefollowing techniques:• Avoid the “I” attitude by having more emphasis on the

reader and not yourself• Avoid extreme cases of humility, flattery, and modesty• Avoid condescension• Avoid preaching your ideas

Facts about the business Facts about the business letterletternn One of the cheapest forms of comm.One of the cheapest forms of comm.nn Permanent recordPermanent recordnn Conveys a professional & businessConveys a professional & business--like like

impressionimpressionnn Allows you time before replyingAllows you time before replyingnn Can reach where no telephones or fax Can reach where no telephones or fax

machines are available machines are available


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Applications of the Applications of the business letterbusiness letter

nn To persuade: e.g. sales letterTo persuade: e.g. sales letternn To express an opinion: e.g. letter to the To express an opinion: e.g. letter to the

presspressnn To get somehing done: e.g. letter of To get somehing done: e.g. letter of

complaintcomplaintnn To supply somebody else with information: To supply somebody else with information:

e.g. letter of invitation / applicatione.g. letter of invitation / applicationnn To obtain information: enquiryTo obtain information: enquiry

Five secrets of effective Five secrets of effective business lettersbusiness lettersnn Write simply, briefly and clearlyWrite simply, briefly and clearlynn Write as you speakWrite as you speaknn Check twiceCheck twicenn Create a favourable impressionCreate a favourable impressionnn Be courteous and politeBe courteous and polite

Five ways to make a business Five ways to make a business letter more readableletter more readable

nn A clear subject lineA clear subject linenn Short sentencesShort sentencesnn Short paragraphsShort paragraphsnn Simple vocabularySimple vocabularynn Enough spacingEnough spacing

12 Rules for Writing GREAT Letters

You write letters to request information, request action, provideinformation or describe an event, decline a request, and expressappreciation.When you write letters to the school, you want to expressconcerns and educate your reader about your child’s problems.You want your letters to create a good first impression. This


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article, 12 Rules for Writing Great Letters, will help you accom-plish your objectives. 12 Rules is the companion article to TheArt of Writing Letters.1. Before you write a letter, answer these questions.

Why? Why am I writing? What am I trying to accomplish?What? What do I want? What are my goals?Get three blank sheets of paper.On the first sheet write “WHY? Why am I writing thisletter?”On the second sheet write “WHAT? What are my goals inwriting this letter?”On the third sheet write “Other Thoughts.”Brainstorm. Write down your thoughts. Make lists.Don’t worry about writing in sentence or prioritizing. Yourgoal is to dump your thoughts from your brain onto thesesheets of paper. Write down any additional ideas andthoughts on the third sheet of paper. You will write downyour important thoughts in less than ten minutes. Do notallow yourself to obsess about details. You are interested inthe Big Picture.

2. First Letters are Always DraftsYou write letters to:1. Make a request2. Clarify an event3. Decline a request4. Express appreciation5. Create a paper trailSome letters have more than one purpose. Because letters youwrite to schools are so important, you need to do it right.If you anticipate resistance, you may begin by telling a storyto get the reader’s interest. Let’s see how Kathryn’s motherused the story telling method to begin an important letterto the school:I’d like to share a story about Kathryn with you. This year,when Kathryn turned four, we had a birthday party for her.She looked very grown-up in her pink dress. More than adozen friends from pre-school and dance class came to herparty. You can imagine what this was like.The children were laughing, singing, shouting, and creatinga huge ruckus. We had a big chocolate birthday cake. Thechildren were covered with icing.As we watched our daughter with her friends, we felt soproud of her. She was laughing, shouting, giggling withher friends. Only we knew how hard she worked for thisday.Kathryn is hard of hearing. With hearing aids, she can hearat almost the same level as normal children. But if Kathrynhad gone into the public school program with hearingimpaired children, she wouldn’t be able to have a birthdayparty with friends who laugh, and sing, and shout.In the public school program, the children don’t learn howto sing or shout or speak. Their classroom is very quiet. Ifwe had allowed her to attend the public school program,

Kathryn would have learned to communicate through signlanguage and lip reading.All of Kathryn’s friends communicate by oral speech, notsign language. Kathryn would not be able to speak, listen,giggle with her friends.Do you see how Kathryn’s mother begins her letter “I’d liketo share a story with you . . .”Gradually, the letter shifts as the mother makes her case. Sheleads the reader into agreeing that placing Kathryn in a classwhere children don’t speak or listen is not appropriate.

3. Allow for “cooling off” and revision time.After you write the first draft, put your letter away for a fewdays. DO NOT SEND IT!Firing off a letter is one of the most common mistakesparents make. You must give “cooling off” and revisiontime. Later, parents say “But they said I had to respondright away . . .”Ninety-nine percent of letters from the school system DONOTrequire you to respond immediately.A “cooling-off period” allows you to look at your lettermore objectively. If you send a letter without allowing for“cooling off” and revision time, you’ll probably damageyour credibility and your position. Sometimes, this damageis impossible to repair.

4. You are always negotiating for services .As you are learning, you negotiate with the school forspecial education services. If you are negotiating with theschool for special services or with a car dealer for a car, theprinciples are the same. You never begin negotiations bytelling the other side what your “bottom line” is.In negotiations with schools, parents often make themistake of being too open. Parents think they have to shareeverything with the school - immediately. They hope thatby sharing everything, they’ll be rewarded with the help theirchild needs. This doesn’t happen.You need to share the results of all evaluations and anyother new information with the school, as soon as youreceive it. However, you do not need to share your wish listor your bottom line.

5. Never threaten. Never telegraph your punches!You’ll remember that in the first chapter of this Tacticssection, the parents wrote two letters. In their first letter,they made several threats. In their second letter, they madeno threats, and told their story in a compelling way. If youmake threats (i.e., “we’re going to call our lawyer”), you mayexperience temporary relief but you’ll pay a high price later.As a negotiator, one of the most powerful forces you haveon your side is the “Fear of the Unknown.” When youthreaten, you are telling the other side what you plan to do.If you tell them what you plan to do, you have told themhow to protect themselves. At that moment, you lose youradvantage - which is the wonderful, powerful Fear of theUnknown. Never telegraph your punches – you will destroytheir power and effectiveness.


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EXAMPLE of Fear of the UnknownYou went to the doctor to get the results of your annualphysical, including your lab work. As your doctor, I come inand tell you that:The results of your blood work are very concerning.However, I’m behind schedule right now. We need to admityou to the hospital as soon as bed space is available -probably tomorrow or the next day. I don’t have time todiscuss the results with you right now. I’m behind scheduleand have other patients waiting. I’ll be in to talk with youafter you are admitted.Fear. Panic. What happens now? You’ll imagine the worstcase scenario.Now, let’s change the facts. You are at the doctor’s office toget the results of your physical. As your doctor, I come inand tell you that:Some of your blood work is not clear. It’s probably onlyABC and if it is ABC, we have nothing to worry about. Theworst case scenario is that you have XYZ. XZY isinconvenient but it’s certainly not life threatening. Ninetimes out of ten, people have ABC. However, it’s stillimportant for us to rule out XYZ.Unfortunately, we can’t run the additional tests here. Wejust aren’t equipped to do it. So, we need to send you to thehospital where they have more sophisticated equipment. Wecan schedule your admission tomorrow or the next day.This is not so important that we have to do it today.Can you feel the difference?When you know what you’re facing, is your fear as intense?No.If you don’t fill in answers – if you don’t telegraph yourpunches - then the fear of the unknown will force the otherside to attribute more power to you. Because they’ll be inthe “fear of the unknown,” they’ll wonder what you’regoing to do – and they’ll imagine a worst case scenario.

6. Assume that you won’t be able to resolve your dispute. Aspecial education due process hearing will be held - and youwill not be able to testify or tell your side of the story.These are important assumptions. These assumptions areone of the keys to successful letter writing. Assume thingswill get worse. Assume that success in securing services foryour child depends on how well you describe the eventsthat cause you to write to the school.A letter you write today may sit in your child’s file formonths or years. If things blow up later, these letters can bethe most compelling evidence in your favor. Bob’s letter atthe beginning of this chapter shows how letters can workagainst you.

7. Make your problem unique.If you are writing a letter about a specific problem (i.e., ateacher’s refusal to follow an IEP), present your situation asunique. You want the person who reads your letter to seeyour problem as different. You want them to think “Wow!We’ve never had this problem before!”

By presenting your problem as unique, you’re trying toavoid “We ALWAYS handle ABC situations this way. WeALWAYS have handled ABC situations this way. WeALWAYS will handle ABC situations this way. We can’tmake exceptions for you.”If you present your situation as unique, it won’t be listed inthe Bureaucrat’s Big Book of Rules and Procedures.Remember: bureaucracies are inflexible and rule-bound. Bypresenting your situation as unique, you can sometimes getpeople in the system to see things differently. If they seethings differently, they may be able to handle thingsdifferently.

8. You ARE writing letters to a Stranger. You are NOT writingletters to the school.When you write a letter to the school, you are really writing a“Letter to the Stranger.” Why? You have to assume thatsomeone outside your school system will decide this issue.This person will have no personal interest in you or yourchild. This person won’t care what “program” your child isenrolled in.When you write letters, keep this Stranger in your mind’seye. Who is this Stranger? What does he look like? Howdoes he think?The Stranger is an older person who has worked hard all hislife. He’s conservative, fair, and open minded. He knowsthat life is often difficult and unfair. He doesn’t have muchpatience with complainers. He’s more sympathetic to peoplewho have a plan to solve problems. He dresses casually.When he sits down to read your letter, he sips a cup of teaand lights his pipe.The Stranger doesn’t know you, your child, or yoursituation. Your letter gives you the chance to sell theStranger on the justice of your cause. You can describe theproblem and tell the Stranger what should be done to makethings right.Judges are Strangers. Most judges aren’t knowledgeableabout special education or children with disabilities. Whenyou write letters, you are also trying to educate and informthis person.

9. You write business letters to the school. When you writebusiness letters, you use tactics and strategy (your brain).You do not demand, threaten, ventilate anger or frustration(your emotions).If you are writing an important letter to the school, youwant it to be smooth, polished, and professional. Beginyour letter chronologically and develop it chronologically. Tosee how this is done, go back and read the original “Letterto the Stranger” at the beginning of this section. The letterbegan like this:Dear Mr. So and So:We received a letter from you dated February 1, and werevery perplexed by the content.To put my letter into the proper context, let me go back tothe beginning . . .


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Do not attack or express anger. Resist the urge to takecheap shots.

10. Never make judgments.“What a jerk you were! You didn’t have enough guts to bestraight-up with us!”NO!Never be judgmental. You want the Stranger to beinterested, not anxious. Provide information logically, thenlet the Stranger draw conclusions. You want your Strangerto conclude “What a jerk!”

11. You are telling a story. Write your letter chronologically.Don’t broach the main issue in the first paragraph of yourletter.Tell your story chronologically, weaving in your facts. Yourobjective is to write a letter than is interesting, and easy tofollow.Remember, when you write a letter to the school, this isyour chance to “present your case” and tell your story. TheStranger won’t understand the background or history unlessyou provide this information. You can provide backgroundinformation very naturally and easily by going back to thebeginning and writing a chronological story.For example: “On DATE, our son entered your programbecause . . .You can move the clock earlier if this helps you tell thestory. “We realized that our daughter’s problems wereserious when she was unable to communicate with othersby her third birthday.”Where should you begin? Begin wherever you want. In yourmind, you know when things “began.” Then, continue totell your story: “Then this happened . . . When she startedschool . . .”You are telling a story and you are using your facts. Selectyour facts carefully and keep your opinions to a bareminimum. As you tell the story, you’re planting seeds in thememories of Strangers who read your letter later. Let theseStrangers water the seeds using their own imaginations!There is another reason to write chronologically. If youjump from issue to issue, the reader will get confused, thenfrustrated. Readers have negative reactions to people whowrite letters that are hard to follow. The Stranger may getangry at you if he can’t figure out your point. If theStranger gets frustrated, he will quit reading – and he’llblame you for this frustration. You don’t want this tohappen to you.

12. Write letters that are clear and easy to understand.Letters provide you with an opportunity to make yourcase while you create a positive impression. Animportant part of the impression you make will depend onhow you express yourself.We don’t like to think that our writing skills needimproving. Unless you are a professional writer or editor,you will need to spend time improving your writing skillsin four areas: clarity, brevity, interest, accuracy.

ALWAYS read your letters aloud. This is a valuable tipfrom professional editors. ALWAYS have at least oneoutside person read your letters. Your “reader” should besomeone who will tell you the truth, especially when youdon’t make things clear or you need to tone the letter down.

Ask your “reader” to pretend that he or she is a Stranger.You want your reader to tell you if answered the threequestions we listed at the beginning of this chapter:• What am I trying to accomplish?• What do I want?• What are my goals?The answers to these questions must be clear. After your“Stranger” has read the draft of your letter, ask the person toanswer these questions. If the reader cannot answer thesequestions clearly means you haven’t expressed yourselfclearly. Remember: your letter is to the Stranger, not thespecial ed supervisor or the building principal. If you findyourself explaining your real point to the reader, stop, andwrite down the explanation. Incorporate this into your letter.

Letter Writing Tips

Make It ClearIt’s incredibly easy to get side-tracked when writing letters. Thisis especially true if you’re feeling upset or emotional. Remem-ber: You’re writing to make a point, clarify an event, make arequest, and create a paper trail. Refer back to the sheets of paperyou used during the brainstorming stage. Have you answeredthese three questions?• Why are you writing?• What is the point you want to make?• What do you want?Talk out loud. Avoid vague words, jargon, and long ramblingsentences. Use short words when possible. If you naturally uselong words to express yourself, try substituting short wordsthat mean the same thing. Long rambling letters put people offbecause they are hard to read. You don’t want this to happen.You want the reader, your Stranger, to enjoy reading yourletter .

Make It ShortSay what you have to say. Be succinct. Most people don’t havethe time to read long letters. If you repeat yourself, you’rewasting the reader’s time and your letter will generate a negativeresponse. Keep your message short and to the point.There is one exception to this rule. If you are writing a letter torequest a due process hearing, then the letter needs to be acomprehensive “Letter to the Stranger.” This letter should tellstory, from the beginning, using visual imagery.

Make It AliveSpeak directly to the reader. Use the same words and figures ofspeech you use in your day-to-day speech. Think about theStranger as a real person. Visualize the Stranger and imagineyourself talking with him about your problems. This is theperson you are writing to. You’re not firing a letter off to theperson who chaired the IEP meeting and didn’t have the


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courage to tell you that the school had just suspended yourchild, as you see in the example below.Use words like “you,” “we,” “us,” “our” to make your lettermore personal. Everyone who reads the letter will feel that themessage is directed at them.

Make it RIGHTLetters filled with errors are distracting. Readers get so distractedby misspelled words and poor grammar that they miss thepoint. If you send a letter that’s filled with mistakes, your realmessage is that you are sloppy and careless. If you prepare yourletter on a computer, it will be easier to read. The Stranger willthank you for little touches like this.Your goal is to eliminate all spelling, grammatical, and format-ting errors from your letters. The problem? We don’t noticeour own errors! The solution? Always have at least one otherperson proof-read your letters. Try to locate more than oneproof-reader. Buy a book about “How to Write BusinessLetters.”Letter writing is an art. A well written letter is a pleasure to read.It’s also very hard work.

About the AuthorsPamWright is a psychotherapist who has worked withchildren, adults, and families for more than 30 years. Hertraining and experience in clinical psychology and clinical socialwork give her a unique perspective on parent-child-schooldynamics, problems, and solutions. She has written manyarticles about raising, educating, and advocating for childrenwith disabilities. Pam designed the Wrightslaw web site athttp://www.wrightslaw.com/ and publishes The Special EdAdvocate newsletter .Pete Wright represented Shannon Carter before the U. S.Supreme Court in Florence County School District Four v.Shannon Carter where he received a unanimous decision inShannon’s favor.


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LESSON 14: TYPES ON BUSINESS LETTERS

By the end of the lesson you will

• Know the various types of business letters

• Know the general format of a acknowledgement letter

• Know the general format of a Inquiry letter

Students, in business we need to write various types of businessletters . In this lesson we will focus on acknowledgment letterand inquiry letter. Can anyone tell me when do write anacknowledgement letter and when do we write a inquiry letter?The very word “acknowledgment” and “inquiry” says it all.

Types of Business LettersThe following are the most common types of business letters.Keep in mind that the purpose and audience of your businessletter effects, which form you, choose.• The Acknowledgement Letter• The Inquiry letter• Response to an inquiry letter• Complaint letter• Order letter

Acknowledgement LettersA letter of acknowledgement is good public relations maneu-ver. Though not always required, they can go along way.Remember, it’s the thought that counts. The objective is to letthe reader know you are in receipt of whatever it is was theysent; usually something requested in an inquiry letter. It can beviewed as a response to a response. The actual scope of anacknowledgement letter need only include a small detail, such aswhat day something arrived, and an expression of appreciation.It’s most important function is to say thank you, a mark ofprofessional courtesy. In the sample acknowledgement letter thewriter confirms receipt of information and appreciates thesender’s promptness. She also references a specific point towhich she is sure to return in an as yet, unscheduled appoint-ment. Here are the steps to follow when writing anacknowledgement letter. Each link provides tips and a blankediting box in which you can practice your writing skills. Youwill be able to save and edit the contents of these boxes whileworking on your writing project.• Identify your reader.• Establish your objective.• Determine your scope.• Organize your letter.• Draft your letter• Close Your Letter• Review and Revise Your Letter

Identify Your ReaderThe identity of the reader to whom you are sending anacknowledgement will be found in the complimentary close ofa previous response letter. That person’s name should be placedin the salutation and the inside heading of your reply. It shouldalso be included on the top line of your envelope.Remember that people do business with people first, busi-nesses second. When you address your reader by name, you arerecognizing their individual importance, their value as a humanbeing. In the inside heading of the sample acknowledgementletter the reader is identified by both his name and the positionhe holds.

Establish Your ObjectiveThe objective of an acknowledgement letter is to let the readerknow you are in receipt of whatever it is was that you requested.You should be brief.In the body of the sample acknowledgement letter, the writermentions a specific point, clarifying for the reader that it is animportant part of her overall objective, letting him know thatfurther discussion will be expected in their upcoming meeting.Briefly mention what you have received, when you received itand that you appreciate the senders effort. Sentence fragmentsare fine for this exercise. Save and edit this list as you work. Oncompletion your objective will be clearly stated.

Determine Uour ScopeThe scope of an acknowledgement letter encompasses verylittle. It provides the reader with a short line or two, theobjective of which is to notify that a request has been satisfied.Should it be useful, the scope may be broadened to include newinformation, particularly if a continuing dialogue is desired.In the body of the sample acknowledgement letter the writerprovides the name of her assistant, a second contact personwith whom he can speak should she be unavailable to take hiscall. This establishes a line of communication that indicates herserious interest in exploring a further business relationship.Make a simple list of what you want to tell your reader.Sentence fragments are fine for this exercise. Feel free to delete oradd items. You can save and edit this list as you work. Oncompletion you will have determined your scope.

Organize Your LetterOrganizing an acknowledgement letter is a simple proceduredesigned to help you draft your request. You have establishedyour objective and determined the scope. Refer back to them.Together they make up the main components in the body ofyour letter.A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably dothe job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place,either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Puteach item where it belongs.With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your


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thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task.You won’t be worried about forgetting something important.It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in whatorder things should appear. Your list is already organized.When you begin the rough draft your outline will become achecklist

Draft Your LetterWorking from an outline is the simplest way to draft a adjust-ment letter. Refer back to your list and turn each fragmentarysentence into a full and complete sentence expressing a singlethought or idea.Concentrate on communicating your objective to your reader.Be certain that you describe the scope of your solution with anappropriate amount of information.Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For an overallsense of cohesion, be as quick as you can. Spelling, grammar,sentence and paragraph structure need not be perfect. Thosedetails will be tuned up in the final step when you review andrevise your work.Start with the point that you feel the strongest or mostconfident about and then do the others. Remember to do thisquickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can besaved and edited.Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are mostconfident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do theothers. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completionyou will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.

Close Your LetterAn acknowledgement letter should close with a professionaltone and style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign offbetween a complimentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thankyou,” and your printed name.If your acknowledgement letter is written in conjunction withan official duty, place your title below the printed name as in thesample acknowledgement letter. Additional information such asdictation remarks, notification of attachments and copies sentto other individuals should be placed beneath your title line.In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consultthe Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

Review and Revise Your LetterReviewing and revising your acknowledgement letter is the finalstep in the writing process. You will check your draft in thisstep, making sure that your objective is clear and your scope isconcise. Put yourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine therough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are ableto comprehend the request quickly and if enough informationhas been included to enable a timely response.Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentencestructure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voiceis not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiryto be strong, so write with an active voice.The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesivenessof the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense ofcompleteness. Ask yourself if the transitions between para-graphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style areconsistent throughout the text.Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to

confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood atall and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no realpurpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help yourreader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove allthat is not helpful.And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusionnow is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the bodyof your letter with a firm statement about the subject of yourinquiry and enough supporting information to keep the readerreading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objectivewith a question that calls for an action.

Sample Acknowledgement Letter__________Better Widget Makers, Inc.__________5555 Widget AvenueSilver City, CO 80456October 1, 2003Mr. Russ HamiltonVice President, Sales and MarketingGolden Bread Company123 Loaf StreetSilver City, CO 80451Dear Mr. Hamilton:I received your price information packet today and appreciate itsprompt delivery. Itseems to have everything I need.You mentioned deeper discounts in consideration of an annualcontract. I am looking forjust such an arrangement.Should I be unavailable when you call on Friday, please speakwith my assistant, AnnieGetz. She keeps my calendar and will assist you in making anappointment.Thanks again,Ida Mae KnottPurchasing AgentCC: Annie GetzAt the beginning of the sample acknowledgement letter thewriter mentions that she had received what she had requestedand lets the reader know that she appreciated his promptness.At the end of the sample acknowledgement letter the writernames a second contact person, someone with whom to speakin her absence, effectively widening the lines of communication.

Complaint LettersA complaint letter, also known as a claim, advises a businessthat an error has been made or that a defect has been discovered.The objective is to provide detailed information regarding theerror or defect. It also serves as a legal document notifying therecipient that a correction or adjustment is being requested.Keep in mind that your reader is most likely a trained customerservice professional and not the person responsible for the erroror defect. Rather than being angry, use a firm but courteoustone when stating your complaint. Remember, it is results you


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are after.The scope of a complaint letter should include only the relevantfacts validating your claim and a request that appropriatecorrective steps be taken. The scope may also detail the optionsthat you are willing to accept in satisfaction of the claim.In the sample complaint letter the writer explains that anincorrect shipment was received and that a promised correctionhas not materialized. He then proposes two equally satisfactorysolutions.• Identify your reader.• Establish your objective.• Determine your scope.• Organize your letter.• Draft your letter• Close Your Letter• Review and Revise Your Letter

Identify Your ReaderAlthough a clearly identified reader is not absolutely necessary, acomplaint letter should be addressed to the person who ismost able to resolve an unsatisfactory situation. In a very smallbusiness the owner is generally the contact person. In a mid-sizecompany a vice president or upper level management personsolves problems. Large companies often have a CustomerService department to whose attention a complaint can beaddressed. In these cases, the inside heading should contain justthe name and address of the company. The salutation will thenbe replaced by a simple attention getting device such as thatshown in the sample complaint letter.

Establish Your ObjectiveThe objective of a complaint letter is to prompt an action thatresolves a conflict. You should avoid threats and accusationswhen providing the details of your complaint. Stick to the factsand your reader will comprehend what went wrong and whataction you expect to have implemented.Any company or business organization with a legitimatecomplaint lodged against them will act quickly to resolve theproblem. Doing so fulfills a primary business goal: keeping thecustomer satisfied.In the first sentence of the sample complaint letter, the writerclearly states that he has received an incorrectly filled order,establishing legitimate grounds for both his complaint andrequest for corrective action.Briefly list your complaints. Sentence fragments are fine for thisexercise. On completion your objective will be clearly stated. Youcan save and edit this list as you work.

Determine Your ScopeThe scope of a complaint letter should encompass the relevantinformation necessary to resolve a problem, correct an error orrepair a defect. It should provide the reader with exact descrip-tions, including dates, times and places. It should referencepurchase orders, invoice numbers, payment records and evendollar amounts when appropriate.In the body of the sample complaint letter the writer politelyexpresses dissatisfaction that a problem’s promised resolutionis long overdue. He supports his claim with facts.

Make a simple list of your complaints. Be specific. Attention todetail is very important. Feel free to delete or add items. You cansave and edit this list as you work. On completion you will havedetermined your scope.

Organize Your LetterOrganizing a complaint letter is a simple procedure designed tohelp you draft your request. You have already started this task.You have established your objective and determined the scope.Refer back to them. Together they make up the main compo-nents in the body of your letter.A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably dothe job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place,either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Puteach item where it belongs.With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of yourthinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task.You won’t be worried about forgetting something important.It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in whatorder things should appear. Your list is already organized.When you begin the rough draft your outline will become achecklist


Close Your LetterA complaint letter should close with a professional tone andstyle. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between acomplimentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” andyour printed name.If your credit letter is written in conjunction with an officialduty, place your title below your printed name as shown insample complaint letter. Additional information such asdictation remarks, notification of enclosures and copies sent toother individuals should be placed beneath your title line.In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consultthe Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.


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Review and Revise Your LetterReviewing and revising your complaint letter is the final step inthe writing process. You will check your draft in this step,making sure that your objective is clear and your scope isconcise. Put yourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine therough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are ableto comprehend the request quickly and if enough informationhas been included to enable a timely response.Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentencestructure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voiceis not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiryto be strong, so write with an active voice.Keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit.Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Askyourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working andif your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughoutthe text.Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead toconfusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood atall and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no realpurpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help yourreader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove allthat is not helpful.And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusionnow is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the bodyof your letter with a firm statement about the subject of yourinquiry and enough supporting information to keep the readerreading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objectivewith a question that calls for an action.As shown in the sample complaint letter, the writer’ openingparagraph states the problem and the closing paragraph requestsa specific solution.Sample Complaint Letter__________Dandy Manufacturing, Inc.__________2525 E. 34th StreetGreeley, CO 80631February 18, 2004

Better Widget Makers, Inc.5555 Widget AvenueSilver City, CO 80456Attention: Customer Service DepartmentOn February 9th I received an incorrect shipment of Widgetsfulfilling the order I placedon February 3rd. Rather than the 300 Deluxe Yellow Widgets(Ref. # XT111) that Iordered, the shipment contained 300 Regular Yellow Widgets(Ref. # XT101).As per the instructions we received on the telephone, theunwanted Regular Widgets wereshipped back the same day. It was promised that the correctitems would be shipped outthe very next day, February 10th, and be delivered freight free thefollowing week.

As of this date we have not yet received our shipment ofDeluxe Widgets. This was aCOD order, paid for with check #250564 in the amount of$1,913.50, which has alreadycleared through our bank. If these Widgets cannot be shippedFebruary 20th, pleasecancel the order and send a refund check in the amount of$1,368.00 for the unfulfilledportion of the order.I have enclosed a copy of the original order.Thank you,Jim Dandy, Jr.

General ManagerEnclosure: Order Letter dated February 3, 2004

Inquiry LettersA letter of inquiry is a letter of request. The objective is to getthe reader to respond with an action that satisfies the request.The action taken can benefit either the writer or the reader, andsometimes both. That being the case, the scope of an inquiryletter must include enough information to help the readerdetermine how best to respond.In the sample inquiry letter there is a benefit to both the writerand the reader. In it the writer asks for some information andsome help. She also makes an offer to the reader that providesan incentive to act.Here are the steps to follow when writing an inquiry letter:• Identify your reader.• Establish your objective.• Determine your scope.• Organize your letter.• Draft your letter• Close Your Letter• Review and Revise Your Letter

Identify Your ReaderAn inquiry letter should be addressed to a specific personwhenever possible. Doing so improves your odds on receivinga reply. Naming a person in your letter’s salutation, and on theinside heading and envelope informs the reader that you havedone your homework. It announces that you have identifiedthem as being the likely contact person to whom you can directyour request, and to whom you can turn for help.Identifying your reader is not always possible, but often a quickphone call will do the job. Most businesses and organizationswill supply names and contact procedures over the phone. It isespecially important to check on procedures, as it is not unusualfor large companies to have specific protocols for contactingtheir employees and associates. You will be expected to followthem.Remember that people do business with people first, busi-nesses second. Valuable time can be lost when an inquiry letteris sent to the wrong person or address. In the inside heading ofthe sample inquiry letter the reader is identified by both hisname and the title he holds. In situations where you do not


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have the name of a contact person to address, consult theFormatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

Establish Your ObjectiveThe objective in an inquiry letter is communicated by one ormore questions to which the writer desires a response. Thequestion(s) will either ask the reader to provide somethingbeneficial to the writer, or ask the reader to take advantage of abenefit that the writer has to offer.Phrase your question(s) in a tone and style that is both courte-ous and straightforward. Be specific and brief. If you are askingfor multiple pieces of information you might consider placingthem into a bulleted list. This tactic acts like a snapshothighlighting the components of your objective.In the body of the sample inquiry letter, the writer states herobjective by asking the reader for help in compiling informa-tion. She then outlines the scope of her needs in a bulleted listimmediately following her request.Answer the questions raised by the sample statements or buildyour own. You will end up with a list of things you want thereader to do or provide. Sentence fragments are fine for thisexercise. On completion you will have shaped your objective.You can save and edit this list as you work.

Determine Your ScopeThe scope of an inquiry letter is contained in the informationyou provide for the specific purpose of helping the reader graspyour objective. You may safely assume that your reader is a busyperson, so getting to the point is important. Your goal is tohave the reader make a decision quickly and respond in a timelymanner. Information that is not related to your objectiveshould be left out.Consider your targeted reader. Make it your business to nowsomething about that person. What is their title or position?Are they the president of the company or the shipping clerk?Do they have what you want? Can they do what you ask?Give them the relevant background informationneeded in orderto make an informed decision. Let the reader know who you areand something about your motive. If you are to receive somebenefit, it may help to explain for what purpose the benefit willbe used. If the reader is to receive some benefit, it may help tooffer an incentive to respond.Put yourself in the reader’s shoes and ask yourself what andhow much background information is needed in order to takethe action you are requesting. Would you already know every-thing you need to know, or would you need a little more?While you are in their shoes you might also ask yourself howmuch persuasion you would you need in order to be moved toact.This will help you determine whether you have supplied toomuch information, or not enough. It will also help youdetermine what information needs to be qualified or amplifiedfor the reader’s benefit.In the body of the sample inquiry letter the writer suppliesrelevant logistical information that the reader will need in orderto respond quickly and effectively.Make a list of relevant information that explains the reason foryour inquiry. Think about what your reader will need to know

before making a decision. Sentence fragments are fine for thisexercise. Feel free to delete or add items. On completion you willhave determined your scope. You can save and edit this list asyou work.

Organize Your LetterOrganizing an inquiry letter is a simple procedure designed tohelp you draft your request. You have already started this task.You have established your objective and determined the scopeof your inquiry. Refer back to them. Together they make up themain components in the body of your letter.A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably dothe job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place,either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Puteach item where it belongs.With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of yourthinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task.You won’t be worried about forgetting something important.It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in whatorder things should appear. Your list is already organized.When you begin the rough draft your outline will become achecklist.Consult the points you have established in your objective andscope and decide where they belong. Are they part of thebeginning, the middle or the end? Organize the informationpoint by point in an order that makes sense. If it does not flownaturally, you may have something out of order. Feel free tomove things around. On completion you will have a simpleoutline that can be saved and edited.

Draft Your LetterDrafting an inquiry letter is a process by which your outlinenotes become sentences and paragraphs. Keep in mind; it’sO.K. to be sloppy, you are writing a rough draft. Your spellingcan be imperfect, your sentences can be grammatically incorrectand your paragraph structure can be less than impeccable. Thesethings will be accounted for in the final step when you reviewand revise your work.Write without fear. Your only concern is getting the point ofyour objective across to the reader and providing the relevantscope of information that supports your request. A draft willget it all down on paper. Best advice; be quick about it. Enlargeeach sentence fragment in your outline until it expresses acomplete thought. Gather your thoughts into paragraphs andthen give yourself a rest. That’s right-take a break.Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are mostconfident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do theothers. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completionyou will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.

Close Your LetterAn inquiry letter should close with a professional tone and style.Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a compli-mentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” and yourprinted name.If your inquiry letter is written in conjunction with an officialduty, place your title below the printed name as in the sampleinquiry letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks,notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals


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should be placed beneath your title line.In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consultthe Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

Review and Revise Your LetterReviewing and revising your inquiry letter is the final step in thewriting process. You will check your draft in this step, makingsure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Putyourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine the rough draft.Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to compre-hend the request quickly and if enough information has beenincluded to enable a timely response.Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentencestructure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voiceis not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiryto be strong, so write with an active voice.The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesivenessof the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense ofcompleteness. Ask yourself if the transitions between para-graphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style areconsistent throughout the text.Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead toconfusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood atall and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no realpurpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help yourreader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove allthat is not helpful.And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusionnow is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the bodyof your letter with a firm statement about the subject of yourinquiry and enough supporting information to keep the readerreading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objectivewith a question that calls for an action.At the beginning of the sample inquiry letter the writerintroduces a situation and announces a compelling opportunityfrom which the reader stands to gain.At the end of the sample inquiry letter the writer reiterates herrequest for help, establishes a timeline in which she would likethe help to be offered, asks for a meeting and strongly reinforcesthe benefit to the reader.As the title indicates, the purpose of this form is to obtaininformation from the reader. If the reader is expecting the letter,your task is easy. For example:Could you please send me the admission requirements for your program soI can apply for next fall semester?A secretary or school official in the college department receivesmany of these requests each month and would have noproblem comprehending the meaning or necessary actions.If the reader is not expecting your letter, then it is moredifficult. In this case, following these four guidelines will behelpful:• State your purpose• List your questions or requested action• Offer something in return to encourage action• Follow up with a thank you note, e-mail, or phone call to the

person who helped you with your request

Example Inquiry Letter

Dept. of EnglishColorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523May 23, 1999Ms. Dawn Snyder,ProfessorICU Technical CollegePortland, ME 04101Dear Ms. Snyder:I am a professor in English at Colorado State Universityorganizing a seminar on concept mapping for a colloquiumcoming up in December. Based on your experience in this area, Iwas wondering if you would be interested in attending.The deadline for admission is August 13. It would be a greathonor to have you in attendance. Enclosed is an admissionsform and more information on the colloquium.Thank you for your time,(signature here)I.B. Writing,Professor, CSUIW/gtEnclosure(4)


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By the end of the lesson you will

• Learn about how to write a response to an inquiry letter

• Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter.

• Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter.

• Get tips as to how do you draft a good business letter.

Students now that we have learnt about acknowledgementletter and inquiry letter we will today learn about responding toan inquiry letter, complaint letter and sales letter.

Response to an Inquiry LetterWhen you receive an inquiry letter, answer the questions asclearly and as concisely as possible. If you cannot answer thequestions, explain the reasons and offer to assist with alternatemethods.Example Response to an Inquiry LetterDawn Snyder, ProfessorICU Technical CollegePortland, ME 04101May 27, 1999Professor I.B. Writing,Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523Dear Mr. Writing:I would be honored to attend your colloquium on conceptmapping in December. I think you know how strongly I feelabout that paradigm and the role the great state of Maine hasplayed in its development.I am enclosing the admissions sheet sent to me, as well as thearticles you requested that I have recently published on thesubject. Good luck on organizing the event- I cannot wait to bethere!Sincerely,(signature here)I.B. Writing,Professor, CSUDS/lsEnclosure(114)c: Scott McRae, Dean of Department of Journalism

Order LettersAn order letter, also known as a PO (purchase order) begins thepaper trail of a specific purchase. The objective is to providedetailed instructions to a vendor fulfilling an order. It is alsoserves as a legal document recording the transaction. It shouldbe written with careful attention to detail.Your intentions need to be clear and concise. The reader will fillyour order only according to your instructions and yoursatisfaction will depend largely upon their accuracy.

The scope of an order letter should include only the informa-tion needed to fulfill the order. Keep in mind that in most casesthe seller does not need to know why you are placing the order,what it is going to be used for or for whom it is intended. Suchinformation is unnecessary when placing an order.In the sample order letter the writer purchases three specificwidgets from an out of date vendor catalogue. The reader caninfer that either an infrequent customer or a new customer isplacing the order.• Identify your reader.• Establish your objective.• Determine your scope.• Organize your letter.• Draft your letter• Close Your Letter• Review and Revise Your Letter

Identify Your ReaderAn order letter does not necessarily need a clearly identifiedreader. In fact, most first-time and one-time-only orders are justaddressed to the attention of the Sales department within acompany.In these cases, the inside heading of the letter will contain justthe name and address of the company to whom the order isbeing sent, and the salutation will be replaced by a simpleattention getting device such as that shown in the sample orderletter.Establishing an account with a company will announce thatyour intention is to have an ongoing business relationship. Atthat time a specific contact person, to whom all future orderscan be directed, will be assigned to handle your account.In situations where you do not have the name of a contactperson to address, consult the Formatting Business Letterspage for acceptable options.

Establish Your ObjectiveThe objective of an order letter is to clearly indicate to therecipient that you are making a purchase. You should be brief.In the body of the sample order letter, the writer begins bysaying that he is placing an order. He concludes his order withsome specific instructions.

Determine Your ScopeThe scope of an order letter should provide only that informa-tion relevant to accomplishing the objective of making apurchase: what the item is, the terms of the purchase and anyspecific shipping instructions. It provides the reader with anexact description of what is expected.In the body of the sample order letter the writer has formattedhis list of purchases in a table and provided a brief instructionlinking his payment instructions to his shipping instructions.

LESSON 15: TYPES ON BUSINESS LETTERS


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He has also included a phone number at which he can bereached should there be any difficulties fulfilling the order.Make a simple list of what you want to purchase. Be specific.Attention to detail is very important. Feel free to delete or additems. You can save and edit this list as you work. On comple-tion you will have determined your scope.

Organize Your LetterOrganizing a order letter is just a practical way to begin draftinga written notification of pending purchase. You have alreadystarted this task by establishing your objective and determiningthe scope. Refer back to them. Together they make up the maincomponents in the body of your letter.A simple outline will get you organized. Make a list of thethings that your credit letter will include and put them in asequential order that will best help your reader comprehendyour response.If the information does not flow naturally, you may havesomething out of order. Feel free to move things around. Oncompletion you will have a simple outline


Close Your LetterAn order letter should close with a professional tone and style.Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a compli-mentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” and yourprinted name.If your order letter is written in conjunction with an officialduty, place your title below the printed name as in the sampleorder letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks,notification of attachments and copies sent to other individualsshould be placed beneath your title line.In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consultthe Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.

Review and Revise Your LetterReviewing and revising your order letter is the final step in thewriting process. You will check your draft in this step, makingsure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put

yourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine the rough draft.Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to compre-hend the request quickly and if enough information has beenincluded to enable a timely response.Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentencestructure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voiceis not as commanding as an active one. You want your order tobe strong, so write with an active voice.The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesivenessof the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense ofcompleteness. Ask yourself if the transitions between para-graphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style areconsistent throughout the text.Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead toconfusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood atall and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no realpurpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help yourreader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove allthat is not helpful.And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusionnow is the time. The introduction should lead into the letterwith a firm statement about the details of your order. Theconclusion should reiterate your objective and, when appropri-ate, contain any explicit instructions.This is the most common form of business communication,and it is written for a manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer.When writing an order letter, include all the information thereader will need to identify the merchandise, such as• Quantity• Model number• Dimensions• Capacity• Material• PriceAs shown in the sample order letter, the actual details areformatted into a table bracketed by very short opening andclosing paragraphs.

Example Order LetterDept. of EnglishColorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523May 23, 1999Ms. Dawn Snyder,ProfessorICU Technical CollegePortland, ME 04101Dear Ms. Snyder:Would you please send me the following articles via COD?According to your Web site, all articles are in your possessionand all is needed is the article name, date, and number of pages.


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Article Date Pages

"Role of Maine in the fishing strike of 1867" 1987 47

"Effect of Maine geography on the War of 1812" 1969 121

"World War II: From Androscoggin to York" 1997 4

Thank you very much,(signature here)I.B. Writing,Professor, CSUIW/gt

Sales LetterWhen writing a sales letter, it is important to have a goodattitude in order to sell your product or service, because thereader will want to know why they should spend their valuabletime reading the letter. Therefore, you need to provide clear,specific information that will explain to the reader why theyshould be interested in buying your product or service.Sales letters usually have a four-part strategy• Catch the reader’s eye: it is very crucial in a sales letter to attract

the reader’s attention or else you will probably fail to sell yourproduct or service

• Describe the product or service you are trying to sell• Convince your reader that your claims are accurate: back up

your comments with research and facts• Give the reader opportunities to learn more about your

product or service: provide the reader with a phone number,a Web site address, or some way for them to seek outinformation on their own

Example Sales LetterCloset Care1248 SE Lancaster BlvdTigard, OR 97225July 7, 1999Professor I.B. Writing,Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523Dear Mr. Writing:Are you having trouble organizing your clothes into yourexisting closets? If you are like most Americans, you havetrouble finding your favorite shirt when you really need it. Thisis why it is important to have an organized closet system.At CLOSET CARE, we have the skills and experience to comein and help you with your closet needs. May we stop by andoffer you a FREE estimate at how much it would cost you torebuild your closet? If so, give us a call at 555-1212 and set upan appointment with one of your friendly operators.Sincerely,(signature here)Kent LenoirPresidentKL/jt

Types of business lettersTypes of business letters

nn Letter of enquiryLetter of enquirynn Letter of complaintLetter of complaintnn Letter of invitationLetter of invitationnn Letter to the pressLetter to the pressnn Letter of acknowledgementLetter of acknowledgementnn Letters of goodwill or public relationsLetters of goodwill or public relations

Letter of enquiryLetter of enquiry

nn Introductory paragraphIntroductory paragraph–– Create goodwill with a friendly openingCreate goodwill with a friendly opening

nn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs–– Explain what information is requiredExplain what information is required–– List questions / information requiredList questions / information required

nn Closing paragraphClosing paragraph–– Promote goodwillPromote goodwill


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Reply to a letter of Reply to a letter of enquiryenquirynn Introductory paragraphIntroductory paragraph

–– Acknowledge receipt and express Acknowledge receipt and express appreciationappreciation

nn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs–– Answer all questions in detailAnswer all questions in detail–– Recommend someone to help if you are Recommend someone to help if you are

not able to helpnot able to help

nn Closing paragraphClosing paragraph–– Promote goodwill, offer further assistancePromote goodwill, offer further assistance

Letter of complaintLetter of complaint

nn Introductory paragraphIntroductory paragraph–– Create goodwill, positive noteCreate goodwill, positive note

nn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs–– Explain problem, provide all necessary Explain problem, provide all necessary

informationinformation–– Describe inconvenience or lossDescribe inconvenience or loss

–– Suggest a solution to the problemSuggest a solution to the problem

nn Closing paragraphClosing paragraph–– Promote goodwill, willingness to helpPromote goodwill, willingness to help

Reply to a complaintReply to a complaint

nn Introductory paragraphIntroductory paragraph–– Acknowledge receipt and thank the Acknowledge receipt and thank the

customercustomernn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs

–– Explain the cause of the problemExplain the cause of the problem–– Apologize if neededApologize if needed–– Explain how you plan to solve the Explain how you plan to solve the

problemproblemnn Closing paragraph of goodwillClosing paragraph of goodwill

Letter of invitationLetter of invitation

nn Introductory paragraphIntroductory paragraph–– Create goodwill, explain why invitedCreate goodwill, explain why invited

nn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs–– Provide info about function (type, date, Provide info about function (type, date,

time, place)time, place)–– Info about audience (gender, age, Info about audience (gender, age,

background, interests, expected number background, interests, expected number of people)of people)

The Seven CS of Business Letter WritingEffective letter writing boils down to knowing why you arewriting a letter, understanding your reader’s needs and thenclearly writing what you need to say. Every letter should be clear,human, helpful and as friendly as the topic allows. The bestletters have a conversational tone and read as if you were talkingto your reader. In brief then, discover the Seven-Cs of letterwriting. You should be• Clear


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• Concise• Correct• Courteous• Conversational• Convincing• CompleteWhen you write a letter, you are trying to convince someone toact or react in a positive way. Your reader will respond quicklyonly if your meaning is crystal clear.Put yourself in the reader’s shoes and write in a friendly andhelpful tone. Don’t represent your company as one that cannotmake a mistake and must always be in the right. Try not to replyin the normal bland and defensive way of organizations—writea sincere and helpful letter.Show you are interested in the reader’s circumstances. If he orshe has mentioned something personal in the letter, refer to itin your reply. This builds a bridge between you and the reader.Read the original letter carefully and see if there is somethingyou can put in your letter to show your interest.

Writing Your Business Plan in PlainEnglishGood writing is effortless reading that makes you want to readmore. It is clear and concise, uses short sentences and simplewords. It keeps to the facts and is easy to read and to under-stand.Plain English is clear English. It is simple and direct but notsimplistic or patronising. Using plain English doesn’t meaneveryone’s writing must sound the same. There is no one ‘right’way to express an idea. There’s plenty of room for your ownstyle—but it will only blossom once you have got rid of thepoor writing habits that are typical of most business writingHere are some of the key techniques to help you write in plainEnglish:

Use Active Verbs Rather Than PassiveVerbsUsing active verbs rather than passive verbs is the key to goodwriting. Why? Because passive verbs are longwinded, ambigu-ous, impersonal and dull. Active verbs make your writingsimpler, less formal, clearer and more precise. Here’s an example:Passive: It was agreed by the committee...Active: The committee agreed...Passive: At the last meeting a report was made by the Secre-tary...Active: At the last meeting the Secretary reported...Passive: This form should be signed and should be returnedto me.Active: You should sign the form and return it to me.In switching your style from passive verbs to active verbsthroughout your writing, you face several problems.• You must accurately spot them. Often writers miss passive

verbs or try to change verbs that are already active.• You need to measure your use of passive verbs. One or two

passive verbs a page will not ruin your style, nine or ten will.

• You need to know how to turn passive verbs to active verbs.

Keep Your Sentence Average Length LowSentence length is crucial to good writing. Almost everythingwritten by good writers has an average sentence length ofbetween 15 and 20 words. This doesn’t mean writing everysentence the same length. Good writers naturally vary the lengthand rhythm of their sentences—longer sentences balanced withshorter ones—but they keep their average sentence length wellbelow 20 words.

Compare These Examples

Long Sentence Shorter Sentences

I refer to my letter of 13th June and am writing to advise you that if we do not receive your completed application form within the next fourteen days, I shall have no alternative but to arrange property insurance on the bank's block policy. (One Sentence—45 words)

I have not yet received your reply to my letter of 13th June. If we do not receive your completed application form within fourteen days, I shall have to arrange property insurance on the bank's block policy.

(Two sentences—13 words and 24 words)

Use Simple Words Rather than ComplexOnesMany writers have difficulty keeping their message simple andclear. Instead of using everyday words they use complex orunfamiliar words. Simple, everday words will help you get yourmessage across. Too often we use words such as additional,indicate, initiate and proliferate for extra, show, start andspread.

Complex words Simple words

As we noted in the preceding section, if you purchased additional printer options, such as a second printer tray, it is a requirement you verify its correct installation.

As we noted in the previous section, if you bought extra printer equipment, such as a second printer tray, you must check you install it correctly.

Edit Wordy PhrasesPadding is the enemy of good writing. Unnecessary words andphrases clutter up sentences and obscure meaning. By compari-son, economy of words is the mark of good writing. You haveto learn to make every word count in technical documents. Youmust edit ruthlessly, cutting any word. Set yourself a target ofcutting 10 to 20 percent of the words in your document.


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Look for wordy phrases such as these in your writing andreplace them with a single word or cut them out completely:

Wordy Concise at a later date later

at the present time now

for the purpose of for

have no alternative but must

in addition to besides, as well as, also

In order to to

in relation to about, in, with, towards, to

on a regular basis regularly

Avoid Jargon and Technical TermsIt’s up to you to judge how much you need to explain yourindustry jargon and specialist terms by putting yourself in yourreaders’ shoes. Don’t overestimate your readers’ understandingof terms because they may have a hazy idea of the true defini-tion.It doesn’t insult the intelligence of your readers to explainterms clearly. Imagine a customer was sitting with you whenyou mentioned a technical term and asked ‘What’s that?’ Youwould explain in everyday language. Do the same when youwrite.

Avoid AbbreviationsThe most common and irritating form of jargon is overuse ofabbreviations. Here are some abbreviations. How many do youknow?

Acronym Meaning CRA Camera-ready Artwork DPI Dots Per Inch DTP Desktop Publishing PMS Pantone Matching System SC Spot Color

UGD User Guide Documentation

How many did you get right? Two out of six? Probably DPIfor dots per inch and DTP for desktop publishing as these areindustry terms. Many people would not recognize these two. Asfor CRA , camera-ready artwork would be better. SC for spotcolor is an unnecessary shortened form and UGD for UserGuide Documentation is jargon for a manual.

Avoid Abstract Words and PhrasesOne habit you should avoid, common to many writers, isoverusing abstract words. Here’s a list of the most commonones to avoid in your writing.

Abstract words to avoid in technical writing

Activities Devices Inputs Sectors

Amenities Elements Operations Structures

Amenity Facilities Outputs Systems

Aspects Factors Processes Variables

Concepts Functions Resources

For example, what is a device, output or facility. Such wordsare so abstract they become meaningless to the reader. Stringthem together, such as output device and you have instantjargon for the word printer . Add them to acronyms and youcan produce CAS Facility which in turn means Civic AmenitySite Facility, pure jargon for Council Recycling Site.


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UNIT 2CHAPTER 4: BUSINESS LETTER

LESSON 16: PRACTICE EXERCISES ON BUSINESS

LETTER

By the end of the lesson you should• Be perfect in writing letter particularly business letters.

Students, just learning the tips and format of letters will nothelp you in the long run. As you all know ‘practice makes a manperfect’ this lesson will help you remember what you studied inlesson 14 and 15 and try to put your learning into practice.I am sure at the end of the lesson you’ll have more confidentin writing business letters.So lets start the exercise

Practice Exercise on Personal LetterWriting SkillsOverview : Students need to practice writing a friendlyletter.Activity Time: 50 minutesObjectives:1. As a result of this activity, the students will2. Better understand parts of a greeting letter and envelope.3. Be able to address an envelope.4. Be able to write a letter to a friend.

MaterialsPoster of a letter and envelopeLabels to identify the parts of the letter and envelopePiece of paper and a envelope for each student in the class

Activities and Procedures

1. Call on different students to point out different parts of aletter and envelope.

2. The class will discuss writing a letter together (e.g., the classcould discuss writing to a person in the class or the principalof the school).

3. Have students write a friendly letter and address an envelopeto anyone they would like to write.

Evalution : This letter will be put into the student letterportfolio. On the fifth day spent on friendly letters, studentswill choose one of theirs to read aloud to the class. If this letteris chosen, students will type the letter and spell check it on thecomputer. The chosen letter will be graded according to theteacher’s rubric for letter writing evaluation.

Practice Exercise on Business LetterWriting Skills

Objective1. Students will become familiar with business letters and the

difference between a business letter and friendly letter.2. Students will know how to address an envelope for sending

business mail.

Procedure : Students will work from a format and prepare asample business letter. Parts of that business letter will bediscussed. Different formats of typed business letters will bediscussed.Here is the form that will be used:4 blank lines from top of page( Heading )skip line(Inside Address/address to recipient)__________________________________________________________1 blank lineDear Sir or Madam: (Salutation or Greeting)1 blank line(Body)Please send me any information that is available on the eventsin (City name) during the month of June. My mother, father,brother, and I plan to visit the area and will also need a list ofaccommodations and restaurants. Sometimes we camp if thereis a nearby campground. Please supply this information, also.Directions to places and maps of the area would be helpful.1 blank lineDo you have a web site where I might learn more about yourcity?1 blank lineI will appreciate any pamphlets or information sheets that youcould send me along with the activities, accommodations, andtheir directions to help us plan a fun and meaningful vacation.1 blank lineVery truly yours, (Closing)3 blank lines for your handwritten (Signature)(Your Name)Now students will discuss possible business letters thatthey may want or need to write in the future. Envelopeswill be prepared during this class, also.


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Evaluation Plan for Letters

Score 1 2 3 4

Layout/ Design

Letter is unattractive or inappropriate. Text is difficult to read. It does not have proper grammar or punctuation for a friendly letter.

Letter appears busy or boring. Text may be difficult to read. May have some grammar and or punctuation that indicates it is a friendly letter.

The letter is eye-catching and attractive. Text is easy to read. Grammar, style, and punctuation is indicative of a friendly letter.

The letter is creatively designed with easily read text. Grammar, style, and purpose all excellent for a friendly letter.

Information, style, audience, tone

Information is poorly written, inaccurate, or incomplete.

Some information is provided, but is limited or inaccurate.

Information is well written and interesting to read.

Information is accurate and complete, is creatively written, and is cleverly presented.

Accurate Parts of the Friendly Letter

Improper form is used.

Most friendly letter elements out of place or missing.

Some friendly letter elements may be missing.

Letter is complete with all required elements.

Letter

Grammar, Punctuation, and choice of words for the friendly letter

Grammar, punctuation, and choice of words poor for a friendly letter.

Information mislabled or missing. Inaccurate punctuation or grammar.

Style, purpose, audience, grammar, and punctuation all fair and indicative of a friendly letter.

Excellent job on presentation, style, grammar, and punctuation.

Following Classroom Guidelines and Directions

Students are often out of their area without permission and are disruptive to the class.

Students occasionally leave area without permission.

Students stay in their area and talk quietly to their own partner only.

Students are always on task, stay in their own area, and work quietly. Students followed project directions and classroom directions.

Rubric for the Friendly Letter

Suggested Point Scale

Heading 15 points Inside Address 15 points

Greeting 10 points Body 40 points

Closing 10 points Signature 10 points


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Rubric for the Business Letter

Score 1 2 3 4

Layout/ Design

Letter is unattractive or inappropriate. Text is difficult to

read. It does not have proper grammar or punctuation for a

business letter.

Letter appears busy or boring. Text may be difficult to read.

May have some grammar and or punctuation that indicates it is a business letter.

The letter is eye-catching and

attractive. Text is easy to read.

Grammar, style, and punctuation is indicative of a business letter.

The letter is creatively designed with easily read text. Grammar, style, and purpose all

excellent for a business letter.

Information, style, audience, tone

Information is poorly written, inaccurate, or

incomplete.

Some information is provided, but is

limited or inaccurate.

Information is well written and

interesting to read.

Information is accurate and

complete, is creatively written, and is cleverly

presented.

Accurate Parts of the Friendly Letter

Improper form is used.

Most business letter elements out of place

or missing.

Some business letter elements may be

missing.

Letter is complete with all required

elements.

Grammar, Punctuation, and

choice of words for the friendly letter

Grammar, punctuation, and

choice of words poor for a business letter.

Information mislabled or missing.

Inaccurate punctuation or

grammar.

Style, purpose, audience, grammar, and punctuation all

fair and indicative of a business letter.

Excellent job on presentation, style,

grammar, and punctuation.

Following Classroom Guidelines and

Directions

Students are often out of their area

without permission and are disruptive to

the class.

Students occasionally leave area without

permission.

Students stay in their area and talk quietly to their own partner

only.

Students are always on task, stay in their own area, and work

quietly. Students followed project directions and

classroom directions.

Layout/ Design

Letter is unattractive or inappropriate. Text is difficult to

read. It does not have proper grammar or punctuation for a

business letter.

Letter appears busy or boring. Text may be difficult to read.

May have some grammar and or punctuation that indicates it is a business letter.

The letter is eye-catching and

attractive. Text is easy to read.

Grammar, style, and punctuation is indicative of a business letter.

The letter is creatively designed with easily read text. Grammar, style, and purpose all

excellent for a business letter.


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UNIT 2CHAPTER 5: RECRUITMENT AND EMPLOY-

MENT CORRESPONDENCELESSON 17: RECRUITMENT AND EMPLOYMENT

CORRESPONDENCE

On completion of this lesson you will• Know the importance of recruitment correspondence

particularly job application letter.• Understand the tips on drafting an effective cover letter.

Students, all of you after completion of your course will eithergo for higher studies or go for jobs. This lesson will make youfamiliar with the components of recruitment correspondencewhich includes job application letter , preparation of CV andinterviews. We will focus on the job application letter, which isalso known as the cover letter.

Writing Job Application LettersThe job application letter’s sole purpose is to get the recipient toread your CV. It should be clear, concise and straight to thepoint. Here you are simply telling the employer that you areworth having a look at.The application letter should be brief, no more than one page inlength. It should be easy to read and flow through. It shouldinclude only the absolute necessary information. Like mostother things, there is a formula that works extremely well forpreparing job application letters. Following we discuss eachparagraph and give you some guidelines.

Addressing Job Application LettersThe style you choose is not important, there are many differentstyles of job applications and professional letters, this comesdown to personal preference. However somewhere on the top,whether it is on the right or left hand sides, there should beyour address and the date. Following this, on the left hand sideyou should address it. Ensure you include the name of theperson, their title, company name, address and any positionreference number. This is probably obvious, but ensure thatyou spell their name correctly, nothing worse than receiving aletter incorrectly addressed or misspelled. It gives a poor firstimpression.

The Introductory ParagraphThe first paragraph should simply state why you are writing tothem. If it is an advertised position, mention the position titleand where it was advertised. If you are “cold calling” a com-pany then you should specify that you are applying for anycurrent or future employment opportunities.An easy way to start this paragraph is with the followingstatement: “ Please find enclosed my CV, which I am forward-ing to you as an application for the position of.......”

The Main Body of Job Application LettersThe main body of the letter should be two to three paragraphsat the most. Here is where you tell them what you have to offerand why they should read your CV. This is a good time to read

the job advertisement again. In one paragraph (two at themost) you need to summarize your experience and skills, at thesame time, you need to respond to the position requirementsas per the advertisement.Analyze your career and summarize it in a few sentences,highlight what you specialize in, or how many years in theindustry you might have, or even the level that you have reached.This paragraph should direct the reader to your CV and shouldsell you on some unique points that you might have.A good way to start this paragraph is with a statement like this:“You will see from my enclosed CV....” then go ahead and tellthem something about your career which will immediately gettheir interest.The next part of the body of the letter should be a briefdescription of your personal skills. Again read the advertise-ment and respond to their needs. If they are asking forsomeone with good co-ordination skills, then ensure youmention something to that effect. If it is communication orperhaps leadership skills they value, then tell them that you havethese. Use adjectives like “demonstrated ability”, “well devel-oped”, “and strong”.

Job Application Letters ClosingParagraphThe closing paragraph should ask for some action from therecipient. This is where you ask for an interview. It should alsostate where and how they can reach you, and it should thank therecipient for giving you the opportunity to apply. You caninclude things like “should you require further information...” .Finish the letter by adding a closing remark, either “yourssincerely”, “yours faithfully’ or whatever you feel comfortablewith and obeying general letter writing etiquette. Leave a fewspaces for your signature and then place your full name.Before you mail the application letter, read it over again, makingsure that it is perfect. Special attention should be placed toensure the letter• It is not too long.• There are no grammar or spelling errors.• That you have answered the job requirements.• The application letter flows and is easy to read.You might have to type and edit the letter many times beforeyou are happy with it, but just remember that the job applica-tion letter is just as important as the CV itself. The lettershould invite the recipient to read the resume, in turn theresume should raise enough interest for them to want tointerview you. The Interview is where you will demonstrateyour skills and abilities.


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Cover Letters : How to Sell YourselfYour application letter is one of your most important job-search documents. An effective letter can get you a phone call foran interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spellscontinued unemployment. The difference can be a matter ofhow you handle a few key points. The following are some tipsto help you develop effective application letters.

Individualizing Your LetterGive your readers some insight into you as an individual. In theexample below the writer chose to describe particular experiencesand skills that could not be generalized to most other recentgraduates. Draft your letter to show how your individualqualities can contribute to the organization. This is your letter,so avoid simply copying the form and style of other lettersyou’ve seen. Instead, strive to make your letter represent yourindividuality and your capabilities.

Addressing a Specific PersonPreferably, the person you write to should be the individualdoing the hiring for the position you’re seeking. Look for thisperson’s name in company publications found, if the name isunavailable in these places, phone the organization and ask forthe person’s name or at least the name of the personnelmanager.

Catching Your Reader’s AttentionYour introduction should get your reader’s attention, stimulateinterest, and be appropriate to the job you are seeking. Forexample, you may want to begin with a reference to an adver-tisement that prompted your application. Such a referencemakes your reason for contacting the company clear andindicates to them that their advertising has been effective. Oryou may want to open by referring to the company’s product,which you want to promote. Such a reference shows yourknowledge of the company. Whatever opening strategy you use,try to begin where your reader is and lead quickly to yourpurpose in writing.

First Paragraph TipsMake your goal clear.• If you’re answering an advertisement, name the position

stated in the ad and identify the source, for example: “youradvertisement for a graphic artist, which appeared in theTimes of India, May 15, 1998,...”

• If you’re prospecting for a job, try to identify the job titleused by the organization.

• If a specific position title isn’t available or if you wish toapply for a line of work that may come under several titles,you may decide to adapt the professional objective stated inyour resume.

Additionally, in your first paragraph you should provide apreview of the rest of your letter. This tells your reader what tolook for and lets him or her know immediately how yourqualifications fit the requirements of the job. In the exampleletter, the last sentence of the first paragraph refers to specificwork experience that is detailed in the following paragraph.

Highlighting Your QualificationsOrganize the middle paragraphs in terms of the qualificationsthat best suit you for the job and the organization. That is, ifyour on-the-job experience is your strongest qualification,discuss it in detail and show how you can apply it to the needsof the company. Or if you were president of the MarketingClub and you are applying for a position in marketing or sales,elaborate on the valuable experience you gained and how youcan put it to work for them. If special projects you’ve doneapply directly to the job you are seeking, explain them in detail.Be specific. Use numbers, names of equipment you’ve used, orfeatures of the project that may apply to the job you want.One strong qualification, described so that the reader can pictureyou actively involved on the job, can be enough. You can thenrefer your reader to your resume for a summary of your otherqualifications. If you have two or three areas that you think arestrong, you can develop additional paragraphs. Make your letterstrong enough to convince readers that your distinctivebackground qualifies you for the job but not so long thatlength will turn readers off. Some employers recommend amaximum of four paragraphs.

Other Tips• Refer to your resume. Be sure to refer to your enclosed

resume at the most appropriate point in your letter, forexample, in the discussion of your qualifications or in theclosing paragraph.

• Conclude with a clear, courteous request to set up aninterview, and suggest a procedure for doing so. The dateand place for the interview should be convenient for theinterviewer. However, you’re welcome to suggest a range ofdates and places convenient to you, especially if you travel atyour own expense or have a restricted schedule. Be specificabout how your reader should contact you. If you ask for aphone call, give your phone number and the days and timesof the week when you can be reached.

• Be professional. Make sure your letter is professional informat, organization, style, grammar, and mechanics.Maintain a courteous tone throughout the letter andeliminate all errors. Remember that readers often “deselect”applicants because of the appearance of the letter.

• Seek advice. It’s always good idea to prepare at least onedraft to show to a critical reader for comments andsuggestions before revising and sending the letter.

Sample Letter311 Nestor StreetWest Lafayette, IN 47902

June 6, 1998

Ms. Christine RennickEngineerAerosol Monitoring and Analysis, Inc.P.O. Box 233Gulltown, MD 21038

Dear Ms. Rennick:

Dr. Saul Wilder, a consultant to your firm and my OrganizationalManagement professor, has informed me that Aerosol Monitoring and


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Analysis is looking for someone with excellent communications skills,organizational experience, and leadership background to train for amanagement position. I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstratethat I have the characteristics and experience you seek. In addition, I’dlike to mention how my work experience last summer makes me aparticularly strong candidate for the position.

As a promoter for Kentech Training at the 1997 Paris Air Show, Idiscussed Kentech’s products with marketers and sales personnel fromaround the world. I also researched and wrote reports on new productdevelopment and compiled information on aircraft industry trends. Theknowledge of the aircraft industry I gained from this position would helpme analyze how Aerosol products can meet the needs of regular andprospective clients, and the valuable experience I gained in promotion,sales, and marketing would help me use that information effectively.

I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualificationswith you. If you are interested, please contact me at (317) 555-0118 anymorning before 11:00 a.m., or feel free to leave a message. I look forwardto meeting with you to discuss the ways my skills may best serve AerosolMonitoring and Analysis.

Sincerely yours,

First Lastname

Enclosure: resume

Purdue University Writing Lab

Cover Letters

A presentation brought to you by the Purdue University Writing Lab


What Is a Cover Letter?

A cover letter expresses your interest in and qualifications for a position to a prospective employer.


What Should My Cover Letter Accomplish?

l Your cover letter should introduce the main points of your resume.

l It should also help you to “sell” your qualifications to the prospective employer.


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Header

Emma MarkleyHuman Resources DirectorSt. Luke's Medical Center729 S. PaulinaChicago, IL 60612

Dear Ms. Markley:

l Address your letter to a specific person, ideally to the person who will interview you.

l Look for the person’s name in company publications, or phone the organization and ask for the person’s name or for the personnel manager.


Preliminary Research

l Find out* General job

information* Desired qualifications

and skills* Key values and words

l Check with* Placement office files* WWW* Trade journals,

magazines, and newsletters

* Directories* Professors* Company literature


Introductory Paragraph

Your first paragraph should:l Get the reader’s attention, stimulate interest,

and be appropriate for the job you are seeking. l Make your goal clear to readers.l Preview the rest of your letter. Highlight the

qualifications you will discuss throughout the letter.


Solicited Application Letters

l Solicited application letters are letters written in response to an advertised job opening.

l It is appropriate to mention where you learned of the opening in the first paragraph.

I believe that my knowledge of public relations and my proven communication and leadership skills make me a strong candidate for theposition of Media Relations Coordinator that was posted by the Delta Airlines Job Opportunities Program.


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Unsolicited Application Letters

l Unsolicited application letters are written to companies that have not posted a job opening.

l It is important to gain the reader’s attention and persuade them that you can contribute to the company’s goals.

As a member of one of the fastest growing publishing houses in the world, do you have an opening in your acquisitions department for a recent college graduate with a major in English and publishing and editing experience?


Goals of the Body Paragraphs

l Highlight your strongest qualifications for the position for which you are applying.

l Demonstrate how these qualifications will benefit the employer.

l Refer employers to your enclosed resume.


Detailing Your Experience

l Show (don’t tell) employers your qualifications

l Include specific, credible examples of your qualifications for the position.

l Use numbers, names of equipment you've used, or features of a project that may apply to the job you want.

As a banking representative at Bank One, I provided quality customer service while promoting the sale of products to customers. I also handled upwards of $20,000 a day and was responsible for balancing the bank’s ATM machine.

Using Active Language— Don’ts

l Don’t be vague in your descriptions.

l Don’t use weak verbs such as endeavored, tried, hoped, and attempted.

l Don’t use sexist language such as chairman and manpower.

Vague: I worked as a ramp agent at Comair .

Weak: I attempted to attract customers.


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Using Active Language— Do’s

l Use concrete words to describe your experience.

l Use present tense to discuss current activities and past tense for previous job duties or accomplishments.

l Be as specific as possible in descriptions; list dollar amounts and figures when you can.

Vague: I worked as a ramp agent for COMAIR.

Specific : As a ramp agent, I assisted in loading baggage, oversaw fueling the aircraft, and stocked commissary items on the aircraft.

Weak: I attempted to attract customers.

Strong: I initiated a program to attract customers to Pizza Hut, which resulted in a 5% increase in sales for the month of June.

Organizing Your Letter

l In general, cover letters should be no longer than one typed page.

l Organize your body paragraphs to emphasize your strongest and most relevant qualifications. Only include the two or three strongest qualifications from your resume.

l Make it easy for readers to scan your letter by beginning each paragraph with a topic sentence.


Concluding Your Letter

I would welcome theopportunity to discuss these and other qualifications with you. If you are interested, please contact me at (317) 555 -0118 any morning before 11:00 a.m., or feel free to leave a message.

l Conclude by asking for a personal interview.

l Be flexible regarding a date and time for the interview.

l Be specific about how the interviewer should contact you.

l Include a thank you.

Mailing Your Letter With Your Resume

l Coordinate the design of your letter with the design of your resume.

l Be sure to send both to prospective employers; they both reveal different kinds of information about you.


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Key Points to Remember

l Appeal to company values, attitudes, goals, projects, etc.

l Elaborate on the information in your resume.

l Provide evidence of your qualifications.

l Proofread carefully for grammatical and typographical errors. The letter should be error-free.

How to Write a Winning Cover Letterby Dr. Jerry Bills, IJCTC, CPRW, MBA, Ph.D.,www.1GreatResume.comA cover letter introduces your resume and spells out yourreason for sending the resume. It also presents your qualifica-tions and availability to prospective employers. If written in asuccinct, appealing format, it is your first opportunity to makean impression with the hiring authority or HR department.By sending a cover letter with your resume you tell the readeryou are serious about your job search. It should entice thereader to review your resume over the many others received foreach open position.Professional resume writers are regularly asked, “Do I reallyneed a cover letter?” We always answer – yes – because sending aresume through the mail is like showing up at your physician’soffice without an appointment – you will probably get no-where. Your resume should arrive on the decision-maker’s deskwith a cover letter that introduces you and presents yourqualifications in such a manner as to entice him/her to actuallyread your resume.Cover Letters should be clear and to the point so that they canbe quickly scanned by the reader. They should include thespecific job title you are applying for. They should provided alist of reasons why your experience makes you a good fit withthe position. They should provide a brief summary of yourcareer highlights.Some resume writing firms and some Internet job search firmsoffer “Broadcast Cover Letters” where the cover letter is“canned.” Successful cover letters are personalized. A personal-

ized cover letter shows that you are serious about working forthe company. The letter should mention something specificabout the company and should be address to a specific indi-vidual whenever possible.The cover letter is an excellent vehicle to brag about your specialskills and accomplishments. Cover Letters can also be usedeffectively to make you stand out from the crowd and to showhow you would be a valuable addition to the company. But thecover letter is no place for negative information – personalityconflicts with previous managers, pending litigation, orknocking your previous employer do not belong in either theresume or cover letter.If the advertisement asks for salary history or willingness torelocate you can say something like “My salary requirements arein the range of $—— to$———, depending upon the dutiesand requirements of the position plus the overall benefitpackage offered” and “I am willing to relocate to the geographicareas of ———— and ——————.” If the advertisementis silent on salary requirement or relocation, never include suchinformation.One of the most effective tools of a cover letter is that it allowsyou to be proactive. You can state that you are available to fillimmediate or anticipated needs; you can provide a variety ofways to communicate with you (home number, cell phonenumber, email address or even a friend if you are traveling).You can also note that you will follow up by telephone toprovide additional information if necessary. You can even say“Please keep this resume and cover letter on your desk and I willcall you Friday morning” (or other specific date or time). If so,don’t forget to call.Jerry Bills, IJCTC, CPRW, MBA, Ph.D., is President of the ResumeCenter, Inc., a leading resume writing service providing resumes, coverletters, Internet posting, career transition counseling, and otherprofessional services. www.1GreatResume.com


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By the end of this lesson you will:• Know what Curriculum vitae is.• Learn different types of CV’s• Learn how to prepare a CV

LESSON 18:CURRICULUM VITAE

Students, now that you have learnt how to write a coveringletter, you also need to know about curriculum vitae. CV as it ismost commonly known, as is the first hurdle in getting a job.

3 Types of ResumeThere are three types of resume most commonly described.They are:

Chronological ResumeThe Chronological Resume is the most traditional method ofsummarizing your employment information and it is the onethat this guide advocates. Its key feature is the fact that itarranges your work experience chronologically and usuallyelaborates on skills and accomplishments within the body copyof the Work Experience section. Its weakness is the fact that itcan’t help you hide a recent position you’d rather forget you everaccepted.Points to remember with a Chronological Resume are:1. You should ideally relate your Work History to your current

targeted position2. You should have a stable Work History with few gaps and

nothing to be ashamed about3. Your Work History should demonstrate a logical progression

toward your current objective

Functional ResumeThe Functional Resume differs from the Chronological Resumein the way it presents information. Unlike a ChronologicalResume, which leaves you vulnerable to gaps in your workhistory, the Functional Resume can help you hide a pastposition that you’d rather forget. The Functional Résumé’s keyfeature is the fact that it highlights your skills and achievementswithout referring those skills to any particular past position. Forthis reason, the Functional Resume is a favorite with peoplewho have something to hide. This is a very good reason for notusing the format if your past Work Experience is nothing to beashamed of as recruiters/interviewers will be aware of thebenefits of a Functional Resume as well.Points to remember about a Functional Resume are:1. You should use it if your Work History is repetitive and

your past positions lack variety2. You should use it if your Work History is composed of

differing kinds of position types that do not form a cohesivewhole

3. You might want to use it if you are dramatically changingcareers. This will allow you to emphasize your transferable skillsrather than your growth in a certain kind of industry or job

4. You should use this type of resume if your skills have beenlearned through schooling rather than work experience.

5. You should use this type of resume if you are switchingcareer tracks or returning to the workforce after a hiatus.

Combination Resume (TransitionResume)Combines the best features of both of the former (though thatdoes not necessarily make it better) by allowing applicants tohighlight their skills and accomplishments in one section andtheir Work History in another (minus descriptive details). Mypersonal dislike for this form stems from the fact that it isharder to picture exactly how the person’s skills fit with theirexperience. It requires the employer to be a detective to someextent, and with a mass of resumes on their desk, chances arethey’ll give up before they have a positive picture of yourabilities.Points to remember about using a Combination Resume are:1. It can help you overcome some of the same difficulties a

Functional resume can, while maintaining the comfortablestructure of a Chronological Resume. However, it tends toabstract skills from experience which can call your expertiseinto question

Self-Preparation Before (Re) Writing aResumeBefore you start thinking about the actual content of yourresume, you really need to ask yourself a number of keyquestions.

What is Your Ideal Position?Think about the perfect job. Everybody’s is different. What is itabout the job you like? Working with people or not workingwith anybody?. Having plenty of projects or do you preferrepetitive tasks which free you mind?

What Kinds of Things Do You Like Doing?Think about your hobbies. Think about what you do at homein your sparetime that makes life worth living. Can you do itand get paid for it somewhere or in some form? It might notbe quite the same, but if your job evens contains an atom ofwhat you enjoy, you’ll find you like the job.

Think About Your Favorite Job in thePast; What Was It You Liked About It SoMuch?Was there a part-time job that you really enjoyed? Maybe the jobonly lasted a few months, but you really liked it. What was itabout that job that made you enjoy it so much? Could you findthose things in another job?


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Are There Gaps In Your Employment?If there are, it’s not the end of the world. Are those gaps legiti-mate? What were you doing during that time? Can you turn yourabsence from the workplace into a positive virtue? For example, ifyou were travelling during a gap of three months or so, what did itteach you. Try to sell it as a gain, rather than as a loss.

Reasons For Leaving Each Position?Figure out the best way to explain why you left each position.The idea is to present your move in the best light possible.Above all, be honest. Getting caught in a lie is far worse thanhaving to admit that you didn’t like a particular job. Remember,at some point your potential employer will contact your pastemployer to get their side of the story.

Resume Do’s & Don’ts

Do• Keep to one or two pages depending on experience• Describe your main functions, not what you did incidentally• Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your

present application• Include any special recognition, accomplishments or projects

you were involved with• Describe your former/current employer, including size of

company, type of industry, etc.• Write about yourself in a positive light• Strive to be concise and target your information to the

employer

Don’t• Try to fit too much on the page. (Leave some space on the

page)• List personal information such as marital status, race, age, etc.• Leave suspicious gaps in your Work History• Include salary requirements (leave that until an interview or

later)• Put a photograph on your resume (even if you do have a

scanner)• Use negative expressions or comments about previous

employers• Include any health information• Include references (separate sheet please)• Include reasons for leaving a previous job (save your reasons

for the interview)

Preparing the CVResume writing seems to be the part that gives people the mosttrouble. It isn’t that hard if you follow some guidelines.At some stage or another during your life, you will need toprepare a CV. If you are like most people, you will have manyattempts at preparing your resume before you actually getanything decent together. The problem is generally due to a lackin planning.The key to resume writing excellence is in presenting it the rightway. Most people make the error of just listing their experienceand qualifications, this ends up being a rather boring document.

A good resume should not only demonstrate your skills andexperience, but should also give the reader a good indication ofthe type of person you are. It needs to have personality.Following are some helpful hints on getting started, Definitionof a Resume and Types of CV’s.

Getting StartedLet’s start at the beginning, what exactly is a CV and what is it’spurpose.The sole purpose of a CV is to show the reader what you arecapable of.The CV is your selling document. It needs to be able to showyour prospective employer that you are the person that they arelooking for. This goes beyond experience, training and skills. Itneeds to demonstrate your personal strengths, capabilities andthe type of person you are.It also needs to be a concise document. Most employers willskim through all the CVs and put aside only 5-10 that might beworth reading. On average an employer will only spend around1-3 minutes on each CV. In other words your CV has to standout from the others.This does not mean that the CV should be full of graphics,colours or printed on coloured paper. Employers feel that ifyou have to use gimmicks to impress them, then you probablydon’t have anything to offer. The CV needs to have a clean,professional look about it. It needs to be easy to read andshould look balanced.The format or style you choose depends on the type of CV thatyou require, but no matter which one, the resume shouldalways be easy to follow and read.

Types of CV’sThe type of CV you decide on will depend entirely on the typeof position you are applying for. The key is to analyze what theemployer will be looking for and ensuring your CV will sell youin the best possible way.For example if you are applying for a Project Manager position,then the projects that you have handled in the past will beimportant. Your CV needs to list the type of projects, yourresponsibilities and any achievements. It is important to showthe relevance of what you have done in the past as it relates tothe position you are applying for.On the other hand, if the position you are applying for is morea “hands-on” type of job, and then your CV needs to demon-strate your “hands-on” experience in these areas. Againhighlighting the relevance to the position.The Chronological CV is the easiest to write. It should alwaysbe written with your current or most recent position first.Showing your responsibilities and achievements that would berelevant to this position.If the job is more of a technical nature, then you need to preparea “technical style” resume. There are other types of resumes,Graduates need to use a different approach. A different approachwould be used for someone seeking a career change.The style that you choose will depend on which one will serveyou best.


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The Graduates CVTo successfully sell yourself to a prospective employer, as agraduate, you need to show him your strengths and minimizeyour weaker points. The way to do this successfully is toemphasize on your studies and the relevant experience you have.At this stage of your career, it is probable that your recentgraduate studies are your biggest selling point and thereforethey need to be at the forefront of the CV, The CV should beformatted in a way so that straight after your personal detailsand the career statement, your education is listed.The order in which you list your subjects is very important.Subjects that are relevant to the position you are applying forshould be listed first, highlight any special marks or achieve-ments in each subject. Thesis and papers written should also bementioned just as you would with any achievements.If you have failed or not completed any subjects, do notmention these, if need be they can be mentioned at theinterview.The CV should also mention any work experience (paid or notpaid) that you have. Start by listing the most relevant work firstand work your way through others.Employers like to know what you are capable of, and even ifyou were paying your way through College by cooking at thelocal diner, the fact that you held a responsible position andhave some skills becomes relevant. The key here is to try andturn your skills around and demonstrate how they are valuableto the new job. Don’t expect the employer to see the relevancehere, it is up to you to highlight them.For example let’s say you worked at the local video store, notvery relevant to Engineering right? Wrong, it is how you presentthe information that makes all the difference.Mentioning things like “customer service”, “inventory control”,“working under stressful conditions” or even “maintainingaccurate records” can take on a new meaning when applied tothe Engineering profession.What you want to achieve with this graduate CV style, is todemonstrate that you have the qualifications, some relevantexperience and most importantly the right attitude.Throughout the CV you should be displaying an eagerness tolearn and a high degree of motivation. This is what a prospec-tive employer will be looking for. Someone that is willing tolearn, study further and adapt easily.When applying for a position, ensure you have a good applica-tion letter, written specifically for the position and highlightingyour qualification and most importantly the right attitude. Thesame applies with the interview, you need to demonstrate theseskills and an enthusiastic attitude, that will get you the job!

Guide to Successful Job InterviewsHandling job interviews is probably the most critical part of thewhole job searching process. There are numerous books on thesubject and just about everyone has something to say on thematter. Mention job interviews and most people will have ahorror story to tell you about some experience they had.This section has been written to give you some practical adviceon handling job interviews successfully. We’ll discuss various

elements like interviewing methods, what to expect, how tohandle those tricky questions, preparation, what to take withyou, what to discuss and what not to discuss.The job interview is a time for them to get to know you better.They have already decided that you have the experience andknowledge that they require, that is why they want to meet youin person. What they really want to see at the interview is whoyou are. Your attitude and personality are going to be the mostimportant factors in the decision making process.

Preparing For Job InterviewsPreparing for job interviews is probably the most importantaspect. Do this right and you will breeze through it, gounprepared and you will fail miserably. Preparing for a jobinterview means getting your mind right and feeling confident.Remember you are the best person for the job, you just have toshow them that.Firstly do some research on the company and its products,know who their customers are and what the company’sobjective is. Once you have this information, then make a listof what skills or knowledge you have that would be valuable tothem. You cannot sell yourself to them if you don’t knowwhat it is you are selling.Next thing to prepare is your physical appearance. You have todress right for job interviews, don’t wear anything too flashy,neat and clean are more important than the latest fashion. Theaim is to look professional without overdoing it. If you are notcomfortable with a shirt and tie, it might be best not to wearone, unless the job will require you to dress this way. It isimportant that you feel comfortable, the last thing you want is tobe worried about your appearance during the interview. It willonly make you nervous and you will quickly lose confidence.Work out what you need to take with you. A copy of your CV,originals (and copies) of your qualification papers, copies ofreferences, samples of your work (if applicable) and anythingelse that they may want to see. Again make sure everything iswell organised and neatly presented. Don’t take a pile ofpaperwork that you have to sift through for ten minutes to findsomething, that will give them the impression that your aredisorganised.

Interviewing MethodsAs the job market becomes more competitive, so do screeningmethods. Employing a new person is an expensive exercise andcompanies want to ensure they do it right. When the jobmarket becomes more competitive, new interviewing methodsare introduced. It is not uncommon these days to be putthrough a series of tests and interviews before a companymakes the final decision.Some of the processes that you might experience include:Aptitude tests: These tests are designed to find your personal-ity traits. They would be looking for a particular type of personand this test will show them if you fit their profile. You can’tcheat in these tests, if you attempt to “formulate” youranswers, the results of the test will show. Be honest here, youcan’t hide who you are.


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IQ/Thinking tests: These have been prepared to work outyour analytical and logical thinking patterns. To some extentgeneral knowledge would be useful, however they are reallygeared towards finding out how you analyse data and findsolutions to problems. Again it is impossible to cheat on thesetests, but a little preparation would go a long way. Prepare forthis test by doing some logical thinking puzzles. There are lotsout there in the bookshops.General knowledge : Tests in this section include mathemati-cal, grammar, spelling and general knowledge. Preparing to takesome of these will include doing a revision of you school work.Forget the calculator and go back to pencil and paper. If you area wiz at maths, then you should have no problem, but if youare like the rest of us that reaches out for the calculator, then getsome practice prior to attending.Panel Job Interviews : These can be nerve wracking types ofinterviews, however, most job interviews these days include apanel. The panel might just 2 people or it can be as many as 10.To handle this interview well, you must appear to be confident,don’t hesitate too long before you give an answer. Watch yourposture and try not to fidget too much. When answering aquestion make eye contact with one or two of the people. Finda friendly face and use that person for most of your eye contact,it will help in making you feel more relaxed.One on one job interviews : These type of interviews areeasier to handle, they are generally more informal. The best wayto handle these type of interviews is to relate to them as a formof conversation. You should ask questions and exchangeinformation as you would during a normal conversation. Offeryour own information as needed without waiting to be asked.Handling job interview questions:There are various types of questions asked at a job interview.Most job interviews start with chit-chat type of questions, theseare designed to break the ice and get the conversation flowing.Questions like “did it take you long to get here”, “did you findthe place alright”, “were you able to find parking”. Most ofthese just require a “yes, no problem” type of response, you canelaborate more if you wish, however ensure that you don’tprovide information that will give them a bad impression.Saying something like “It took me ages to get here, traffic wasso bad, I hate travelling to this side of town..” would notmake a good impression. If this is the place where you wouldbe working, they would automatically be worried that you willbe late to work everyday.Most questions will be geared towards finding out a bit moreabout you. They might be historical questions regarding yourprevious employment or education, or they may be hypotheticalquestions “what if...”. These are geared to finding out howyou would handle a situation or to find out your personalviews to certain areas.Whenever answering a job interview question, give as muchinformation as you can. Tell them why, where, when and how.In other words use samples to prove what you are saying. Makea statement, then qualify it by giving a sample of a situation andhow you handled it.

There are times that you will be asked a hard question during ajob interview. Don’t panic, there is a reason why these ques-tions are asked and that is to see how you handle a difficultsituation. Being prepared is always the best policy.Following are some samples of questions and some advice onhow to handle them efficiently.How would you handle a difficult customer?: Be careful here,don’t say that you have never had a difficult customer as anyonewho has dealt with customers knows that is impossible. Use asample to demonstrate how you handle a difficult customer.Talk about an incident at a previous job (where, when), explainthe situation, how you handled it, and what the outcome was.Why should we choose you? : Ask yourself why you applied,what makes you prefect for this position, what can the companygain from hiring you, what have you got to offer, how wouldyou handle this job. This is what they want to know, so goahead and tell them.Tell me about yourself: Split your answer into two, theprofessional and the personal level. Both are just as important,how you move from one to the other depends on what youhave to say. The best way to answer this job interview questionis to give a brief summary of your life, professional andpersonal, less emphasis on the early past, more emphasis on thepresent and the future.What are your weaknesses?: Don’t say ‘I don’t have any”.Everyone has weaknesses and it takes strength to recognizethem. Say something relevant but not hugely important to thespecific position, and always add a positive. Something like “Ihaven’t had a lot of exposure to on-site maintenance, howeverI am looking forward to being more involved in dealing withcustomers directly and learning their needs”.What are your strengths?: Customize your answer to meet theposition requirements, remember the things they asked for inthe advertisement? Tell them your strengths but also demon-strate them and show them how they would apply to this job.Use samples of how your strengths were valuable, use the“why, where, when, how” demonstrate and prove yourstrengths.Job interviews are not that bad, so long as you are prepared.Maintain good eye contact and ensure that you have somequestions to ask. job interviews are a two way process, aconversation where they want to get to know you better andyou want to find out more about the position.Above all, try and keep calm, smile and show professionalism.

E-mailing ResumesSubmitting a resume to an employer via e-mail requires a littlethought if you are going to avoid some of the more commonpitfalls. Do you send your resume in the body of an e-mail oras an attachment? If you are sending an attachment, whatformat should it be in? Perhaps you want to take advantage ofthe web and demonstrate your online savvy by serving yourresume straight off the Internet?


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E-mailing Your Resume in the body of anE-mailYou may have spent hours on Word or WordPerfect nicelyformatting your resume, but when you send it in the body ofan e-mail, guess what? All your hard work gets turned into crazyampersands, dollar signs and *@*&**$.

How Do You Avoid This?Prepare a special copy of your resume for inclusion in the bodyof an e-mail. Create your resume in a plain text (ASCII) formatwith an application like Windows’ WordPad or Notepad. Ifyou prefer to use your favorite Word Processor (Word, Works,WordPerfect), they’ll also allow you to save your resume to plaintext. No matter what operating system or e-mail client applica-tion the employer is using, they’ll be able to read your resume ifit’s in text form.While including your resume in the body of an e-mail gives itnear guaranteed accessibility, there is the problem of formatting.Somehow or other, e-mails invariably look worse once they’vegone through the wringer known as the Internet. A perfectlyjustified e-mail message with bolding and italics becomes aseries of jagged text edges and lost formatting.Appearance is very important in a resume and althoughpotential employers realize the nature of e-mail is disorganizedwhen it comes to style, they still like to see a nice lookingresume. It’s the nature of employers.How do you achieve both goals - universal readability andpresentability? First, keep the resume simple. Align all the textto the left of the page. Don’t make it more complicated thanthat. Forget tab spaces. Forget bolding and italicizing. Useupper-case letters and line breaks to create headings rather thandiffering sizes of fonts.Choose a basic font that exists on everyone’s machine: TimesRoman, Arial or Courier are common examples. Make sure noline exceeds 72 characters; after that it may break awkwardly andcreate an odd pattern of sentences on down to the bottom ofthe resume.Finally, e-mail yourself a copy of your resume and proof-read it.Does it make sense? Good, start sending it out to companies.

E-mailing Your Resume as an AttachmentWhat about sending your resume as an attachment andavoiding the trouble of converting your resume to a text file?Here are some of the disadvantages associated with e-mailingyour resume as an attachment:i. Opening an attachment can be time-consuming if you are an

employer answering hundreds of applications a day.ii Attachments are sometimes corrupted by the time an

employer tries opening the file.iii. Attachments are sometimes created in formats the employer

cannot open (i.e. Works, Wordstar).Ever wonder how many employers never got back to youbecause they couldn’t/wouldn’t open your resume? Scarythought, isn’t it? All those missed opportunities.So, should you resist sending your beautifully formatted Worddocument altogether? The answer is no. Include your resume in

the body of your e-mail for easy reference but also attach aproperly formatted version for later use if the employer wishesto pursue you as a potential employee.Some advice on creating attachments might also be useful here.Try to create your attachment in a format you know a largenumber of people will be able to access. Word is good for mostbusinesses, while WordPerfect is ideal only if you are sendingyour resume to a legal firm. Try to avoid creating and attachingyour resume as MS Works files or Wordstar, etc. You may usethese programs to create basic .txt or .doc files though, whichanyone should be able to view.Some people attach their resumes as HTML files. This has theadvantage of being almost as universal as a text or documentfile because most businesses have a browser on their worksta-tions. HTML files are restricted in their formatting though anddo not always copy nicely to other text based programs,especially those used as resume databases by companies.

Serving Your Resume off the WebYou want to show employers you are web savvy so you takeyour resume and turn it into a website. Now you send prospec-tive employers an e-mail, directing them to your site, “If youwant to see my resume, click here.”Big mistake. What busy employer is going to take the time toconnect to the Internet to download the resume of a personthey know nearly nothing about?Do not expect an employer to do your hard work for you. Ifyou send an employer an e-mail directing them to your resume,you are committing a gross breach of business etiquette (not tobe confused with netiquette).What you are doing is the offline equivalent of mailing anemployer a letter which says, “If you want to see my resume,send a stamped addressed envelope to such and such addressand I’ll mail it back to you.”Not all employers have easy access to the web. Many companiesprohibit internal use of the web owing to productivity issues.Other times, your vaunted webpage will come back “NotFound” or your page may take forever to load. Perhaps yourresume is linked to other pages on your site with less thansavory material. Even if the potential employer does visit yoursite, copying your resume as HTML can be a pain (forget aboutformatting, it’s every word for itself).In most cases, the employer will probably not bother with yourresume at all.It is, however, acceptable to include a link to your online resumeas long as you also send a text copy with the e-mail. Indeed,your web resume might well contain more information orsamples of your work than it would be possible or desirable toinclude in a normal resume.


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Ten Keys to a Dynamite ResumeTo help you construct a better, more powerful resume, here areten overall considerations in regard to your resume’s contentand presentation:1. Position title and job description. Provide your title, plus a

detailed explanation of your daily activities and measurableresults. Since job titles are often misleading or their functionmay vary from one company to another, your resume shouldtell the reader exactly what you’ve done. (Titles such asaccount manager, business analyst, and internal consultantare especially vague.)

2. Clarity of dates and place. Document your work historyaccurately. Don’t leave the reader guessing where you wereemployed, or for how long. If you’ve had overlapping jobs,find a way to pull them apart on paper, or eliminatementioning one, to avoid confusion.

3. Detail. Specify some of the more technical, or involvedaspects of your past work or education. Have you performedtasks of any complexity, or significance? If so, don’t be shy;give a one or two sentence description.

4. Proportion. Give appropriate attention to jobs oreducational credentials according to their length, orimportance to the reader. For example, if you wish to beconsidered for a position at a bank, don’t write oneparagraph describing your current job as a loan officer,followed by three paragraphs about your high schoolsummer job as a lifeguard.

5. Relevancy. Confine your curriculum vitae to that which is job-related or clearly demonstrates a pattern of success. Forexample, nobody really cares that your hobby is spear fishing,or that you weigh 137 pounds, or that you belong to anactivist youth group. Concentrate on the subject matter thataddresses the needs of the employer.

6. Explicitness. Leave nothing to the imagination. Don’tassume the resume reader knows, for example, that theUniversity of Indiana you attended is in westernPennsylvania, or that an “M.M.” is a Master of Music degree,or that your current employer, U.S. Computer Systems, Inc.,supplies the fast-food industry with order-taker headsets.

7. Length. Fill up only a page or two. If you write more thantwo pages, it sends a signal to the reader that you can’torganize your thoughts, or you’re trying too hard to make agood impression. If your content is strong, you won’t needmore than two pages.

8. Spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Create an error-freedocument that is representative of an educated person. Ifyou’re unsure about the correctness of your writing (or ifEnglish is your second language), consult a professionalwriter or copy editor. At the very least, use a spell-checkprogram if you have access to a word processor, and alwaysproofread what you’ve written.

9. Readability. Organize your thoughts in a clear, concisemanner. Avoid writing in a style that’s either fragmented orlong-winded. No resume ever won a Nobel Prize for

Letter of appointmentLetter of appointment

nn IntroIntro–– Create goodwill by congratulating on Create goodwill by congratulating on

appointmentappointmentnn Other paragraphsOther paragraphs

–– Provide complete info about positionProvide complete info about position–– Job title, conditions of service, salary Job title, conditions of service, salary

scale, working hours, leave, fringe scale, working hours, leave, fringe benefits, memberships, commencement benefits, memberships, commencement date, time, place, contact persondate, time, place, contact person

Letters of appointmentLetters of appointment

–– Indicate whether the applicant should Indicate whether the applicant should reply telephonically or in writing and reply telephonically or in writing and when contract should be returnedwhen contract should be returned

nn ClosingClosing–– Express hope that the applicant will Express hope that the applicant will

accept the offer and that you hope to accept the offer and that you hope to spend many years working togetherspend many years working together


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literature; however, an unreadable resume will virtuallyassure you of starting at the back of the line.

10. Overall appearance and presentation. Select the proper visualformat, type style, and stationery. Resume readers have becomeused to a customary and predictable format. If you deviate toomuch, or your resume takes too much effort to read, it’llprobably end up in the trash, even if you have a terrificbackground.Resume writing can be tricky, especially if you haven’t done itbefore. I suggest you write several drafts, and allow yourselfthe time to proofread for errors and ruminate over what you’vewritten. Practice, after all, makes perfect. If you have aprofessional associate whose opinion you trust, by all means,listen to what he or she has to say. A simple critique can saveyou a great deal of time and money.I worked with a candidate recently who had the mostbeautifully written resume I’ve ever seen. When I asked himabout it, he said that he sharpened his skills by writing andrewriting his wife’s resume. After he got the hang of it, heworked on his own — and kept revising it on a monthly basis.


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LESSON 19:OFFER OF EMPLOYMENT

By the end of this lesson you will• Understand the meaning of a job offer letter and

resignation letter.• Learn the structure of these letters.• Understand the role of Job descriptions in recruitment.

Students can you tell me how do you apply for a job? Yes, youneed a very attractive CV and a job application letter, which isalso called as a cover letter. On the basis of the CV you will becalled for an interview and then finally selected or rejected. Ifselected the company will give you an offer letter, which youneed to sign and give a copy of it back to the company.In this lesson we will learn about the format of a job offer letterand resignation letter. Lets start by job offer letter.

Offer of EmploymentAfter all the interviews have been conducted a shortlist may bedrawn up and second interviews held. Once a decision has beenmade on the successful candidate, a formal offer of employ-ment will be sent to the successful applicant. Depending on thesize of the organization, a separate contract of employmentmay be drawn up. Here we will deal with a simple offer letterenclosing a job description.

Moonlit Holdings plc Temple Street, Delhi ll

Tel: +91(1)2542555Fax: +91(1)2 555 4444 Email: [email protected]

LD/ST20 June 2000Miss Anita Gupta26 Gandhi NagarCalcuttaDear Miss GuptaTelephone Executive (Marketing)Thank you for attending the recent interview.I am pleased to offer you this post commencing on Monday 2August 2000.Full details of the post are shown on the attached Job Descrip-tion. The terms and conditions of employment will be as laiddown in our Contract of Employment which is also enclosed.Please let me have written confirmation of your acceptance ofthis post as soon as possible.Two other telephone Executives will start work on the same day. The 2nd of August will be spent on an induction trainingcourse. Please report to out reception on at 09:00 and ask for mySecretary, Miss Madhu Chopra.

I look forward to welcoming you to the staff of MoonlitHoldings plc.Yours sincerely

Ankita SharmaHuman Relations ManagerEncsCopy: Bhasker Pandey. Marketing Manager

ThinkDoes companies issue a formal contract of employment?

What issues are covered in this?

Job DescriptionA job description states the title of the post and to whom theperson reports, as well as giving full details of the duties andresponsibilities involved.

Moonlit Holdings plc

Job Description

Job Title Telephone Executive (Marketing)Location Marketing Department, Head OfficeResponsible to Marketing ManagerMain purpose of job To telephone customers with the

objective of identifying opportunities where business can be increased

Main Duties and Responsibilities1. Two achiev e daily call rate targets and any target set for sale

campaigns.2 To have a good telephone manner and be courteous to

customers at all times.3 To carry out any administrative requirements generated by

the telephone calls in an accurate and efficient manner. Thismay include sending letters, fax messages reports, productliterature, etc.

4 To undertake training courses to make good use oftelephone selling techniques.

5 To undertake training on the company’s products andservices and to promote associated products whereappropriate.

6 To carry out competitor market research by contacting theirbranches to gather information on pricing, productavailability etc as directed by your supervisor.


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7 To communicate clearly and effectively with other employeesin the company an necessary.

8 To carry out any other tasks as requested by your supervisor.LD/ST20 June 2000

ThinkDiscuss the difference between a job description and a job specification

Letter of acceptanceLetter of acceptance as the word says it all, is given to thecompany accepting the job offer as well as the terms andconditions. It is writing a formal letter to the company acceptingthe post. Keep it simple.26 Gandhi NagarCalcutta25 June 2000Ankita SharmaHuman Relations ManagerMoonlit Holding plcTemple StreetDelhiDear Mrs. Sharma

Telephone Executive (Marketing)Thank you for your letter of 20 June 2000.I am please to confirm my acceptance of this post as detailed inthe job Description and Contract of Employment.I shall look forward to joining the staff of Aurora Holdings plc.Yours sincerely

Anita Gupta (Miss)

Letter of ResignationWhen you have been in employment and want to leave forwhatever reason. It is usual to write a formal letter resigningfrom your post.25 June 2000Mrs. Ruby BhatiaAdministration ManagerMoonlit Holdings plcTemple Street, Delhi llDear Mrs. BhatiaFurther to our discussion today I regret to inform you that Iwish to give one month’s notice of my resignation from thecompany. My last day of work will be Friday 30 July.I have been very happy working here and found my work veryvaried and enjoyable. I have gained a lot of experience in manyareas which I am sure I shall find useful in future employment.Thank you for your help and guidance.Yours sincerelyAnita Gupta (Miss)

Testimonial (letter of recommendation)It is useful to ask previous employers for testimonials, as therewill be useful when applying for future posts.

Calcutta Technical College16 Gandhi Nagar

CalcuttaTelephone: 5 876789

Fax: 5876889HB/GB28 June 2000To Whom It May ConcernMiss Anita Gupta has been part-time Administration Assistantin our General Office from 24 May 1999 to 28 June 2000. Weasked her to join us on a permanent part-time basis after shehad been with us for several short periods of work experienceduring her Business Administration course.Miss Gupta carried out a wide range of general office dutiesincluding opening and distributing mail, photocopying, filing,dealing with general telephone and walk-in enquiries andentering data into out computer systems.A conscientious, hard-working and reliable employee, MissGupta set herself very high standards in her work. She had apleasant telephone manner and was always courteous whendealing with her colleagues and external contacts. She was agood timekeeper and had a good attendance record.Miss Gupta has a friendly, outgoing personality, a good senseof humor and she works well as part of a team.I feel sure that Miss Gupta will be an asset of any organization.Helen Bradley (Mrs.)Administration Manager

Writing a Letter of ResignationKeep Your Letter of Resignation SimpleWriting a letter of resignation may be an unpleasant task, butthere’s really not that much to it. In its simplest form, you justdate your letter of resignation, say when and what you’reresigning, sign it, hand it over, and that’s it. Five minutes, andyou’re done.Unless you possess the judgment of an attorney and style of aprofessional writer, don’t write much more in your letter ofresignation, if you wish to use your soon-to-be ex-employer asa reference. There’s really no need to explain your reasons forresigning anyway. For one thing, it’s really nobody’s businessbut your own. For another, however honorable your reasonsmay be, it’s very hard to strike just the right tone in writing.For example, if you write in your letter of resignation thatyou’ve found a more challenging career opportunity, it impliesthat you’re bored with your current job. If you write that you’rehaving family or health problems, you just documented thatyou might be a risky hire. Your words may haunt you down theroad, when a potential employer contacts your former employ-ers as references.


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In other words, try not to leave anything up to the interpreta-tion (or rather, misinterpretation) of the reader when writingyour letter of resignation.

Guidance on Writing Job Descriptions &Person Specifications

Job Description

1 A job description should clearly and accurately set out theduties and responsibilities of the job. It should include:

• The job title• The department• The grade• Work relationships - to whom the post holder reports and

for whom the post holder is responsible• Brief summary of job function or main purpose of the job• Main duties and responsibilities with indication of % of

time spent• Occasional duties with indication of % of time spent• Any special working conditions (e.g. shift or weekend

working, call out arrangements, periods when leave cannotbe taken, etc.)

• Purpose and frequency of contact with others• Signed agreement by postholder and date2. Items which should be considered for inclusion in job

descriptions are:• Actively follow UCL policies including ‘Equal Opportunities’• Attend staff meetings and training as required• Maintain an awareness and observation of Fire and Health &

Safety Regulations• Carry out any other duties as are within the scope, spirit and

purpose of the job, the title of the post and its grading asrequested by the line manager or Head of Department/Division

Note: This job description reflects the present requirements ofthe post. As duties and responsibilities change and develop thejob description will be reviewed and be subject to amendmentin consultation with the postholder.3 The language used in job descriptions should:• Avoid jargon and unexplained acronyms and abbreviations• Be matched to the type of job and be readily understood by

the employees concerned• Avoid ambiguity about responsibility and be clear about the

post-holder’s accountability for results and resources

Drawing Up The Person SpecificationThe following notes give guidance on drawing up a personspecification. The associated selection criteria pro forma may beused for the purpose of developing the person specification andrecording how applicants measure up against the specification.The Person Specification should be derived from and thereforedrawn up after the job description and before advertisement.The criteria set out in it are the only criteria against which

applicants should be assessed at the shortlisting, test andinterview states. The criteria must:• Be specific• Be justifiable in relation to the job needs• Not be unnecessarily restrictive (for example, in relation to

qualifications required)Criteria are categorized as essential or desirable• Essential criteria are those which a successful appointee must

possess, otherwise, they will be unable to adequately performthe job; inflation of the job requirements (for example, theamount of previous work experience required) should beavoided.

• Desirable criteria are those that may enable the candidate toperform better or require a short familiarization period.

Care should be taken to avoid indirect discrimination in personspecifications, for example by setting unjustifiable age limits.(see below).

Elements of the Person SpecificationKnowledge can be derived in a number of ways, for exampleeducation, training, or experienceSkills are practical abilities gained through study or practiceAptitude is the ability to attain knowledge or to develop a skill

Qualifications/Training• There are a wide variety of educational, vocational and

professional qualifications (together with their foreignequivalents); for some jobs a particular qualification may beessential, while for others no single qualification may bemost appropriate and experience may be of just as muchimportance as a formal qualification. Where qualifications aredeemed essential these should reflect the minimum basiceducational requirements necessary to carry out the job to anacceptable standard.

• Candidates will increasingly come forward with NationalVocational Qualifications (NVQs). The qualificationsrecognize the achievement of employment-led standards ofcompetence. Where possible, requirements for specificemployment competence should be expressed in terms ofpossession of the relevant NVQ at the required level.

Previous Experience• The type of experience applicants are required to have should

be specified; however, stipulating length of experiencerequired should be used cautiously because quality ofexperience is more important than length of experience.

• Note that experience can sometimes be transferable from onearea of work to another, in which case skills may be moreimportant than a narrow definition of experience.

Other Requirements• It may be necessary to specify “availability to attend evening

meetings” or “possession of a driving license’, but youshould distinguish between need and convenience and weighup need against discriminatory effect.

• Remember the possibility of adaptations or aids to enable adisabled person to fulfill a requirement.


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You Won the Race!You have the JOB of your dreams!

Now it’s time to write the JOB ACCEPTANCE LETTER!

nn PurposePurposenn What to IncludeWhat to Includenn SpecificsSpecificsnn FormatFormatnn ToneTone

The Purpose

nn Accepts a job offerAccepts a job offernn Briefly reaffirms the offer to complete the Briefly reaffirms the offer to complete the

legal contract between you and the firmlegal contract between you and the firmnn May request clarification May request clarification

What to Include:

nn Appreciation for the OfferAppreciation for the Offer

nn Statement of AcceptanceStatement of Acceptance

nn Brief Reaffirmation of Employment ConditionsBrief Reaffirmation of Employment Conditions

nn Any Instructions Based on Employment or Any Instructions Based on Employment or NoticesNotices

What to Include:1. Appreciation for the Offer

•• Placement: First ParagraphPlacement: First Paragraph•• Be appreciative and sincereBe appreciative and sincere•• Reaffirm Offer: Clearly restate the job offer Reaffirm Offer: Clearly restate the job offer

you received.you received.For Example: For Example: “Thank you for offering me a Sales Associate “Thank you for offering me a Sales Associate

Position at Denmark Inc.” Position at Denmark Inc.”


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What to Include:2. Statement of Acceptance

nn Placement: Placement: Follows the “Appreciation for the Offer” in the Follows the “Appreciation for the Offer” in the First ParagraphFirst Paragraph

nn Clearly state that you accept the position that was Clearly state that you accept the position that was offered to youoffered to you

Can I still negotiate job conditions in my acceptance letter?

nn Any issues or job details that may be negotiable, should Any issues or job details that may be negotiable, should not not be addressed for the first time in a job acceptance be addressed for the first time in a job acceptance letter.letter.

nn When accepting a position, the applicant should have a When accepting a position, the applicant should have a complete understanding of the position and related details.complete understanding of the position and related details.

nn It is not appropriate to address serious issues or concerns It is not appropriate to address serious issues or concerns after accepting a position.after accepting a position.

nn The applicant should discuss any questions or concerns The applicant should discuss any questions or concerns he/she may have with the employer before accepting a job he/she may have with the employer before accepting a job offer.offer.

What to Include:3. Reaffirmation of Employment

Conditionsnn Placement: Placement:

Within the body of the letter, in the paragraphs following Within the body of the letter, in the paragraphs following the first paragraphthe first paragraph

nn Restate the conditions of your employmentRestate the conditions of your employment: These should : These should be prebe pre--determined and accepted by both parties.determined and accepted by both parties.

nn This is not the time to include critical items or concerns This is not the time to include critical items or concerns you have. It is recommended to address any questions or you have. It is recommended to address any questions or issues you may have, prior to accepting a position.issues you may have, prior to accepting a position.

nn Placement: Place after the “Reaffirmation of Placement: Place after the “Reaffirmation of Employment Conditions” and before closingEmployment Conditions” and before closing

nn Possible information to request:Possible information to request:uu Starting date of employmentStarting date of employmentuuWhere to go?Where to go?uuWho to contact?Who to contact?

What to Include:4. Instructions Based on Employment or Notices


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A Winner’s Attitude: Tone

nn The tone is the writer’s The tone is the writer’s attitude toward the reader and attitude toward the reader and the subject of the message.the subject of the message.

nn The tone that the writer uses The tone that the writer uses will affect the way the will affect the way the message of the letter is message of the letter is conveyed and how effectively conveyed and how effectively the reader will understand and the reader will understand and act upon this message.act upon this message.

Tone: Writing with Confidence

nn An employer will welcome a confident attitude and a selfAn employer will welcome a confident attitude and a self--assured personality.assured personality.

nn HoweverHowever, an over, an over--confident attitude may affect the way a confident attitude may affect the way a message is perceived. It may sound arrogant or message is perceived. It may sound arrogant or presumptuous.presumptuous.

For Example: For Example: NOT: “I am a valuable addition to your team and will meet NOT: “I am a valuable addition to your team and will meet

and surpass your expectations.”and surpass your expectations.”INSTEAD: “I look forward to joining your team and striving INSTEAD: “I look forward to joining your team and striving

to meet and surpass the job expectations.”to meet and surpass the job expectations.”

What kind of “tone” should I use?

nn Write confidentlyWrite confidently------but not too confidentlybut not too confidentlynn Be courteous and sincereBe courteous and sincerenn Use nondiscriminatory languageUse nondiscriminatory languagenn Stress the “You” AttitudeStress the “You” Attitudenn Utilize an appropriate level of difficultyUtilize an appropriate level of difficulty

Tone: Courteous & Sincerity

nn When writing a job acceptance letter an applicant must When writing a job acceptance letter an applicant must show their appreciation for the offer in a way that is show their appreciation for the offer in a way that is sinceresincere

For Example: For Example: NOT “You are truly wonderful for offering me such a NOT “You are truly wonderful for offering me such a

prestigious position.”prestigious position.”

INSTEAD “Thank you for offering me a Sales Representative INSTEAD “Thank you for offering me a Sales Representative position.”position.”


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nn The applicant should never use language or The applicant should never use language or convey a message that discriminates against convey a message that discriminates against any group or individual. any group or individual.

nn It is unprofessional to exhibit prejudicial It is unprofessional to exhibit prejudicial behavior or to stereotype individuals.behavior or to stereotype individuals.

Tone: Use Nondiscriminatory Language

nn Emphasize the employer and company Emphasize the employer and company interests rather than the interests of the interests rather than the interests of the writerwriter

For Example: For Example: NOT “I hope to gain valuable experience as a Sales NOT “I hope to gain valuable experience as a Sales

Representative at Forest Foods International.”Representative at Forest Foods International.”INSTEAD “As a Sales Representative, my objective is to INSTEAD “As a Sales Representative, my objective is to

maximize client relations.”maximize client relations.”

Tone: Stress the “You” Attitude

nn The text and message in the letter should The text and message in the letter should match the readability and knowledge level match the readability and knowledge level of the readerof the reader

For Example:For Example:An acceptance letter for an internship position in Aviation AdmiAn acceptance letter for an internship position in Aviation Administration: nistration: NOT “I look forward to learning about airplanes.”NOT “I look forward to learning about airplanes.”INSTEAD “I look forward to learning about the manufacturing of aINSTEAD “I look forward to learning about the manufacturing of a ircraft ircraft

and engines and working with marketing divisions of various and engines and working with marketing divisions of various airlines.”airlines.”

Tone: Utilize an appropriate level of difficulty

A Winner’s Gameplan: Format

nn Block FormBlock Formnn ComponentsComponents

uu Personal AddressPersonal Addressuu Recipient AddressRecipient Addressuu SalutationSalutationuu BodyBodyuu ClosingClosinguu SignatureSignatureuu NotationsNotations

nn Size 12Size 12nn FontsFonts

uu Times New RomanTimes New Romanuu HelveticaHelveticauu ArialArialuu GaramondGaramond


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Effective Communication for Colleges, 10 th ed., by Brantley & Miller, 2005©Chapter 9 – Slide 21

Resignation Letter

Begin with main idea: confirming your resignation.

If appropriate, provide a brief explanation for your decision including resignation date and other details. Maintain goodwill by restating your appreciation for your work experience at the company.

Your Resignation Letter: How To HaveThe Last WordBy T.J. SnaithIn most cases, we recommend that you keep your letter ofresignation concise, formal and polite. Your name, date, theperson it is addressed to, a notice of termination of employ-ment, when this is effective from and finally, your signature willsuffice. The resignation letter is a formality first and last - youcan expect your boss to read it quickly, acknowledge it and thenfile it away with all the other quitters. However, there may be anoccasion when you really, really want to tell your boss some-thing else.People leave jobs for a many different reasons: they decide tocontinue their career elsewhere, they need more money, they’rebored of their work, personalities have clashed too often, andso on. Your own reason for leaving can usually be expressed ina few sentences, if at all. What we’re going to deal with here ishow to handle the urge to get something off your chest. Howshould your boss be made aware of a problem that he or shewould otherwise fail to notice or refuse to face up to? We’veseen hundreds of letters that set out with this intention butwhich get bogged down in unpleasantries. It’s unfortunate thatin these cases the final correspondence with an employer is usedas an opportunity to issue personal abuse, whinge and scorepoints - a letter of revenge rather than resignation. We never,ever advocate resorting to this in your own letter. It can only doyou harm.We also receive letters where the advice ‘if you’ve nothing goodto say, keep quiet’ is abandoned with some style. It is possible

to quit your job, say your piece and leave your bridges intactbehind you. If you have any concerns about getting a goodreference (your new job may depend on it), maintaining goodrelations with friends who are also colleagues or keeping yourgood reputation intact, think about what you commit to paper.It’s simple: keep your criticism constructive, don’t get toopersonal and if you must express your criticism of an indi-vidual or department use only civil, businesslike language.Compare these two extracts from a pair of letters sent to us inthe last few months. The first is from someone who hasdecided, reluctantly, to leave his job in the telecommunicationsindustry:The very fact that we have let our infrastructure erode to such alevel that many systems have become redundant or severelydowngraded through lack of investment and or maintenancehas always perplexed me. This apparent philosophy will alwaysensure that we come second best to companies that concentrateon the fabric and foundations of their business first, thusensuring that they have a solid platform to go forward into themarket place.I hope the company is able to find a formula for success andmove out of this cycle of melancholy and become the brandleader, which all other companies will use as yardstick within theindustry and so I wish you all the success in the future.Fair enough - this employee has given his company’s predica-ment a lot of thought and seems to be leaving out of sheerfrustration. He can see how the company should be doingbetter. If things improve, he might even be persuaded toreturn. Conversely, can you detect a hint, the merest hint ofbitterness in the following extract?It was bad enough that our 28 year old director has an ego thesize of the corporate debt, but it was completely impossible tosit through any more of his lectures on “sacrificing for thecompany” as he sat there drawing in over 65k a year doingnothing but giving “wise” lectures to more experiences people.Note to self - it’s who you know, not WHAT you know.This second extract doesn’t reflect well on the writer - it’spersonal, anecdotal, smacks of jealousy, bad blood and ill-temper. The manager in question is probably glad to see thisemployee go. It would have been possible to raise the sameconcerns with more diplomacy and tact. Yes, the inexperience ofthe director and inequity of the pay structure would be fairgame, but bringing up his age is probably unnecessary. Themessage is lost amid the bile. That last extract is relatively mildin its personal attack compared to others we have received.Sometimes an employee goes nuclear and disses everyone theyhave ever worked with one by one:Sally, though not a particularly pleasant human being was agood manager, but then I supposed she had to take up theslack for that total dickhead Larry (did you know he’s beenfalsifying records?) And how those arseholes in humanresources can sleep at night I’ll never know...This is the sort of thing we get sent all the time. We only hopethat they’re beefed up versions of the letter they actually sent.It’s becoming more common to hand in one’s notice by email(we recently heard from someone who had been sacked by


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means of text message). This is doubly dangerous becausethere is a misperception that email is more disposable andtherefore less meaningful than a paper letter. On the contrary,emails are simply easier to retrieve at any moment and easier toduplicate. Insults and accusations hammered out on a keyboardand then sent without due care and attention could bring yourcareer and reputation crashing down - you might even make theevening news! We published a letter of this type and received aterse missive from the company’s lawyers within three days.Other firms were begging us to send them a copy, but ofcourse we had to refuse.There is a time and place for serious accusations - and it’s not ina resignation letter. Another writer thinks about what her lettersays and, after making a number of recommendations abouthow the business is run, concludes:If this rings any bells with anyone in upper management,maybe some good will come of it.Bell-ringing and whistle-blowing is an admirable purpose foryour parting shots but think through what you plan to say andcover your back. So here are our four points for resignationletter writing:1. If you have worked up yourself into a lather about quitting,

the chances are that you won’t be thinking as clearly as youwould normally. You’ll want to say things that, in the coldlight of the future, won’t sound as reasonable as they dotoday. They’ll make you cringe when you look back at them,and you’ll probably make some spelling errors.

2. Don’t get personal. If you do, prepare for the possibleconsequences which could mean a bad reference,uncomfortable notice period or punch-ups.

3. Try to adhere to the I-resign.com maxim of remainingMagnanimous and Dignified throughout.

4. Finally, if you do have some constructive criticism that you’dlike to share with your boss before you leave, maybe the bestplace to do this would be in the Exit Interview rather thanyour resignation letter. Remember that by writing somethingdown, you’re giving it a permanence, which may come backsome day to haunt you.


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Learning OutcomesHone your skills on preparing curriculum vitae, job applicationletter, job offer letter and resignation letter.

Students , business communication is a subject which de-mands a lot of practice classes. Just learning about CVs , jobapplication letters , offer letters in theory will not help you inanyway until and unless you put it into practice.Lets us do 3 small exercises in this lesson.In an advertisement dated 14th May 2004 in Times of India,Success Industries has advertised for the post of a managementtrainee in the area of HR, Write a letter applying for the job.Exercise 1: Prepare you curriculum vitae and a job applicationletterExercise 2: Write a fifteen-word career objective for a job in thiscompany if the vacancy had been in the area of:a. Marketingb. Finance.c. OperationsExercise 3: Prepare a job offer letter the company will provideyou if selected.

Resume Goals:Ø To convince an employer to interview you in under

30 seconds.

Ø To summarize your skills, abilities, and interests in a clear/concise manner.

Ø To write a resume that is targeted to a certain field or position.

Ø To target the skills/experience listed in the position that is being advertised.

The 3 R’s: Research, Research, Research

v Research Yourself: Assess your skills, abilities, interests.

v Research the Position : Find out what the employer is looking for so you can tailor your resume to show them you can meet their needs.

v Research the Organization : Use the Internet or literature in the FSU Career Center library.


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Headings

w Most Common Headings:- Objective- Education- Experience- Skills- Summary

w Additional Headings:ú Relevant Coursework, Research, Academic Honors & Awards,

Computer/Technical Skills, Languages…ú Internships, Volunteer Experience, Travel...ú Organizational Memberships & Activities, Significant

Presentations...ú Experience Highlights, Professional Background, Publications

Resume Stylesw Chronological

-Experiences are in reverse, chronological order-Good choice if you have solid work history* Format most widely accepted by employers*

w Functional-Concentrates on functional skill areas related to your job objective-Usually focuses on three skill areas or more-Work history section may only contain job titles

w Combination (Chronological/Functional)-Has skills, relevant experience , and/or other work experience sections* Most appropriate for recent grads*

Personal DataNecessary Info: Name, Address, Zip, Phone, E-mail

Bob A. CatEmail: bcat0@frostburg,edu

Current: Permanent:100 Braddock Road 100 Constitution AveFrostburg, Maryland 21532 Washington, DC 2000(301) 687-7000 (555) 776-7890

Also include your personal web-site address if available.

v A brief description of the position you wish to be considered for - emphasize how you can help the company.

v May be stated by the job title, by level or type of responsibility, in terms of skills you wish to develop, or a combination of all three.

v Avoid being overly restrictive or vague!v Examples of Career Objectives

“Detail-oriented Business Administration/Finance grad with excellent team and interpersonal skills seeking analyst position in public or private sector.”“Dynamic public speaker/presenter with advanced technical knowledge seeking to leverage these strengths as an award-winning computer instructor into an entry level software position where I can increase sales.”

Career Objectives: Be Specific!!!


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Education & Coursework ExamplesEDUCATION

Bachelor of Science, Wildlife & Fisheries May 2003Minor, Forestry GPA: 3.5Frostburg State UniversityFrostburg, MD

RELEVANT COURSE WORK:Environmental Planning Ecology Animal Physiology

Forest Science Dendrology HerpetologyGenetics Plant Diseases Hydrology

_____________________________________OR _______________________________________EDUCATIONBachelor of Science Degree in Psychology May 2003Frostburg State University, Frostburg, MD GPA: 3.5

v Research: Female Eating Disorders and the Media, Attention Deficit Disorder in Elementary School Students

v Relevant Course Work: Research Methods I&II, Introduction to Counseling, Child and Adolescent Disorders, behavioral Approaches to Human Problems, Social Psychology, Drugs and Human Behavior, Health Psychology, Human Cognition

Skills/Strengths…Highlightsv Titles can be: Skills Summary, Highlight of Qualifications,

Strengths, Abilities.v Skill sections that can be used: organizational, interpersonal,

managerial, communication, leadership, creative, and computer.

Examples:Computer Skills:- Systems: DOS, Windows, NT- Software: Microsoft Suite, Netscape- Database Management: Access, Excel, FoxPro.

Skills Summary:-Able to utilize communicative abilities to coordinate efforts in a team environment. - Efficient in organizing and creating group activities to promote cohesiveness and

productivity. - Act as leader to communicate delegation of group tasks in order to accomplish

goals established by company.

Experience…It All Counts!!!vExperience can include:- Jobs, fieldwork, internships, clinical work, student

teaching, volunteering, research or class projects.- It can be paid or unpaid

vOn your Resume include:- Job/Experience Title, Company, City, State, No Zip,

Dates

vEmphasize Skills/Accomplishments in action verbs

Sample ExperiencesRelevant Experience:

Computer Science Tutor September 2001 - May 2003Student Support Services, Frostburg State University w Organized and scheduled tutor sessions for 50 studentsw Designed practice exercises to help tutees problem solve

Teaching Internship January 2001- May 2001Meyersdale High School, Meyersdale, PAw Maintained daily attendance and evaluation recordsw Observed daily classroom activities for grades 8 and 9w Monitored study halls

Summer Volunteer June 1999 - August 2002 Deep Creek State Park, Oakland, MDw Conducted nature tours for groups of over 50 campersw Implemented concept of “Leave No Trace” to park guests and employees to promote

park maintenance


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The Reference Page…

References for Bob A. Cat

Name of ReferenceJob Title

Name of OrganizationAddress

Work Phone NumberE-mail Address

* 3-5 references is an appropriate amount. Remember to ask people whom you know will provide a good reflection of you and

in a timely manner. Remember to provide copies of your resume and send thank you notes!

Resume Checklistv Length: (Depends on Industry)- One page for recent graduates- Two for experienced candidates

v Layout/Appearance: (Professional)- Neat, concise, easy to read, - Balance of text and white space

- Use of bolds, underlines, different fonts (standard)

- Absolutely NO spelling/grammar errors

v Content: (Dynamic, Persuasive)- Action-oriented verbs, emphasize skills- Grammar, present/past tense- Lead w/ strengths/accomplishments

Electronic Resumes

w Employers now search a database, using keywords. (i.e. an employer will type in “business major” into the database and look at hits )

w Resister with www.collegecentral.com/frostburg and view your resume.

w Guidelines if it will be scanned or uploaded from disk:

- Choose keywords and place in order of importance- Choose basic fonts- Avoid italics, graphics, underlines, bolds- Light colored paper is best


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UNIT 2CHAPTER 6: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

LESSON 21: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

By the end of this lesson you should be able to• Explain the purpose of memos, circulars and notes

• Understand the structure of memos, circulars and notes.

• Tips on preparation of memos, circulars and notes.

Students , today we will learn about the importance of memo-randums, circulars and preparing notes. Along with this now adays organizations are more comfortable using emails as theprimary tool of communication (refer to lesson 4 ). Lets start bymemos:

Why Memos?Affectionately called a ‘memo’ this is a written communicationfrom one person to another (or a group of people) within thesame organization. Memos serve a variety of purposes:• To inform of decisions• To request decisions, actions, etc• To provide information of any kind• To remind someone of action required.

Preparing a Memo Memos standard form of communication in many public and are a nonprofit organizations. Memos are often used to help decision makers: understand the critical issues requiring their attention recognize what are available what a staff recommendation is and 4) what the basis or support for your recommendation is.

It helps if you follow a fairly fixed pattern when preparing memos. For example, it is often useful to summarize the main issues and recommended course of action in the first paragraph rather than making the reader wait until the end of the memo (it isn't a mystery novel). A useful structure (subject, of course, to variation and adaptation when appropriate) for these memo assignments:

State the issue/problem as clearly as possible : Trying to state the issue or problem as a one-sentence statement is a useful habit to get into. When necessary, this can be followed by a brief explanation or clarification (no more than a paragraph or two). If more than one issue is presented, use bullets to summarize and then explain in more detail in subsequent paragraphs. If extensive background is required, you would use an attachment;

Major issues that must be addressed or solved: Many times significant issues will be implicit rather than explicit and are linked to larger policy and management issues. Part of your task is to point out the significance of the larger issues.

Identify relevant alternative courses of action : There are always at least two options (taking no action is always an alternative). Limit the number of options but be sure to cover the full range of choices;

Evaluate the alternatives: Be sure to critique the relative strengths and weaknesses of the options and make a balanced presentation to the decision maker (remember that he/she may prefer an alternative course of action); and,

Recommend a specific course of action : Be sure to clearly state the recommended course of actions and the consequences you expect to flow from the selected course of action.

Remember that the point of analyzing cases is to draw out the pertinent issues, some of which will be implicit rather than explicit, and link them to broader management and/or policy issues. It does not mean that you simply rehash the facts of the case or summarize what has occurred. That will get you a poor grade on these assignments. Instead, you are asked to analyze a situation and present your recommendation for a specific course of action. You should then use the facts and examples from the case or other readings to support your analysis and conclusions. It is also important that you are specific when analyzing issues and presenting your recommendations such that they are communicated effectively.

StructureThe four point plan for structuring all business documentsshould also be applied to memos.Subject headingGive a brief indication of the topic, for eg:Confirmation of meeting - IncorrectDepartmental meeting, 20 June - CorrectLetter of complaint - IncorrectKodak Camera model X345 - CorrectMain body of memoIntroduction Background information


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+ briefly give the reason for writing+ refer to previous communication+ who? What? Where? When?

Details Facts and Figures+ logical sequence+ separate into paragraphs - eachone dealing with a separate aspectsof the main theme

Response An action statement:+ action you want the reader to take+ action you will take+ deadline ?

Close A relevant one liner.

MEMORANDUM

To Tripta Kaur, Administration Assistant From Maggie Ong. Executive Secretary Ref MO/ST Date 12 July 2000 IN-HOUSE METHODS OF DISPLAY

Congratulations on recently joining the staff in the Chief Executive’s office. Here are some general guidelines on the format of correspondence preferred in this office:

1 2 3

LAYOUT OF DOCUMENTS All documents should be displayed in the fully blocked style with open punctuation. Some specimen documents are attached which will guided you in these requirements. SIGNATURE BLOCK (LETTERS) On outgoing letters the Chief Executive prefers his name and title in lower case with initial capitals, ie Peter Nunn Chief Executive On some personal letters, no salutation or complimentary close will be required, but Mr Nunn will usually give instructions about this. NUMBERED ITEMS When items need to be numbered they should be typed alone with no full stop or bracket. Subsequent enumeration should be decimal, eg 3.1, 3.2, etc.

Use these standard headings and align all the details neatly Don’t forgot reference and date Leave 3/4 line spaces before the heading (but don’t put Re!) Separate the body into paragraphs, using numbered points and sub-headings if relevant No complimentary close is necessary Leave a space here for the sender to sign or initial the memo Don’t forget Encs

I hope that these guidelines will be useful but if you have any questions please speak to me. Encs

ToneAs you most likely know your recipients fairly well, memos areusually written in an information style. You should aim to putover your message as concisely as possible while still beingcourteous , clear, concise and correct. The major consideration incomposing memos should be the status of the sender andrecipient in the organization, and of course the topic of thememo. Try to adopt a tone which reflects these factors.

Tips• Avoid being abrupt or impolite (add ‘Please…..’)• Avoid over- politeness (do not say ‘I should be very grateful

….’)• Avoid unnecessary expressions (do not say ‘ Thank you’ or

‘Warm Regards’)


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CircularsA circular letter is one which is sent out to many people at thesame time. The letter may be prepared once only and thenduplicated . With modern technology , however , it is morelikely that each letter could be personalized to look like anoriginal . Circular letters may be sent for many reasons:• Introduce a new product /service• Open a new branch• Change of address• Seasonal discounts

Reference and date (month and year only) Use singular expressions here (not students) Use individual expressions in the body, i.e. you NOT ‘all of you’ or ‘you all’ Yours sincerely may be used

MM/et November 2000 Dear Student I thought you might like to keep this example showing the correct layout of a circular letter.

A circular may be sent to all customers of a company announcing something new, eg

1. a move of premises 2. introduction of new goods/services 3. a forthcoming sale or special event

Internally a senior executive may send out a circular letter to all employees. This is sometimes called an Open Letter. Although a circular letter will be sent to many people, the term you is used in the body of the letter. Never use the wording all of you or all customers. Remember that only one person will read each letter so it must be worded in a personal style. Not that as many copies are required it may take a while to print out all the letters, so only the month and year are shown in the date. I hope this example is useful to you. Yours sincerely Manish Malhotra Training Consultant

• Increase in price, etcThe tone of the circular is always in the form of a requestinstead of a command. It needs to have a heading, date, andcircular no and signed by the authorized person.When writing a circular letter remember these importantguidelines:• Keep it brief, otherwise it may not be read• Ensure the letter is informative and direct• Use individual terms, e.g. ‘you’ and not you


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Circular with Tear–off Slip

Line of hyphens and scissors symbol separate main text from tear-off portion Include date for return and name/address details Heading will probably be the same as the main document Keep it simple and precise Use double spacing for the section to be completed Use this footnote when appropriate

" ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Please return by 28 November 2000 to Mr Preeti Arora Sales Manager Arora Holdings (Asia) Pte Ltd Peak Towers 210 Peak Road Banglore OPENING OF NEW SHOWROOM – WEDNESDAY 18 DECEMBER 2000 I shall/shall not* be able to attend the Cocktail Evening to mark the opening of your new showroom at 1930 on Wednesday 18 December. Signature ………………………………………. Date …………………………………… Name (in capitals) ………………………………………………………………………… Company ………………………………………………………………………………….. Telephone ……………………………………… Fax ……………………………………. * Please delete where appropriate

Notes

Writing NotesSandeep applied to a housing finance company for a house loanof Rs. 5,00,000. He deposited the relevant application form, hisincome-tax returns for last three year, proof of his residence,and estimated cost of the house, which he was going to buy.Sudhakar, the loan officer reviewed all these papers. He foundthat as per the Sandeep’s income scale he is entitled to themaximum of Rs. 4 lac loan. He noted on the file that “intimateSandeep that he is entitled to Rs. 4 lac loan only”, and markedthis note in the name of his junior for action. This note was anorder of Sudhakar for his junior. He intimated the same toSandeep. Sandeep met Sudhakar and convinced him that hissalary is going to increase in one month time, which wouldmake him entitled to Rs. 5 lac loan. Sudhakar agreed in principlebut he had no power to sanction this amount. Sudhakarprepared a note detailing all the relevant matter about Sandeep’scase, and recommended Rs. 5 Lac loan in the note. He put upthis note in the Board meeting. The Board approved the note.This approval note became part of the file papers. NowSudhakar again wrote a note, “Rs. 5 lac loan may be sanctioned as

per Board’s approval via note…..” And marked the file to legaldepartment for completing other legal formalities.Office notes are written remarks recorded on a ‘paper under consider-ation’ to facilitate its disposal In fact ‘noting’ is the way by whichthe concerned officer gives his suggestion or decision on thegiven problem/project. This is widely used in public sectorenterprises.A note may consist of precis of all relevant papers (likeSudhakar’s note put up before the Board contain summary ofSandeep’s case), a statement or analysis of the questionregarding the given case, suggestion, or order (like Sudhakarordered his assistant to send an intimation of the relevantdecision to Sandeep).

Characteristics of a Good Note1. A note should be concise and to the point.2. It should be deterministic, conveying decision of the note

maker clearly.3. It is to be assumed that the officer to whom the case is

submitted will read the ‘paper under consideration’ and theprevious notes, if any. The reproduction of verbatim (copy)


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of extracts from the attached papers is not required. Just givereferences.

4. It Should be written in a courteous language free frompersonal remarks.

5. If any information to be included in the note a very lengthy,it should be incorporated in a separate statement, and can bereferred to as appendix to the note.

6. The note must be signed by its maker with his name anddesignation below it.

It must be clearly marked to another person or department forfurther action.

Effective Note Taking

Note Taking is a Skill

• This takes understanding of what you’re doing• It takes practice, which involves effort

Note Taking is Difficult Because• Spoken language is more diffuse than written• Speaker’s organisation is not immediately apparent• Immediate feedback seldom occurs• Spoken language is quick, and does not ‘exist’ for long

• This makes analysis difficult

Four Purposes For Note Taking• Provides a written record for review• Forces the listener to pay attention• Requires organisation, which involves active effort on the

part of the listener• Listener must condense and rephrase, which aids

understanding

Physical Factors• Seating

• Near the front and centre• Vision is better• Hearing is better

• Avoid distractions• Doorways, window glare, etc.• Peers

• Materials• Two pens

• Ink easier to read• You have a reserve

• Wide-lined, easy-eye paper• Conference/Meeting date, and topic clearly labelled

• May use dividers• Plenty of blank paper in back

Before Taking Notes• Prepare yourself mentally

• Be sure of your purpose and the speaker’s purpose• They may not be the same

• Review your notes and other background material• Review your reading assignment

• Reading should be done BEFORE class• Think through what has happened in the class to date• Generate enthusiasm and interest

• Increased knowledge results in increased interest• A clear sense of purpose on your part will make the

course content more relevant• Acting as if you are interested can help• Don’t let the personality or mannerisms of a speaker put

you off• What, not how, is important

• Be ready to understand and remember• Anticipate what is to come, and evaluate how well you were

able to do this• We learn from failure

Decide How Much You are Going to Do• Are notes necessary?

• Don’t be lulled into a sense of security by an effectivepresentation

• Hearing a thing once is not enough. Memory requires Reviewand Understanding

While Taking Notes• Don’t try for a verbatim transcript

• Get all of the main ideas• Record some details, illustrations, implications, etc.

• Paraphrase• But remember that the speaker may serve as a model

• Integrate with other knowledge you already have• But don’t allow preconceived notions to distort what you

are hearing• Use form to indicate relative importance of items

• Underscore or star major points• Leave plenty of white space for later additions• Note speaker’s organisation of material

• Organisation aids memory• Organisation indicates gaps when they occur

• Be accurate• Listen carefully to what is being said• Pay attention to qualifying words like sometimes, usually,

rarely, etc.• Notice signals that a change of direction is coming but,

however, on the other hand• Be an aggressive, not a passive, listener

• Ask questions and discuss if it’s permitted• If not, jot questions in your notes• Seek out meanings. Look for implications beyond

what is being said


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• Develop a suitable system of mechanics• Jot down words or phrases, not entire sentences• Develop some system of shorthand and be consistent

in its use (e.g. Hr s sntnc wth vwls lft t - Here is asentence with vowels left out!)

• Leave out small service words• Use contractions and abbreviations• Use symbols +, =, &, @

• Try to get the hang of listening and writing at the sametime. It can be done.• You may practice listening to the news on TV and

taking notes

After Taking Notes• Review and reword them as soon as possible

• You should consider this in scheduling your work load• Don’t just recopy or type without thought• “ Reminiscing “ may provide forgotten material later• Rewrite incomplete or skimpy parts in greater detail• Fill in gaps as you remember points heard but not

recorded• Arrange with another colleague to compare notes or

debrief if appropriate• Find answers to any questions remaining unanswered• Write a brief summary of the event

• We forget 50% of what we hear immediately; twomonths later, another 25% is gone. Relearning is rapid ifregular review is used

• Compare the information in your notes with your ownexperience

• Don’t swallow everything uncritically• Don’t reject what seems strange or incorrect. Check it out.• Be willing to hold some seeming inconsistencies in your

mind over a period of time• Make meaningful associations

• Sharpen your note taking technique by looking at yourcolleagues’ notes. How are they better than your own? Howare your notes superior?

• Practice those skills you wish to develop

TLQR Note Taking Technique

Tune-in• Listening takes energy• Listening effectively requires you to get intellectually involved.• Try to focus your attention and forget about other work

issues or distractions

Look & Listen• Look at the speaker

• Mannerisms will give extra clues• Looking helps focus attention

• Listen to the speaker

• Be selective. Some things are more important than others.• Be alert for speaker emphasis through

• Tone or gesture• Repetition• Use of cue words such as remember, most important,

etc.• Illustration on board• Reference to text• Note especially new words and ideas

• Note especially those ideas which conflict with your ownpicture of the world• “Odd” ideas are difficult to understand initially and

require extra effort• You remember things which support your existing

concepts, and forget those things which disagree

Question• Nothing will generate interest so much as an appropriate

question• Unusual or different ideas will be difficult to understand

initially and will require extra effort since you have a tendencyto remember what you accept and forget what you disagreewith.

Review• Glance back over material from time to time to see if a

pattern is emerging, if consistency is being maintained, etc.• If possible, clarify points during or after the meeting/talk

• Give the speaker a reasonable chance to make the pointclear

• Avoid sidetracking the speaker. You are the loser whenthis occurs

Some Specimen NotesConsider the, case of Sandeep taken up by Sudhakar. The noteput up by him before the Board is as follows:

NoteMr. Sandeep Aggarwal has applied for a house loan of Rs.5,00,000. His present salary is Rs. 4 lac per annum. As per ourrules, the maximum loan we can give to a person for housing isequal to his annual salary. Thus he is eligible for a maximumloan amount of Rs. 4 lac as on today.All other credentials of Mr. Sandeep Aggarwal has beenchecked, and they are found in accordance with our rules.Mr. Sandeep Aggarwal met me and showed me his salaryincrement order. From one month hence that order would beeffective, and his annual salary would become Rs. 5.25 lac. Acopy of his increment letter is attached as annexure I.In my opinion, we can give him Rs. 5 lac house loan, becausethe main reason of the said clause is to ensure the repaymentcapacity of the loanee. Since we have a confirmed proof ofincrease in his annual income within one month, and it will takeus one month’s time to process the loan papers, we mayconsider the case for sanction.


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Sd/--Sudhakar Sinha

Finance officer16-08-2002

Chairman, Board

Hints of Creating Your OwnAbbreviations and SymbolsAbbreviation involves using shortened versions of words torepresent the complete form of the word. Symbols, such as ouralphabet, are abstract representations of some word or idea.Shorthand makes use of both abbreviations and symbols. Thegleaning strategy involves representing the main ideas of a book(or meeting) in shorthand version. With gleaning, vowels areomitted, words are shortened, and symbols are used torepresent the main ideas of the text.These strategies are useful in note taking because they allow oneto write more quickly, once symbols and shorthand systemshave been internalised.Directions for using abbreviations, symbols, and shorthandwhen taking notes are summarised below.• Use standard maths, accounting, and science symbols.

Examples:+ plus// parallel

• Use standard abbreviations and leave out full stops.Examples:eg exampleIT dept Information Technology departmentUK United Kingdom

• Use only the first syllable of a word. Examples:mar marketingcus customercli client

• Use the entire first syllable and the first letter of the secondsyllable. Examples:subj subjectbudg budgetind individual

• To distinguish among various forms of the same word, usethe first syllable of the word, an apostrophe, and the endingof the word. Examples:tech’gy technologygen’ion generalisationdel’y delivery

• Use just enough of the beginning of a word to form arecognisable abbreviation. Examples:assoc associatedach achievementinfo information

• Omit vowels from the middle of words, retaining onlyenough consonants to provide a recognisable skeleton of theword. Examples:

bkgd backgroundmvmt movementprblm problem

• Form the plural of a symbol or abbreviated word by adding‘s.’ Examples:custs customersfs frequencies/s ratios

• Use ‘g’ to represent ‘ing’ endings. Examples:decrg decreasingckg checkingestblg establishing

• Spell out, rather than abbreviate short words. Examples:inbutaskey

• Leave out unimportant verbs. Examples:iswaswere

• Leave out unnecessary articles. Examples:aanthe

• If a term, phrase, or name is initially written out in fullduring the talk or meeting, initials can be substitutedwhenever the term, phrase, or name is used again. Example:January Advertising Campaign Budget JACB

• Use symbols for common connective or transition words.Examples:@ at2 to4 for& andw/ withw/o withoutvs against

• Create your own set of abbreviations and symbols. You maywish to develop separate sets of symbols and abbreviationsfor different courses or subjects.

Other Symbols and Abbreviations• as a result of / consequences of <—>• resulting in —>• and / also +• equal to / same as =• following ff• most importantly *• less than <• greater than >• especially esp


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WRITING MEMOS

What is a memo?

When Should I write a memo?

How should I do it?

HOW DO I WRITE A MEMO? Choose a template: fill in the heading information Organize the sections of your message into these parts: - the main information - supporting information - contact/follow – up requests

WHEN SHOULD I WRITE A MEMO? When you need to communicate with someone you work with When you distribute specific information such as : - a new project/ development - a progress report - a recommendation


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This practice class will give you tips on preparing a memo and willalso help you practice you skills in preparing a circular with a tearoff slip.

How to Write Memos!Excerpted from

”Quick, Take This Memo”by Neil Chesanow

The Washington Post 9/17/87“I love being a writer,” quipped novelist Peter Devries, “What Ican’t stand is the paper work.”When it comes to writing memos, most business people wouldagree. Mounting evidence shows that memos may be small, butthey give big headaches to everyone from secretaries to corporateofficers. They are hard to write quickly and clearly, are like “Warand Peace” to read, require Miss Marple to figure out, and, ifwritten in the wrong tone of voice, can make the nicest peoplesound heartless.In the office as well as out, your personality is often judged byhow you write. Muddled memos can cost you dearly in careeradvancement. Communication skills are a top priority forbusiness leadership — often more important than financial,marketing and technical know-how. To keep getting raises andpromotions, experts like Van Skiver and Booher say you needto literally write your own ticket. Here’s how:

What is a Memo?

What it’s not is a school essay. A memo is a written documentthat stays inside the company; if it goes outside, it’s a letter. Amemo is also short. Most experts say two pages should be tops— after which a memo starts to turn into a report. If you canboil down even a two-page memo to two paragraphs that takeup only a half page and still convey the same facts, you get anA+ in business. Equally important, memos are written to getsomeone to do or understand something—be it to spendmoney, meet a deadline, constructively criticize, or say yes or no.

Get PersonalUse words like I, you, and we. It’s a lot more human to say, “Iwould like you to do this.” To get action, write in the active, notthe passive, voice.

Be ConversationalWrite the way you talk. “Use contractions,” says Holly Church, abusiness consultant who trains Fortune 500 executives. “Youprobably say ‘I’m happy’ more often than you say ‘I amhappy.’”

Don’t Show OffAvoid scholarly words, technical jargon, and just plain gibberishlike “as per your request” when you simply mean “Here’s whatyou wanted. “Or how about this: “R & D wants your input

because temporal considerations are of primary importance.”Translation: “Our research people need your answer today.”

Avoid “Smothered” WordsVan Skiver explains that these are simple root words with fancyendings tacked on to puff them up. Favorites are “tion,”“ance,” “ent,” “ment,” “ize” and “ility.” For example: “Thecontinuation of our issuance of incentives is dependent uponthe prioritization by employees of company objectives.”Loosely translated: “If you want to keep getting incentives,meet company goals.”

If You’re Not Sure, Check“If there’s an error in the memo, it will probably be in names,dates, or numbers,” cautions Booher, and such mistakes maycost you dearly. One of Booher’s clients, an oil company, wassued by the families of two employees killed in an on-siteaccident. A specialist on the scene said that the company was toblame, but when the specialist described the incident on paper,he got the date wrong. This cast doubt on his credibilityregarding everything he said he had witnessed, and the upshotwas the company settled out of court.

Don’t Be TriteOne hackneyed expression Booher sees regularly is, “We’re sorryfor any inconvenience this may have caused you,” which “justsends people up the wall,” she says.”Nothing could be more insincere.””Please don’t hesitate to call” is another phrase that gets noresults and turns people off. A more sincere ending is, “If youneed help, I’m available. Give me a call.”

Visualize the ReaderMemos are usually written from the writer’s point of view, notthe reader’s. Yet the reader usually has to do something whenreceiving a memo, and, not being a psychic, he is often not surewhat it is. Experts suggest you pretend you’re having a face-to-face discussion or a telephone conversation with the memorecipient.

Make the Bottom Line the Top LineMemos often begin with a statement of a problem, proceed todiscuss why the problem exists, suggest a course of action, andconclude with something wishy-washy, like “I would like tohear from you soon.” The action you want the reader to takeshould be spelled out in the first line (or at least the firstparagraph). Don’t Give Too Many Whys It’s necessary to explain why you want something done, butdon’t overdo it. One expert cautions that a reader can probablyonly absorb no more than six or seven reasons at once. If youmust cite more whys, put them on a separate sheet of paper,and staple the sheets together. This way, the basic memomessage doesn’t get lost in a sea of details.


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Keep Paragraphs ShortLimit each paragraph to five lines or less. Put each reason in aseparate paragraph rather than bunching them up in a forbid-ding 20-line block of type.

Close with a Call to ActionMany memos don’t close with anything, leaving the readerhanging. If you want a response by Friday at 3 p.m., say so

ExerciseYou work for Healthy Life, a magazine which is publishedmonthly . Write a circular letter which may be sent to allsubscribers of the magazine informing that their subscription isdue to expire . State the last issue they will receive. These readerscan renew their subscription for the special annual subscriptionprice for six bi-monthly issues of only Rs 300.If they renew now they will receive an exclusive discount cardwhich entitles them to 10% off selected health farms andsupplements available from Healthy Life Healthy Stores; 15%Discount at all Green Cuisine cafés ; 20% off allergy testing atScanhealth Ltd (further details about this in next month’s issue)Design a circular, which includes a tear-off potion for readers tosend back to you with their subscription. Compose any detailswhich you feel are needed.


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LESSON 23: REPORT WRITING

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to:

• Discuss the role and importance of reports in business environment.

• Understand the role of report planning.

• Implement the tips given the lesson while preparing reports.

Students, reports are an integral part in a written communica-tion. You need to know what are reports, its types and tounderstand the need of report planning. Let’s start by knowingwhat does the term report mean?

IntroductionA report is a presentation and summation of facts and figureseither collated or derived. It is a logical and coherent structuringof information, ideas and concepts. As a neatly structured pieceof work, the report, for greater ease in comprehension, issegregated into various sections. Understanding the importantof these sections, coupled with logical conjoining of the variousparts, results in a well written and presented report.

Five W’s and One HPrior to commencing work on a report, a few queries should beraised by the report-writer and satisfactorily answered. Thisenables the writer to produce a highly focused report. Thequeries centre on the five W’s and the one H.What is the problem? What is it that needs to be ascertained?Clarity along these lines helps in eliminating any redundanciesthat might crop up. Identification of the genesis of theproblem helps in streamlining the approach. The problemcould, for instance, be one that has to determine the cause forthe decrease in sales.Why is the issue important? What is its relevance and signifi-cance to the department in specific, and organization in general?The issue is important because a decrease in sales is a cause forconcern to the entire organization. Strategies need to be chalkedout for redemption of the situation.Why (purpose) should the problem be analyzed? What are thebenefits that will accrue as a result of this particular report-to thedepartment, the organization, and the self? The report wouldprobably lead to a suggestion of various strategies that could beimplemented. This, in turn, would, as suggested in the report,lead to increase in sales.Who is involved in the situation? This could take into accountboth the reader(s) and the writer. In case there is a third partyinvolved, it would also account for that. Who is going to be myreader? With a change in the reader, a change is visible in themanner of approach in the report. The marketing and theproduction department people would probably be the readersin this particular case.Further, when did the trouble start? In case it is an analyticalreport, one would also need to address oneself to the source

and time of the problem before reaching any conclusion. Thiswould entail tracing in brief the downward curve of the salesgraph. It may be asked: When am I going to write the report?The time factor is very important. Chalking out or revision ofstrategies should be done prior to the marketing season orentrance of new players in the market.Where would the reader be at the time when he receives thereport? Would the reader read the report in a meeting so as toprovide information on the causes for decrease in sales or read itwithin the confines of his room? There would definitely be adifference in the manner of approach. Finally, how would thereport be written? What information is to be included and whatis to be excluded Which graphs and charts would be used/avoided? All these queries need to be satisfied beforebeginning a report. They give the report a particular directionand help the writer to concentrate on the acceptability of thereport by the audience to which it is aimed.Let us take a look at a project report to be prepared by a financialinstitution. In a report such as this, queries of the followingnature could be raised:Why - Why should project A be supported?What - What is the justification of a loan for project A?Who - Who would read the report? Would it act as precedencefor further similar loans to be sanctioned? Or would it remainjust one of the usual reports written within a standard format?Answers to these queries would also bring about a change inthe writing style.When - When would the loan be sanctioned? Is the reportbeing written close to the time of sanctioning of the loan, or isit merely an informative one, providing information on thevarious factors leading to the sanctioning of the loan?Where - Where would the report be read? The degree offormality or provision of details would vary in response tothese queries.How-If the sanctioning of the loan is important, persuasivelanguage can be used to get the ideas and message across. Alldetails should be provided and meticulous care should be takento ensure that nothing unwarranted is included.

Report PlanningThe planning stage is the most crucial one. Spend as much timeas possible in collecting material, synchronizing details, andensuring that nothing has been left out. If the planning’ isdone in a detailed manner, there are very few chances of missingout errors at the final stage. In fact, planning for a report is asimportant as the process of writing itself. The various stepsinvolved in report planning are as follows:1. Define the problem,and the purpose.

The problem and purpose had already been identified at thestage when the answers to the question what and why were

attempted. It is essential at this stage to understand thenature of the report whether it is informational or analytical.In an informational report the writer would stress factorscontributing to collation of information at the time ofstating the purpose. However, in an analytical report thewriter would need to prepare a problem statement, theanalysis of which becomes the thrust area of the report.With a variance in the type of the report, there is bound tobe a difference in the definition of the problem and purpose.

2. Outline the issues for investigation.In a problem solving or analytical report, all issues pertainingto the problem need to be highlighted in the initial stage.None of the alternatives or variables should be ignored orsidetracked. Once the issues have been clarified, delineationof the points becomes easier. Further, if the report is of aninformational nature, all issues to be exemplified need to beoutlined. Even the methodology adopted forexemplification has to be understood. There should be abasic pattern that has to be observed and it should clearlyemerge in the reading of the report.

3. Prepare a work-plan.What is the best procedure to collect the data? How shouldthe writer proceed? What are the strategies that need to beobserved? These are a few of the questions that need to bewell answered before taking the final plunge into conductingresearch on the topic.

4. Conduct research, analyze and interpret.The modus operandi at the time of conducting researchshould be well examined. This should, however, be takencare of at the stage of preparing a work-plan. The manner inwhich research is conducted is contingent upon the problemdefined in the initial phase of report writing. Once theresearch has been conducted, begins the process of analysisand the subsequent interpretation, which happen to be thetoughest parts in report making. An attempt should bemade to bring about accuracy in the analysis and make theinterpretation objective and unbiased, as far as possible.

5. Draw conclusions.Subsequent to the stage of interpretation of data, certainconclusions need to be drawn and recommendations orsuggestions made. This comprises the last stage of thereport and the tone of it is determined by the position heldby the report writer. For instance, if it is a report beingwritten by a subordinate, he can only make suggestions.However, if it is one being written by superiors, it woulddefinitely have in the terminal section a rather well developedpart comprising recommendations.

Types of ReportsBasically there are two types of reports:1. Informational2. AnalyticalBroadly speaking, both types of reports contain similarcomponents in terms of,structure or organisation. The three major sections in a reportare:

1. Introduction2. Text3. Terminal sectionHowever, there is a major difference in the structuring of thesethree sections. This stems primarily from the nature of the taskattempted in the two different types of reports.

Informational ReportAn informational report, as the name suggests, entails provi-sion of all details and facts pertaining to the problem. Forinstance, it could be a report that attempts to trace the growthof Company X in the automobile industry. In a report of thiskind, the presentation of all details that led to the growth ofCompany X should be listed in a chronological order.The sequential arrangement of issues or topics in an informa-tional report could observe anyone of the following ways ofpresentation. It could be, as stated earlier, by• Chronology• Importance• Sequence/procedure• Category• Alphabetization• FamiliarityAs the presentation of information is the basic purpose of thereport, details are worked out in a systematic and coherentmanner. The structural orientation in an informational reportshould be clearly evident to the reader and its significance alsograsped.In a report of this kind, the various sections are simple and self-explanatory. The introduction is followed by a presentation ofinformation or facts and a summary thereafter where all thedetails are collated in brief for a recall or recap of earlier sections.

Hints and Tips on Business ReportWritingQuestions to ask when designing your report• Who is your audience?• What does your audience know?• What do you want them to know?

• Facts• Conclusions (recommendations)

Design IssuesCoherence• Each fact is in its logical place• Relationship of each fact to other facts and to overall report

is clear

Organization• Inductive order - moving from known to unknown

• Orientation (introduction)• Facts (perhaps including their analysis)• Summary or conclusion• Recommendation

Report Components

• Table of Contents– Show beginning page number where each

report heading appears– Connect page numbers with leaders (spaced

dots)

• Deductive Order - start with conclusions, then presentsupport facts and analysis. Often preferred for short reports.

• Chronological Order - combine with one of the above, butlist facts in chronological order

• Organization by Division• Division by time period (e.g., quarter)• Division by place (e.g., sales region)• Division by quantity (e.g., sales by categories of

amounts)• Division by conceptual factors (e.g., worker availability,

transportation facilities, etc.)

Presentation• More than just “making it pretty,” good presentation makes

your document more understandable.• It is highly related to the organization of the document.A well-designed document• Creates an immediate positive impression for the reader,• Highlights the major topics of the document• Helps the reader read effectively (faster and more efficiently).

Elements of DesignText• Headings

• For helping the reader find a topic or component• Making transitions• establish order• can use multiple levels of headings

• Fonts• Variations in fonts can be used to set off pieces of text

(headings, quotes, etc.)• Do not get carried away with use of fonts - too

distracting• Indentation and justification

• As with headings and subheadings, can be used to showrelationship/hierarchy of topics

• Bullets• Excellent for lists• Excellent for emphasis• Make sure they use parallel structure (i.e., text in each is

worded similarly)

Graphics• Tables - Used to list values of at least two variables - excellent

for comparison• Pie charts - how parts relate to the whole• Bar graphs - for comparing values, showing trends• Line graphs - for showing trends• Illustrations and photographs

Checklist for Business ReportsGrammar and Spelling• Is the writing grammatically correct?

• Is the document free of typographical errors andmisspellings?

Organization• Is the document ordered in a logical way?• Are the parts of the document logically separated from each

other (good), or do the same issues appear unnecessarily inmultiple parts of the document (bad)?

• Do the subparts logically fit under this major part?• Does each paragraph and section show unity of purpose?• Is the purpose of the document introduced appropriately?

Content Issues• Is the analysis covered sufficiently to allow the reader to

follow your logic?• Are facts and opinions clearly distinguished?

Style• Is the style of writing appropriate to your audience and

purpose?

Presentation• Has information been presented in a clearly understandable

manner, using tables and graphs as appropriate?• Are headings and bullets used appropriately?


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Report Components

• Executive Summary– One of most important parts of report– Synopsis (overview) of report– Concentrate on what management needs to know– Summarizes

• Purpose• Scope• Methodology• Findings• Conclusions• Recommendations

Report Components

• Executive Summary– Organized same as report– Style and tone same as report– Avoid unexplained jargon/abbreviations– Do not refer to figures/tables presented later– Should not contain exhibits or footnotes– Include headings/make skimmable– Use transitional words– Length should be generally 1/10 of whole report

Executive summaries should be the last pieces of reports to be written since they are the most

important sections of the reports!

Report Components

• Introduction– Explain problem motivating report– Describe its background and significance– Clarify scope and limitations of report– Describe data sources, methods, key terms– Close by previewing report’s organization


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Report Components

• Body– Discuss, analyze, interpret research findings– Arrange findings in logical segments following

outline– Use clear, descriptive headings/skimmable

Report Components

• Recommendations– Make recommendations on suggested action to

be taken

Report Components

• Appendix– All items must be referred to in the text and

listed on the table of contents– Items of interest to some, but not all, readers

• For example, data questionnaires or computer printouts

Report Components

• References– List all references in section called “Works

Cited” or “References”– Include all text, online, and live sources– Follow style manual for citing sources


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Other Specifics on Report Writing

• Single- or double-spaced• About 2500 words (not counting appendix)• Tables of Contents will help you organize

and write report—write early!• Headings of same level must be consistent

– First, second, third levels

Headings

Same-level headings must be written consistently! (For example)

Level 1: CENTERED UPPER-CASELevel 2: Centered Upper-case and Lower-case

Level 3: Centered, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Level 4: Flush left, Underlined, Upper-caseand Lower-case

Level 5: Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading ending with a period.

Visual Aids

1. Introduce2. Label/Number/Informative Title3. Discuss


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LESSON 24: TYPES OF REPORT

Upon completion of this lesson you will

• Learn about various types of reports and their structures.

• Know the difference between an analytical report and an informational report.

• Learn about the usage of visual aids in reports

Students , this is a continuation of lesson 23 wherein we willstudy about different types of reports and their structure.

Types of Reports and Their Structure

Types Structure Informational _ Introduction Text

Terminal section

Analytical Terminal section Introduction Text

Analytical ReportThe analytical report comprises stages in which there is a properidentification of the problem, analysis and subsequent interpre-tation. Recommendations or suggestions are then incorporated

in the report, depending upon what is required by the reportwriter. Thus, in a problem solving method, the steps observed

are as follows1. Draft Problem Statement2. Evolve criteria3. Suggest alternatives and evaluation4. Draw conclusion(s) and make recommendations

The structure of an analytical report could follow any of thetwo patterns deductive or inductive. An inductive orderingfollows a simple, logical arrangement in which you proceed

from the known to the unknown. There are two premises orsyllogisms that conjoin to yield a final conclusion, e.g.

Syllogism 1 Ram is a man and he is mortal.Syllogism 2 Shyam is a man and he is mortal.Syllogism 3 ....................................................Syllogism n, .………………………………..Conclusion Therefore, all men are mortalOne could formulate umpteen number of syllogisms to reach a

final conclusion, which is always based on the number ofexperiments conducted, or factors observed. Certain disciplines,in which experiments have to be done and surveys conducted ,naturally follow this pattern. Here the progression is always inthe nature of working on the known elements to arrive at an

unknown conclusion.

However, inductive patterning, while normally followed fororganization based studies and experiments, suffers from amajor drawback. As it is not based on any universal truth, it

holds valid only up to the point there is discovery of an issuethat proves contrary to the findings in the report. It is by natureonly relevant in the present and no universal claims to the same’

can be made. .On the other hand, a deductive ordering observes a reverse

ordering where it proceeds from the unknown to the known.Universal truths are taken as the formulation point for the

problem. The various alternatives are suggested, evaluated andconclusions drawn, keeping in mind the original problem

stated. To take a look at the manner of approach in deductivemethodology, let us take an example.

Conclusion All men aremortal.

Syllogism 1 Ram is a manand he is mortal

Syllogism 2 Shyam is a manand he is mortal

Syllogism 3 ……………………………Sy1logism n

……………………………………

While in an inductive method the pattern of the report wouldnormally fo1low the sequence of introduction, text and

terminal section, in deductive method the structure could alsobe of a slightly different pattern. It could start with the terminalsection in which conclusions and recommendations are stated atthe start fo1lowed by an introduction and the text section. Thispattern would be observed if the report is of high importanceand the receiver does not have the time to browse through theentire report. Merely a glance at the initial pages would enable

the reader to assess the contents. Such readership would only beconcerned with the conclusions and recommendations/

suggestions or plan of action.


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Different Styles of Opening a Report

Inductive Approach Deductive Approach The automobile sector in India seems to have made tremendous headway in the last ten years. Company X has produced three models of cars. However, with the entry of new players in the market the company is facing stiff competition. There is also a slump in the market with excessive production and insufficient demand. The current study analyses the growth prospects of Company X vis-à-vis its competitors. The study focuses attention on the following three questions: 1. Who are the competitors? 2. Will Company X be able to face stiff competition from other companies? 3. What are the prospects of growth? The report attempts to analyze...

The automobile sector in India seems to have made tremendous headway in the last ten years. Company X has produced three models of cars. However, with the entry of new players in the market, Company X is facing stiff competition. There is also a slump in the market with excessive production and insufficient demand. The current study analyses the growth prospects of Company X vis-à-vis its competitors. It can easily be concluded that: 1. Company X is facing severe competition from Companies Y and Z. 2. Unless and until Company X brings down its price to match that of the competitors, it will not be able to corner a substantial market share. It is recommended that an additional f feature such as power steering be introduced as an extra facility or a reasonable reduction in price be carried out. Further, it is recommended that Company X target students pursuing professional courses with a lowered price and basic strip down model so that it appeals to their taste and fits their pocket. The conclusions arrived at and recommendations made are based on the following study. Five sample automobile com_anies were taken...

Developing An OutlineIt is extremely important to develop an outline of the reportprior to commencing work on the report. The formatting ofthe report should be carried out only after completion of theoutline. Questions revolving round the five W’s and one Hshould be answered or kept in mind at the time of preparing anoutline.Once these questions have been satisfactorily tackled shouldbegin the process of brainstorming. All ideas that come to one’smind should be written on small pieces of cue cards so that it iseasier to arrange them, at a later stage, in a sequential order.Brainstorming would give rise to a host of ideas, some ofwhich would form main points and others ancillary points.Now comes the tedious task of assigning an order to the cues.This could be done in such a way that the following points aretaken into account.1. A logical, general description2. A schematic summary3. An organizational pattern

4. A visual, conceptual design of writingOnce this is completed begins a three-stage process:1. All group-related ideas are clubbed together.2. Points, are organized in the form of sections and sub-

sections. The expected progression is from the general to thespecific or abstract to the concrete.

3. Main and sub-headings are created keeping in mind the factthat all follow a similar grammatical pattern.

Nature of HeadingsHeadings can be of two types: informative and descriptive, depend-ing on the nature of the report which is being written. Aninformative heading should present information in the directorder and be geared towards a more receptive audience, e.g. indiscussing the various alternatives, a heading could be of thefollowing nature.1. Change the size of tins

If the same were to be converted into a descriptive heading,it would take on the following shape:

2. Size of tinsA descriptive heading report in an indirect order, and thereaders are less receptive in such instances.

Point Formulation

Parallel Ordering of PointsWithin an outline the headings should be expressed in a parallelform. In case the writer decides to follow the format of usingthe noun or verb or verb +ing, he should follow it consistently.

Correct Ordering

1. Increase promotional efforts.2. Change the size of tins.3. Install more capacity.

Incorrect Ordering

1. Increase promotional efforts.2. Changing the size of tins.3. Installing more capacity.This patterning could be further corrected by using a similarverb +ing form inthe fIrst point as has been used in the second and third points.

Correction1. Increasing promotional efforts.2. Changing the size of tins.3. Installing more capacity.

Organize Group Related Ideas TogetherTogether with putting all the headings in a grammatically similarpattern, there should be a consistent pattern of clubbing themtogether. In other words, the general or specific connotationsshould be the same.

Correct Formulation1. Inventory backup2. Promotional strategy


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3. Distribution channel

Incorrect Formulation1. Piling inventory2. Promotional aspects3. Distribution networksThe above formulation is incorrect, as it does not place items ofthe same specificity in the same category. While in the first thewriter talks about the piling up of the inventory because ofdisuse, in the second a number of promotional strategies arehinted which could be in the nature of advertisements,hoardings etc. The third category again presupposes a numberof networks through which distribution is done.

Correction1. Promotional Aspects

• Advertisements• Hoardings

2. Distribution Networks.• Institutional markets• Shelf display

Logical Sequencing of PointsFinally, the arrangement or the connection between the sub-sections and the main section should follow a logical sequence.The relationship between the main heading and its sub-sectionsshould be the same. The progression should, as far as possible,be from the abstract to the concrete and from the general to thespecific.

Correct ArrangementA. Tact maxim

1. Minimize cost to other2. Maximize benefit to other

B. Generosity maxim1. Minimize benefit to self2. Maximize cost to self

Incorrect ArrangementA. Tact maxim

1. Minimize cost to other2. Strategies3. Usefulness

The problem with a formulation of this kind is that theexample uses the alphabet A without a B. Further, 1,2 and 3 arenot of the same specificity. The first falls in the nature ofissuing a directive, the second is a noun and the third is a qualitythat may be applicable or non-applicable according to theprevailing conditions.

CorrectionA. Cost strategy

1. Minimize cost to other2. Maximize cost to self

B. Benefit strategy1. Minimize benefit to self2. Maximize benefit to other

DIVISIONSIn order to carry on with divisions the writer needs at least twoparts that he can divide. There cannot be a 1 without a 2, an ‘a’without a ‘b’ and so on and so forth. Care should be exercisedat the time of dividing the headings into sub-sections as thebasis of division should be similar.

Correct Division

A. Opening section1. Introduction2. Greeting3. Action-related exchange

B. Concluding section1. Summary2. Justification3. Contact-termination

Incorrect Division

A. Opening section1. Introduction2. Greeting3. Main topic and sub-topic repetitions4. Action-related exchange leading to digressions

B. Concluding section1. Summary of main topic and sub-topics2. Justification3. Repetitions in leave-taking and well-wishing4. Contact-termination

The incorrect division on many occasions takes more than onecategory into account, for example, main-topic and sub-topicrepetitions. Similarly for B. In two headings we have a sub-division within a sub-section: Summary of main topics andsub-topics and repetition in leave-taking and well-wishing.

CorrectionA. Opening section

1. Introduction2. Greetings3. Repetitions

a. Main topicb. Sub-topics

4. Digressionsa. Action-related exchangeb. Anecdote narrations

B. Closing section1. Summary

a Main topicb. Sub-topics


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2. Justifications3. Repetitions

a. Leave-takingb. Well-wishing

4. Contact termination

NumberingThe report can follow anyone of the numbering systems: theRoman numerals and letters system or the Arabic numerals andthe decimal system.Roman Numeral and lettersI

AB

1.2.

IIAB

1.2.

Further subdivisions may be done by capitalization anddifferent typography (as computer setting facility is availabletoday)Arabic Numeral and Decimal1.0

1.11.2

1.2.11.2.2

2.02.12.2

2.2.12.2.2

It should be kept in mind that as various sub-sections are beingexemplified, they keep getting indented. Further, it is essentialto note that in the Roman numerals and letters, there is always aperiod or a full-stop after indication of the letter or numeral, forinstance, 1., A. However, the same pattern is not followed inthe decimal system. There is no stop or period at the end of thenumeral, e.g. 1.0,1.1, 1.1.1, etc.Further subdivisions may be done by different typographyusing the computer setting facility.

Visual AidsTranslating words and ideas in a visual form requires a lot ofingenuity on the part of the writer. Visual aids by way of chartsand graphs cannot be included at any juncture. There should be asystematic ordering by which the writer decides which part of the

information he would like to incorporate in the form of wordsand what he would like to use in the form of charts and tables.The raw material or data that the individual possesses has to begiven a structured ordering. The steps that enable the writer toproceed at an easy pace are1. Confirm reader’s needs and thought pattern. This is the

first stage, which should be adhered to beforeconceptualizing the use of visual aids. The reader may belooking for the entire report either as a visual presentation ora verbal one or maybe a combination of the two. Dependingupon the requirement the report with its verbal and visualsupport can be balanced.

2. Clarify which ideas would be best represented in visualform. It is difficult to present all ideas through graphics.Some ideas would definitely have a greater impact ifpresented through charts or tables, e.g. comparison betweenthe sales figures of two consecutive years. It is a judiciousdiscretion on the part of the report writer as to which pointshe would like to present visually.

3. Visualize the presentation of the same points in graphicform. Once the sorting out of the points or ideas is donethe next stage happens to be the imaginary conceptualizingof the same points, i.e., which of the charts or table wouldbe most suitable at this juncture, e.g. if one was to take upthe comparison between the sales figures of two consecutiveyears, one could use both the tabular form and thecomparative bar diagram. It is now for the report writer todecide what format he would like to incorporate in hisreport.

4. Establish balance between the verbal and the visual . Toomuch of visual and too little of verbal or the other wayround adds to the monotony of the text. There should be ahappy balance between the two so that report-readingprocedure is not tedious.While it may seem rather exciting entering the domain ofvisuals, care should be exercised from the point of view ofpresentation of the same. A badly presented visual can havea negative impact. Probably the following points, if kept inmind, can improve the quality of presentation. .

1. Thick line implies more power.

2. More mass indicates solidity.3. Bold color implies emphasis.

One could make use of these strategies effectively at the time ofindicating contrast or showing comparison.There are a number of ways through which graphic presenta-tions can be done1. Tables2. Bar Graphs

a. Vertical bar graphsb. Stacked vertical bar graphsc. Horizontal bar graphsd. Multiple bar graphs


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4. Pie-Charts5. Line Graphs6. Pictograms/Pictorial graph7. Flow Charts and organization charts8. Drawings, diagrams and maps

TablesThese are the simplest of the visualpresentations and require a form inwhich there are both horizontal rows aswell as vertical columns. These tables aremostly numerical but word tables arealso used. In a survey concerning TVviewing habits of men, women andchildren the following results can bepresented as follows

Exhibit IV.3 Table: TVViewing Habits

Category Percentage of viewers

Percentage of non-viewers

Men 44 56 Women 70 30

Children 80 20

The tabular form of presentation, whilesimple for the report writer, has bothadvantages and disadvantages. A lot offigures can be depicted. A number ofcombinations are possible in this tabularform; for example, numeric and non-numeric data can together be depicted.However, it also has certain disadvan-tages: While it is part of the visual depiction yet, visually thedetails are not evident at a glance. Occasionally the writer might,in the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailedand complicated. Finally the visual appeal in these charts ismissing.

Bar GraphsThese are the simplest to construct and make for easy compre-hension by the reader. They could be of various types: Verticalwith singular or multiple bars (Exhibit IV.4), stacked orcomparative and horizontal (Exhibit IV.5). If these graphsdepict more than one variable, two colors or designs are used soas to highlight the difference between two variables. Thesegraphs are comparative and if more than two variables in termsof the same time frame are used a stacked vertical or horizontalbar chart is used. The greatest advantage of these bar diagramsis that they can also be used with a three-dimensional effect (seeExhibit IV.6).Presentations in this form are advantageous as they have acompelling impact and two or more variables can be stackedwithout leading to difficulties in grasping the details. The colorand schematic designs added to the bars lend visual appeal tothese charts. However, there -could be a lack of precision inpresentation of details as of bar graphs the variables may becometoo cluttered and the lettering too small.

Exhibit IV.6 Three Dimensional StackedVertical Bar Diagram

Pie-ChartThis is one of the most popular forms to depict the share ofthe various categories and their correlation to the whole as apercentage. If there is a need to emphasize a particular segmentit is detached from the pie and referred to as the floating wedge.The other segments are demarcated by lines or differing colorsin a circular form.The pie chart captures the attention of the reader at a muchfaster pace than probably any other presentation would. Withinone chart itself segments can be highlighted. In addition to thecolor pattern used the categorization of the segments can be


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within, outside or alongside the chart. However, there could beoccasions when the difference is very minor and it might getblurred, for example, a segment depicting 0.5% may becometoo small to notice. Further, if the patterning of the segmentshas not been done imaginatively they might merge into oneanother and may become too small to notice.

Exhibit IV.7 Pie-chart with a FloatingWedgeRelative Customer Value of Facilities and Ambience

Line GraphThis graph is usually used to depict time and the variations intime over a period. Time is normally plotted on the x-axis orthe horizontal axis and the variable on the y-axis. Both thescales begin at zero and proceed in equal increments. However,occasionally on the y-axis there might be a small break immedi-ately after the zero point. This is normally done when there is alarge difference between zero and the first quantity to indicatethat some data has no bearing on the current study and hastherefore been left out. However, care should be exercised toindicate the points of omission.

Exhibit IV.8 Line Graph

Sales of Nilgiris shopping complexA lot of trends over a specific period can be depicted by the linegraph. A little caution should however, be exercised if the linescross each other at points as this might create confusion in- themind of the reader. Preferably if there are crisis-crossing linesonly three variable should be plotted as more than these mightlead to erroneous conclusions.Several variables can be plotted indicating trends over timeallowing easy comparisons. However, problems could arise iftoo many variables are plotted preventing fine distinctions frombeing evidenced or noticed.

Pictograms/Pictorial GraphThese are more in the nature of bar charts with figures or smallpictures plotted instead of lines. The pictures are chosen inaccordance with, the topic or the -subject matter. This chart isself-explanatory, e.g. if a chart were to be prepared indicating thepopulation boom in the last five years, human figures could beused thus exemplifying the point being made by the reportwriter. In this example a cluster of the figures or pictures wouldindicate an excessive number at that period. This chart is notused extensively for business reports.

Exhibit IV.9 Pictorial Graph ShowingEuropean Population From 1000 AD to1990 AD

= 100 millions of PopulationThe advantage of a chart of this kind is that large numbers canbe presented by a single cluster of figures. Much time and effortgoes into the designing of this chart so as to make it trulyrepresentative of the problem that it seeks to address. However,it is not very useful for business reports as they are moreconcrete and not based on pictorial depiction of the problem.

Flow Charts and Organization ChartsFlow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish.They are normally used when we wish to illustrate processes,procedures and relationships. The various elements in the chartcan also be depicted either with figures or geometrical designs.Organization charts illustrate the various positions or functionsof the organization. Most of the communication channels inan organization are described with the usage of these kinds ofcharts.

Drawings, Diagrams and MapsVarious drawings and diagrams can be used in business reports,though their usage is definitely limited. Most of these are addedto make the report colorful and decorative. However, theyshould be used sparingly so that the reader does not get swayedand lose track of the import of the message.Maps are rather appropriate at the time when we wish to discussor present statistical data through geographical indicators or sowish to express location relationships.


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Exhibit IV.10 Flow Chart of Patients in aHospital


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LESSON 25:ELEMENTS OF REPORT WRITING

On completion of this lesson you will understand thedifferent elements of a report and its role in effective reportwriting.

Students, we have already learnt about reports its types andstructure in the previoue lessons. In this lesson we willunderstand what constitutes a report and and what role doeseach element play in a report. You must have made atleast tworeports during the last two semesters. What were the compo-nents in your project report?Reports have a standardized format. The structure will be basedon the following model:Not all reports include all elements shown and you shouldalways check exact requirements with your Department orCourse Organiser.• Title Page• Table of Contents• Executive Summary• Introduction• Body• Conclusion• Recommendations• Bibliography• Appendices1. Title Page

This shows the title or subject of the report, who the reportis for, the name of the writer and date of submission.

2. Table of ContentsThis details all sections and sub-sections of the report withpage numbers.

3. Executive Summary or AbstractThis summarizes the main points and findings. (This is notalways required, particularly if it is a short report).

4. An IntroductionThis includes the scope and background to the workincluding:

• The aims and objectives and the terms of reference. Thecontext of the report and its purpose. Sometimes includedare details of the organization requesting the report and thequestion(s) they are hoping will be answered.

• The Methodology - how the information presented in thereport will be obtained and what procedures will be used, forexample: interviews or postal questionnaires. Sometimes anexplanation is included explaining why a particularinvestigative approach / methodology was chosen.

· The topics covered - giving a broad outline of content andscope and indicating any limitations of the project.

5. Body of the ReportThis is where information is presented, explanationsprovided and questions answered. It deals with what, how,where and why?The findings of the report are broken down into discretesections and sub-sections. Each section and sub-sectionshould have a title/heading, and be numbered.

Include in The Body of the Report• A literature review• Method - what you did and why you did it.• What you found - quantitative data - outcomes, what was

observed, outcome of questionnaires and results ofexperiments. Case studies and any qualitative information.

• Discussion - what has been deduced from the findings andhow these relate to previous research or other studies.Findings should be discussed in relation to a theoreticalframework and opinions presented based on reasoning andcritical thinking. All sources should be referenced.

6. ConclusionThe conclusion sums up the main points raised in the reportand arrives at conclusions, which clearly relate to theobjective(s) of the report. This is the place to draw togetherkey points made in the report . However, nothing newshould appear here.

7. RecommendationsThese should provide practical and viable proposal(s)andmay offer solutions to problems investigated in the report.(You will not always be asked to include recommendations).Each recommendation should be listed and discussedseparately.

8. BibliographyThis should detail all: books, articles, journals, websites, andany other sources consulted when writing the report.

9. AppendicesThese should be placed at the end of the report. They detailrelevant information, which is too lengthy or detailed toinclude in the body of the report. Each appendix shouldcontain different information. These should referred towithin the Report (Appendix 1) and so on.

Preparing a Report is a Skilful ProcessInvolving• Research skills• Skills in analysing and evaluating information• Writing skills


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1. The starting point is to establish the objective of the report.This will determine: what research is required, what researchmethods should be used and also how the report might bewritten and structured.

2. When the topic has been researched material should becollated and information grouped under sub headings.

3. Data needs to be analysed and then the report constructed.Structure, format and layout are of great importance; aconsiderable body of detailed material has to be carefullypresented in a coherent, logical and non-repetitive manner.

4. Intellectual skills have to be applied in interpreting andevaluating findings. Valid conclusions have to be drawn andappropriate recommendations made.

The report should look professional and information shouldbe easy to extract.• Use plenty of white space with wide margins and generous

spacing. When text is too dense and the page is too clutteredit becomes very daunting for the reader. (1.5 line spacing isoften recommended but particular specifications may begiven).

• Conventionally a serif font (e.g.Times) that is clear andcomfortable to read is used for the main text and a sans serif(e.g. Helvetica) for headings. Choose fonts that convey aformal style.

• Do not use fonts at less than 12 point. Headings and sub-headings can be larger, and in bold.

• When using diagrams, graphs or tables number thesesequentially and place them at the point at which they are firstreferred to. Sources should be included - this can be in asmaller font 9 or 10.

• Use consistent and suitable formatting and numbering. Forexample:

1. Headinga. Sub-heading one.b. Sub- heading twoor

A. Headingi. Sub-heading oneii. Sub-heading two

• Bullet points can also be used• Headings should be consistent and convey a clear meaning.

They will also be used in the Table of Contents to direct thereader to the information they are seeking. Avoid writingheadings in the form of questions - in academic writing youare not expected to directly address the reader.

• Ensure that the length of a report adheres to guidelines orrestrictions imposed.

• Proof read and carefully check grammar, punctuation andspelling

The emphasis in report writing is on facts and interpretation ofthe facts. These should be presented in a logical way using anacademic writing style.

Some Academic Writing Tips• Use straightforward language and take care with grammar

and sentence construction. Avoid using a note-style ofwriting.

• Try not to use pompous language.For example: use “find out” rather than “endeavour toascertain” - try not to use jargon or clichés

• Provide definitions.Include explanations of technical orunusual terms, unless you can reasonably expect your readerto know them.

• Use impersonal language.The report should be written inthe third person singular. Avoid personal terms such as ‘I’ or‘We’; the word ‘It’ should be used instead:For example:”I decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer...”should read”It was decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer...”

• Be precise.Avoid using terms that lack a precise meaning such as ‘nice’,‘good’ or ‘excellent’. One person’s idea of what is meant by‘good’ is not necessarily another’s.

• Remember that the report needs to be concise and to thepoint.For example:Use ‘Now’ or “Currently’ instead of phrases like ‘At the timeof writing’ or ‘At this point in time’.

• Try not to make generalizationsFor example:”Everyone agrees that cold calling does not produce results”.

While this may be true you can only make such statements ifsupported with evidence. Instead you should write:

”According to the Mori Report(2000), cold calling does notproduce results”.

• Use cautious language so that statements cannot easily bechallenged:”Cold calling may not produce results”.

• Use appropriate verb tensesReports often use the present tense in the Introduction andthe past tense when discussing findings.Example:Introduction: ‘This report examines..’Findings: ‘Results showed that..’

• Be careful when using AcronymsThe use of acronyms is allowed provided that the first timeyou write the letters you also write the words out in full.For example:Curriculum Vitae (C.V.)

• When using a lead sentence make sure that the points thatfollow on link to thisIncorrect ExampleThis style of CV creates the opportunity to:Can highlight skills and achievementsIdentifies personal attributes


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• Correct ExampleThis style of CV creates the opportunity to:Highlight skills and achievementsIdentify personal attributes

Other Writing Pitfalls to Avoid• Do not address the reader directly or use questions“Does this mean that some strategies are better than others?”• Be careful not to use redundant phrases

For example: “various differences”Various implies different so both words are not required.

• Do not start sentences with linking wordssuch as: but, and, or yet.

• Avoid using abbreviations and contractionsFor example:”they’re” for “they are””etc” and “ie” should also be avoided.

• Avoid making negative statementsFor example:”Calling firms directly should not be discouraged”. This canobscure the meaning. Instead write positive statements.”Calling firms directly should be encouraged”.

• Writing numbers in textShort small numbers should be written in full and longernumbers given in figuresFor example:’Three points were made’ - ‘There are 134 websites on thistopic’

• Try to avoid making sentences overlong andcomplicated as wordiness and padding can obscuremeaning.

Effective Report Writing

By Mustafa MuchhalaArticle added on December 27, 2002Most of us have been involved in writing a report at sometime, either in our working lives or our personal lives. Be it anaudit report, a director’s report or simply an insurance claimreport, it is very important for any report to effectively commu-nicate information to the report user.So, what constitutes an effective report? A report is a generalterm that simply means ‘telling’ or ‘relating’. It may presentitself in a wide range of formats. If you give someone a verbalaccount, or write a message in a letter or a memoranduminforming, say, your manager of facts, events, actions you havetaken, suggestions you wish to make as a result of the investi-gation and so on, you are ‘reporting’.Someone who is instructed to do so by a superior usually writesa report. A manager, who will then expect to make a decision onthe basis of what the report tells him, may commission aspecial ‘one-off’ report. For example, the board of directors ofa company might call for a report on the financial viability of anew product or investment, and they will expect to decidewhether or not to undertake the product development or theinvestment on the basis of the report’s findings

On the other hand, routine reports, such as performancereports, might be required because they are a part of establishedprocedures. The managers receiving the reports will not havecommissioned them specifically, but they will be expected to acton anything out of the ordinary that the report tells them.Some reports arise out of a particular event, on which regula-tions prescribe the writing of a report. For example, a leaving orexit interview report must be written following an employee’sresignation; any accident in the workplace must be reported.Individual responsibilities often include the requirement towrite reports — a representative on a committee, or the secretaryat a meeting, will have to report to members, or other commit-tees, the procedures and decisions taken.

Planning a ReportWhether you are writing a report in an exam or compiling areport at work, you will need to know how to put informationtogether effectively. Before you can even begin to think aboutwhat information you will need and where you will find it, youneed to consider the following.• Who is the user?• What type of report will be most useful to him/her?• What exactly does he/she need to know, and for what

purpose?• How much information is required, how quickly and at what

cost?• Do you need to give judgments, recommendations and so

on (or just information)?• If you know who the user is, what he or she wants and why,

and if you are aware of particular constraints imposed onyou in terms of report size, time and money, you will have agood framework for going on to plan the structure andcontent of your report. When you then come to plan areport in detail, you can ask yourself some or all of thesequestions.

• What information do I need to provide? What is relevant tothe user’s requirements?

• Do I need to follow a line of reasoning? If so, what is themost logical way in which data can be grouped, andsequenced, to make my reasoning clear?

• Do I need to include my own personal views? If so, at whatpoint: final recommendation or throughout the report?

• What can I do to make the report easier to read?• Are there suitable section or sub-headings I can use to

indicate effectively each stage of the information/argument?• Is the subject of the report too technical for the users? What

vocabulary should I use to help them understand?• Do I have a clear introduction to ‘ease’ the readers in to the

subject, and a clear conclusion that will draw everythingtogether for them?

You could use the above questions as a checklist for planningyour report. If you can then jot down a ‘skeleton’ of theheadings and sub-headings you have decided to use (with notesof any particular points that occur to you as you go along) youwill be ready to write. The formal headings of standard


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business reports may be useful to help you to organize yourthoughts — but may not be necessary, or even advisable, if theysimply act as a constraint on what you actually want to say, andhow you want to ‘shape’ it. There are certain stylistic require-ments to bear in mind, whether writing formal or informalreports. In a report designed to persuade as well as inform,subjective value judgments and emotions should be kept outof the content a and style as far as possible. Any bias, ifrecognized, can undermine the credibility of the report and itsrecommendations.• Emotional or otherwise loaded words should be avoided.In more formal reports, impersonal constructions should beused rather than ‘I’, ‘we’ etc., which carry personal and possiblysubjective associations. In other words, first person subjectsshould be replaced with third person. For example, avoid saying“I/We found that….” Instead the sentence can be framed as “Itbecame clear that…” or “Mr. X found that…” or even “Investi-gation revealed that…”• Colloquialisms and abbreviated forms should be avoided in

formal written English. Colloquial (informal) words such as‘I’ve’, ‘don’t’ and so on should be replaced by ‘I have’ and‘do not’. You should not use expressions like ‘blew his top’,instead formal phrases should be used, such as ‘showedconsiderable irritation’.

• Make the report easy to understand by avoiding technicallanguage and complex sentence structures for non-technicalusers. The material will have to be logically organized,especially if it is leading up to a conclusion orrecommendation. Relevant themes should be signaled byappropriate headings or highlighted for easy scanning.

• The layout of the report should display data clearly andattractively. Figures and diagrams should be used withdiscretion, and it might be helpful to highlight key figuresthat appear within large tables of numbers.

• Various display techniques may be used to make the contentof a report easy to identify and digest. For example, therelative importance of points should be signalled, each pointmay be referenced, and the body of text should be broken upto be easy on the eye. These aims may be achieved as follows.

Headings — Spaced out or enlarged CAPITALS may be used forthe main title. Important headings, e.g. of sections of the report,may be in CAPITALS. Underlining or Italics may be used forsubheadings. References — Each section or point in a formalreport should have a code for easy identification and reference.You can use different labelling for each type of heading oralternatively a decimal system may be used as shown below.

Main Section HeadingsI, II, III, IV, V etc. 1 Heading 1 A, B, C, D, E etc. 1.1 Sub-heading 1Subsections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. 1.1.1 Sub-heading 1, Point 1 1.1.2Sub-heading 1, Point 2 1.2 Sub-heading 2Points and subpoints (a), (b), (c) or (i), (ii), (iii) etc. 1.2.1 (a)Sub-heading 2, Point 1, Sub-point (a), 2 Heading 2Spacing — Intelligent use of spacing separates headings fromthe body of the text for easy scanning, and also makes a largeblock more attractive and ‘digestible’.

Generally Accepted Principles ofEffective Report WritingThe purpose of reports and their subject matter vary widely, butthere are certain generally accepted principles of report writingthat can be applied to most types of report. Bear in mind thatall these principles may not strictly apply to all reports but can beused as necessary. They will help you further develop yourreport writing skills.

TitleThe report should have a title, and the title should be explicitand brief. In other words, it should indicate clearly what thereport is about and should be as short as possible.

Identification of Report Writer, ReportUser and DateReports should indicate in a clear place, possibly before the titleitself, whom they are directed at, who has written them and thedate of their preparation.

ConfidentialityIf the report is confidential or ‘secret’ this fact must be printedat the top of the report and possibly on every page.

Contents PageIf the report is extensive, it should open with a list of contents.

Terms of ReferenceThe introductory section of the report should explain why thereport has been written and the terms of reference. The termsof reference will explain not only the purpose of the report butalso any restrictions on its scope. For example, an internalauditing report might state that its terms of reference have beento investigate procedures in the credit control section of theaccounts department, with a view to establishing whether theexisting internal checks are adequate.Similarly, the terms of reference of a management accountingreport might be to investigate the short-term profit prospectsfor a particular product, with a view to recommending either theclosure of the product line or its continued production. Theseterms of reference would exclude considerations of long-termprospects for the product, and so place a limitation on the scopeof the report.When timescale is important, this should be specified in theterms of reference. For example, the board of directors mightcall for a report so that they can take a decision by a certain cut-off date, e.g., whether to put in a tender for a major contractand if so at what price, in a situation where a customer hasinvited tenders which must be submitted by a certain date.

Sources of InformationIf the report draws on other sources for its information, thesesources should be acknowledged in the report. Alternatively, ifthe report is based on primary research, the nature of the fact-finding should be explained, perhaps in an appendix to thereport.If there is an extensive series of documents referring to onematter, a summary of the history may be provided in theappendix. If the literature includes a lot of correspondence, auniform code should be used to refer to letters in the summary.


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For example, letters between the Company Secretary and theCompanies Registry might be referenced as CS/Reg [date].

SectionsThe main body of the report should be divided into sections.The sections should have a logical sequence, and each sectionshould ideally have a clear heading. These headings or sub-headings should, if possible, be standardized when reports areproduced regularly e.g., audit reports. Paragraphs should benumbered for ease of reference. Each paragraph should beconcerned with just one basic idea.

AppendicesTo keep the main body of the report short enough to hold thereader’s interest, detailed explanations, calculations, charts andtables of figures should be put into appendices. The main bodyof the report should make cross-references to the appendices inappropriate places.

Summary of RecommendationsA report will usually contain conclusions or recommendationsabout the course of action to be taken by the report user. Theseconclusions or recommendations could perhaps be stated at thebeginning of the report (after the introduction and statementof terms of reference). The main body of the report can thenfollow, in its logically progressive sections, and should lead thereport user through the considerations that led the report writerto these conclusions.The conclusions or recommendations could then be re-stated atthe end of the main body of the report. For example, amanagement accounting report into the performance of anoperating division might summarise its findings at thebeginning, as follows.

Plan Actual Sales turnover X X Profit X X Cash movement X X Capital employed X X Return on capital employed X X

The following sections of the report would then go on to lookat each of these items in more detail, concluding with anassessment of the division’s performance and perhaps recom-mendations as to how it needs to be improved.Any assumptions, forecasts or conjectures should be signalledas such, and not passed off as fact.

Prominence of Important ItemsThe most significant items in a report should be given promi-nence.

Report SummariesLong reports should be summarised in brief. However, assuggested already it is often better to keep the main report itselfbrief, with the detail in appendices; a report summary would probably not then be necessary.

Implications For ManagementReference should be made where appropriate to costs, savingsand other benefits that might accrue, and to any other implica-

tions for management in the report’s recommendations (e.g.,implications for staff recruitment, training or redundancies andso on).

CompletenessA report should be logically complete and should not overlookany item or consideration so that its recommendations are calledinto question.

Types of ReportHaving discussed the generally accepted principles applicable tomost types of reports, let us go through the three main typesof report you might have to deal with.• The short formal report• The short informal report• The memorandum reportThe short formal report is used in formal contexts such aswhere middle management is reporting to senior management.It should be laid out according to certain basic guidelines. It willbe split into logical sections, each referenced and headedappropriately.

Titlei. Terms of Reference (or Introduction)ii. Procedure (or Method)iii. Findings1. Section heading2. Section heading if required• Relevance;• Accuracy;• Reliability;• Timeliness;• Appropriateness; and• Cost-effectiveness.

Steps in Writing a Routine BusinessReportYour assignment will be to write a memo report to help solve abusiness-related problem.Think of a job you currently have (or have had in the past). Isthere something you would change? Have you noticed aprocedure or on-going situation that could be improved?Perhaps new equipment is needed or the physical layout isinefficient. Perhaps the work flow needs to be revised orcompany policy needs to be reevaluated. I’m sure there issomething you would like to see improved.Once you have a topic, you’re then ready to start thinking in termsof a report. Don’t decide on a solution right now. I want you togo through some steps to come to the RIGHT solution.In creating your report, follow these steps:1. Determine the Scope of the Report2. Consider Your Audience3. Gather Your Information4. Analyze Your Information5. Determine the Solution


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6. Organize Your Report

Determine the Scope of the ReportA common fault of many reports is making the scope of areport too general or too vague. When you choose a subject fora report, one of the first steps is to narrow the scope to a reportlengthThe scope of the report is defined by determining the factorswhich you will study. You need to limit the amount ofinformation you will gather to the most needed and mostimportant factors.For example, factors to be studied to determine ways toimprove employee morale might include:

SalariesFringe benefitsWork assignmentsWork hoursEvaluation procedures

You could study many other factors relative to improvingemployee morale. Some may be important, and you may wantto consider them later. For any one report, however, a reason-able scope must be clearly defined by determining what factorswill be included.

Consider Your AudienceAlways consider your reader or readers. Unlike letters andmemos, reports usually have a far wider distribution. Manypeople may be involved in a decision-making process and haveneed to read the information in the reportYour job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to makereading your report easier, think in terms of the reader.Each audience has unique needs. Some audience considerationinclude:• Need (from your report)• Education level• Position in the organization• Knowledge of your topic or area• Responsibility to act• Age• Biases• Preferences• AttitudesSome false assumptions commonly made regarding audiencesare:1. That the person who will first read or edit the report is the

audience2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of the report4. That the audience has time to read the entire report5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject of the

report6. That the author will always be available to discuss the reportTo avoid making these false assumptions, writers shouldidentify everyone who might read the report; characterize those

readers according to their professional training, position in theorganization, and personal traits; and determine how and whenthe reader might use the report. Audiences are basically of threekinds:

Primary People who have to act or make decisions on the basis of the report

Secondary People affected by actions of the primary audiences would take in response to the report

Immediate People responsible for evaluating the report and getting it to the right people

Additional questions to ask regarding your audience are:1. How much background will the audience need?2. Do you need to define any terms you are using?3. What language level will be most appropriate for your

readers?4. How many and what kind of visual aids should you use?5. What will the audience expect from your report?6. Does the reader prefer everything given in detail or merely a

brief presentation that touches upon the highlights?

Gather Your InformationNow that you have a clear understanding of the purpose andscope of your report and who you are writing to, you’re nowready to gather your information.Information you gather can be of two types: Secondary andPrimary. Secondary is information gathered and recorded byothers. Primary is information you gather and record yourself.

Sources Caution

Secondary Books, internet, reports, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, and journals

Information may be inaccurate, out of date, or biased

Primary Questionnaires, surveys, observation, experiments, historical information, and raw data

Information must be gathered carefully to ensure it is accurate and bias free.


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At this point you should be doing your research. ThinkWHERE you are going to find your information. If thepurpose of your report requires purchase information, youmight want to check with vendors and distributors for featuresand pricing information. For certain types of information youmight be checking out the library (books, magazines, journals,or newspapers). Another good source of information is theinternet. Conduct a search using key words to find whatinformation that might be useful to you in cyberspace.As you are gathering your information, create a way to manageyour information. Massive information is difficult to sortthrough if it is not organized. One idea is to place differentpiece of information on note cards (with the source on thatcard). By separating pieces of information on cards, theinformation later can be “rearranged” and sorted when you aredetermining your plan of presentation.

Analyze Your InformationNow that you have information, you need to analyze it.The purpose of the analysis is to make sense, objectively, out ofthe information you have gathered. You will not want personalbias of any kind to enter into the analysis.Information is compared and contrasted in an effort to try tofind new ideas or the best ideas. Separate facts and figures needto be interpreted by explaining what they mean—what signifi-cance they have.For example, if you were doing a study to determine whichcomputer to buy for your office, you would collect informationon the type of work you are currently doing in your office andthe kinds of work you want to do. Then you would gatherinformation on computers. This information might includecost, compatibility, speed of operation, machine capacity,machine dependability, maintenance availability, potential forupgrading, and other factors. Then you would compare andcontrast (analyze) the different computers to determine howwell they can do what you want done, what their potential is,how dependable they are, and so on. Once all the informationis gathered, you are ready to determine solutions.

Determine the SolutionBased on your analysis, you will be then be ready to offer asolution (or solutions) to the problem you have been studying.For example, which computer would be the best buy for theword processing center or what office arrangement would be thebest for effective work flow?A word of caution: The gathered information should be thebasis for making this decision. A tendency in business reportwriting is to “slant” information in the report to lead the readerto the decision the writer want. Make sure you report allpertinent information—good and bad. The credibility of thereport (and credibility of you) is at stake.Make sure, however, that a solution is even requested. Depend-ing on your position in the organization and the particularbusiness study, a solution may NOT be requested in the report.Your purpose would then be to present the objective facts.These facts would be used by someone else to determine thebest solution.

Organize Your ReportYou’ve got your topic, your information, and your decision. Nowyou’re ready to determine how to present your information.Before actually writing, organize your information into anoutline form. You can formulate an outline for your report bychoosing the major and supporting ideas, developing thedetails, and eliminating the unnecessary ideas you’ve gathered.This outline becomes the basic “structure” of your report.A report could be presented as a memo report, a standardizedform report, or a formal report. The report you will beassigned in this course will be a memo report intended for anaudience within your organization.Your memo report will have the following five steps:• Provide identifying information (usually in the To, From,

Date, Subject Area)• Define the project or problem (purpose of the report)• Give the background• Give the supporting data• State your conclusions and recommendationsCreate a “skeleton” outline by jotting down these five steps andfilling in the information from your gathered material thatwould fall into each category.Based on your outline you are NOW ready to begin the actualwriting of your report. Write a rough draft. Don’t be overlyconcerned about proofreading and editing at this point. Justget your thoughts doneBe systematic if you can—starting at the beginning and workyour way through. However, if you can find no logicalapproach, start anywhere—BUT START. Expert writers oftenuse this technique. They know that they can write the openingparagraph(s) or page(s) at a later time. Remember, don’t thinkabout editing when writing the first draft. Editing proves astumbling block in creativity for many writers. Write first. Thencome back and edit. Otherwise, you are working against thecreative processIn writing your report, you might want to use headings for eachof these sections of your report. Headings and subheadings areused as organizational tools in writing to identify major partsof a report. Headings serve as guideposts for a reader, dividingthe information into segments that make it easy for a reader tounderstandWhen writing headings be sure they are descriptive, parallel, andunnecessary to transition.


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Descriptive Headings should talk about the contents of their portion of the report.

Poor: Supporting Data

Better: Comparison of Three Computer Models

Parallel All headings of the same level should start with the same grammatical structure.

Unnecessary to Transition

Headings should not be relied upon to give meaning to that section of the report. Headings do serve as guides, but the report should be understood even though no headings are used.

Poor:

Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees: This problem has been a persistent one throughout the industry.

Better:

Changes Must Be Communicated to Employees. The problem of communicating changes procedures to employees has been a persistent one throughout the industry.


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By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

• State why questionnaires may be used

• Explain techniques used in designing effective questionnaire

• Illustrate the different types of question used on questionnaire

Students, how many of you have filled up a questionnairerelated to any product or service? Questionnaires are the mosteconomical form data collection. We will discuss in this lessonthe need and usage of questionnaires as well as various types ofquestions .

Designing and Using QuestionnairesThis is the information age. More information has beenpublished in the last decade than in all previous history.Everyone uses information to make decisions about the future.If our information is accurate, we have a high probability ofmaking a good decision. If our information is inaccurate, ourability to make a correct decision is diminished. Better informa-tion usually leads to better decisions.

Ways to Get InformationThere are six common ways to get information. These are:literature searches, talking with people, focus groups, personalinterviews, telephone surveys, and mail surveys.A literature search involves reviewing all readily available materi-als. These materials can include internal company information,relevant trade publications, newspapers, magazines, annualreports, company literature, on-line data bases, and any otherpublished materials. It is a very inexpensive method ofgathering information, although it generally does not yieldtimely information. Literature searches take between one andeight weeks.Talking with people is a good way to get information during theinitial stages of a research project. It can be used to gatherinformation that is not publicly available, or that is too new tobe found in the literature. Examples might include meetingswith prospects, customers, suppliers, and other types ofbusiness conversations at trade shows, seminars, and associa-tion meetings. Although often valuable, the information hasquestionable validity because it is highly subjective and mightnot be representative of the population.A focus group is used as a preliminary research technique toexplore people’s ideas and attitudes. It is often used to test newapproaches (such as products or advertising), and to discovercustomer concerns. A group of 6 to 20 people meet in aconference-room-like setting with a trained moderator. Theroom usually contains a one-way mirror for viewing, includingaudio and video capabilities. The moderator leads the group’sdiscussion and keeps the focus on the areas you want toexplore. Focus groups can be conducted within a couple ofweeks and cost between two and three thousand dollars. Their

LESSON 26:QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN AND USAGE

UNIT 2CHAPTER 7 : INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

disadvantage is that the sample is small and may not berepresentative of the population in general.Personal interviews are a way to get in-depth and comprehensiveinformation. They involve one person interviewing anotherperson for personal or detailed information. Personal inter-views are very expensive because of the one-to-one nature ofthe interview ($50+ per interview). Typically, an interviewer willask questions from a written questionnaire and record theanswers verbatim. Sometimes, the questionnaire is simply a listof topics that the research wants to discuss with an industryexpert. Personal interviews (because of their expense) aregenerally used only when subjects are not likely to respond toother survey methods.Telephone surveys are the fastest method of gathering informa-tion from a relatively large sample (100-400 respondents). Theinterviewer follows a prepared script that is essentially the sameas a written questionnaire. However, unlike a mail survey, thetelephone survey allows the opportunity for some opinionprobing. Telephone surveys generally last less than ten minutes.Typical costs are between four and six thousand dollars and theycan be completed in two to four weeks.Mail surveys are a cost effective method of gathering informa-tion. They are ideal for large sample sizes, or when the samplecomes from a wide geographic area. They cost a little less thantelephone interviews, however, they take over twice as long tocomplete (eight to twelve weeks). Because there is no inter-viewer, there is no possibility of interviewer bias. The maindisadvantage is the inability to probe respondents for moredetailed information.E-mail and internet surveys are relatively new and little is knownabout the effect of sampling bias in internet surveys. While it isclearly the most cost effective and fastest method of distribut-ing a survey, the demographic profile of the internet user doesnot represent the general population, although this is changing.Before doing an e-mail or internet survey, carefully consider theeffect that this bias might have on the results.

Questionnaire Research Flow ChartQuestionnaire research design proceeds in an orderly and specificmanner. Each item in the flow chart depends upon thesuccessful completion of all the previous items. Therefore, it isimportant not to skip a single step. Notice that there are twofeedback loops in the flow chart to allow revisions to themethodology and instruments.


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Design Methodology

Determine Feasibility

Develop Instruments

Select Sample

Conduct Pilot Test

Revise Instruments

Conduct Research

Analyze Data

Prepare Report

Time ConsiderationsMany researchers underestimate the time required to complete aresearch project. The following form may be used as an initialchecklist in developing time estimates. The best advice is to begenerous with your time estimates. Things almost always takelonger than we think they should.This checklist contains two time estimates for each task. Thefirst one (Hours) is your best estimate of the actual number ofhours required to complete the task. The second one (Duration)is the amount of time that will pass until the task is completed.Sometimes these are the same and sometimes they are different.Most researchers and business-people have to divide their timeamong many projects. They simply cannot give all their time toany one project. For example, my estimate of goal clarificationmay be four hours, but other commitments allow me to spendonly two hours a day on this study. My “hours” estimate is fourhours, and my “duration” estimate is two days.To arrive at your final time estimates, add the individualestimates. The hours estimate is used for budget planning andthe duration estimate is used to develop a project time line.

Hours Duration1. Goal clarification ________ ________2. Overall study design ________ ________3. Selecting the sample ________ ________4. Designing the questionnaire

and cover letter ________ ________5. Conduct pilot test ________ ________6. Revise questionnaire (if necessary) ________ ________7. Printing time ________ ________8. Locating the sample (if necessary) ________ ________9. Time in the mail & response time ________ ________

10. Attempts to get non-respondents________ ________11. Editing the data and coding open-ended questions

________ ________12. Data entry and verification ________ ________13. Analyzing the data ________ ________14. Preparing the report ________ ________15. Printing & distribution of the report

________ ________

Cost ConsiderationsBoth beginning and experienced researchers often underesti-mate the cost of doing questionnaire research. Some of themost common costs are: Proposal typing and editing. ________Cover letter and questionnaire typing. ________Addressing mailing envelopes. ________Following up on non-respondents. ________Mailing list cost (if necessary). ________Artwork and keylining. ________Cover letter and survey printing costs. ________Envelope costs (both ways + more). ________Postage costs (both ways + more). ________Incentives. ________Data entry and verification. ________Statistical analysis programmer. ________Distribution of the final report. ________

Advantages of Written QuestionnairesQuestionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving largesample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnairesbecome even more cost effective as the number of researchquestions increases.Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation fornearly all surveys can be easily done with many computersoftware packages.Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone hashad some experience completing questionnaires and theygenerally do not make people apprehensive.Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presenta-tion and no middle-man bias. The researcher’s own opinionswill not influence the respondent to answer questions in acertain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influencethe respondent.Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-facesurveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail,he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table.Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not inter-rupted by the research instrument.

Disadvantages of Written QuestionnairesOne major disadvantage of written questionnaires is thepossibility of low response rates. Low response is the curse ofstatistical analysis. It can dramatically lower our confidence in the


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results. Response rates vary widely from one questionnaire toanother (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies consis-tently produce high response rates.Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to proberesponses. Questionnaires are structured instruments. Theyallow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to responseformat. In essence, they often lose the “flavor of the response”(i.e., respondents often want to qualify their answers). Byallowing frequent space for comments, the researcher canpartially overcome this disadvantage. Comments are among themost helpful of all the information on the questionnaire, andthey usually provide insightful information that would haveotherwise been lost.Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gesturesand other visual cues are not available with written question-naires. The lack of personal contact will have different effectsdepending on the type of information being requested. Aquestionnaire requesting factual information will probably notbe affected by the lack of personal contact. A questionnaireprobing sensitive issues or attitudes may be severely affected.When returned questionnaires arrive in the mail, it’s natural toassume that the respondent is the same person you sent thequestionnaire to. This may not actually be the case. Many timesbusiness questionnaires get handed to other employees forcompletion. Housewives sometimes respond for their hus-bands. Kids respond as a prank. For a variety of reasons, therespondent may not be who you think it is. It is a confoundingerror inherent in questionnaires.Finally, questionnaires are simply not suited for some people.For example, a written survey to a group of poorly educatedpeople might not work because of reading skill problems. Morefrequently, people are turned off by written questionnairesbecause of misuse.

Questionnaire Design - GeneralConsiderationsMost problems with questionnaire analysis can be traced back tothe design phase of the project. Well-defined goals are the bestway to assure a good questionnaire design. When the goals of astudy can be expressed in a few clear and concise sentences, thedesign of the questionnaire becomes considerably easier. Thequestionnaire is developed to directly address the goals of thestudy.One of the best ways to clarify your study goals is to decidehow you intend to use the information. Do this before youbegin designing the study. This sounds obvious, but manyresearchers neglect this task. Why do research if the results willnot be used?Be sure to commit the study goals to writing. Whenever you areunsure of a question, refer to the study goals and a solutionwill become clear. Ask only questions that directly address thestudy goals. Avoid the temptation to ask questions because itwould be “interesting to know”.As a general rule, with only a few exceptions, long question-naires get less response than short questionnaires. Keep yourquestionnaire short. In fact, the shorter the better. Responserate is the single most important indicator of how much

confidence you can place in the results. A low response rate canbe devastating to a study. Therefore, you must do everythingpossible to maximize the response rate. One of the mosteffective methods of maximizing response is to shorten thequestionnaire.If your survey is over a few pages, try to eliminate questions.Many people have difficulty knowing which questions could beeliminated. For the elimination round, read each question andask, “How am I going to use this information?” If theinformation will be used in a decision-making process, thenkeep the question... it’s important. If not, throw it out.One important way to assure a successful survey is to includeother experts and relevant decision-makers in the questionnairedesign process. Their suggestions will improve the question-naire and they will subsequently have more confidence in theresults.Formulate a plan for doing the statistical analysis during thedesign stage of the project. Know how every question will beanalyzed and be prepared to handle missing data. If you cannotspecify how you intend to analyze a question or use theinformation, do not use it in the survey.Make the envelope unique. We all know how important firstimpressions are. The same holds true for questionnaires. Therespondent’s first impression of the study usually comes fromthe envelope containing the survey. The best envelopes (i.e., theones that make you want to see what’s inside) are colored,hand-addressed and use a commemorative postage stamp.Envelopes with bulk mail permits or gummed labels areperceived as unimportant. This will generally be reflected in alower response rate.Provide a well-written cover letter. The respondent’s nextimpression comes from the cover letter. The importance of thecover letter should not be underestimated. It provides your bestchance to persuade the respondent to complete the survey.Give your questionnaire a title that is short and meaningful tothe respondent. A questionnaire with a title is generallyperceived to be more credible than one without.Include clear and concise instructions on how to complete thequestionnaire. These must be very easy to understand, so useshort sentences and basic vocabulary. Be sure to print the returnaddress on the questionnaire itself (since questionnaires oftenget separated from the reply envelopes).Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting items. If thefirst items are too threatening or “boring”, there is little chancethat the person will complete the questionnaire. People generallylook at the first few questions before deciding whether or not tocomplete the questionnaire. Make them want to continue byputting interesting questions first.Use simple and direct language. The questions must be clearlyunderstood by the respondent. The wording of a questionshould be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommonwords or long sentences. Make items as brief as possible. Thiswill reduce misunderstandings and make the questionnaireappear easier to complete. One way to eliminate misunderstand-ings is to emphasize crucial words in each item by using bold,italics or underlining.


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Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments. Onecriticism of questionnaires is their inability to retain the “flavor”of a response. Leaving space for comments will providevaluable information not captured by the response categories.Leaving white space also makes the questionnaire look easierand this increases response.Place the most important items in the first half of the ques-tionnaire. Respondents often send back partially completedquestionnaires. By putting the most important items near thebeginning, the partially completed questionnaires will stillcontain important information.Hold the respondent’s interest. We want the respondent tocomplete our questionnaire. One way to keep a questionnaireinteresting is to provide variety in the type of items used.Varying the questioning format will also prevent respondentsfrom falling into “response sets”. At the same time, it isimportant to group items into coherent categories. All itemsshould flow smoothly from one to the next.If a questionnaire is more than a few pages and is held togetherby a staple, include some identifying data on each page (such asa respondent ID number). Pages often accidentally separate.Provide incentives as a motivation for a properly completedquestionnaire. What does the respondent get for completingyour questionnaire? Altruism is rarely an effective motivator.Attaching a dollar bill to the questionnaire works well. If theinformation you are collecting is of interest to the respondent,offering a free summary report is also an excellent motivator.Whatever you choose, it must make the respondent want tocomplete the questionnaire.Use professional production methods for the questionnaire—either desktop publishing or typesetting and keylining. Becreative. Try different colored inks and paper. The object is tomake your questionnaire stand out from all the others therespondent receives.Make it convenient. The easier it is for the respondent tocomplete the questionnaire the better. Always include a self-addressed postage-paid envelope. Envelopes with postagestamps get better response than business reply envelopes(although they are more expensive since you also pay for thenon-respondents).The final test of a questionnaire is to try it on representatives ofthe target audience. If there are problems with the question-naire, they almost always show up here. If possible, be presentwhile a respondent is completing the questionnaire and tell herthat it is okay to ask you for clarification of any item. Thequestions she asks are indicative of problems in the question-naire (i.e., the questions on the questionnaire must be withoutany ambiguity because there will be no chance to clarify aquestion when the survey is mailed).

Qualities of a Good QuestionThere are good and bad questions. The qualities of a goodquestion are as follows:1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening.

When a respondent is concerned about the consequencesof answering a question in a particular manner, there is agood possibility that the answer will not be truthful.

Anonymous questionnaires that contain no identifyinginformation are more likely to produce honest responsesthan those identifying the respondent. If yourquestionnaire does contain sensitive items, be sure toclearly state your policy on confidentiality.

2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purposeof a survey is to find out information. A question thatasks for a response on more than one dimension will notprovide the information you are seeking. For example, aresearcher investigating a new food snack asks “Do you likethe texture and flavor of the snack?” If a respondentanswers “no”, then the researcher will not know if therespondent dislikes the texture or the flavor, or both.Another questionnaire asks, “Were you satisfied with thequality of our food and service?” Again, if the respondentanswers “no”, there is no way to know whether the qualityof the food, service, or both were unsatisfactory. A goodquestion asks for only one “bit” of information.

3. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choiceitems are the most popular type of survey questionsbecause they are generally the easiest for a respondent toanswer and the easiest to analyze. Asking a question thatdoes not accommodate all possible responses can confuseand frustrate the respondent. For example, consider thequestion:What brand of computer do you own? __

A. IBM PC B. Apple

Clearly, there are many problems with this question. Whatif the respondent doesn’t own a microcomputer? What ifhe owns a different brand of computer? What if he ownsboth an IBM PC and an Apple? There are two ways tocorrect this kind of problem.The first way is to make each response a separatedichotomous item on the questionnaire. For example:Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No)Do you own an Apple computer? (circle: Yes or No)Another way to correct the problem is to add the necessaryresponse categories and allow multiple responses. This isthe preferable method because it provides moreinformation than the previous method.What brand of computer do you own?(Check all that apply)

__ Do not own a computer __ IBM PC __ Apple __ Other4. Has mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no

ambiguity in the mind of the respondent. There should beonly one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent tomake. An obvious example is:Where did you grow up? _A. Country


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B. FarmC. CityA person who grew up on a farm in the country would notknow whether to select choice A or B. This question wouldnot provide meaningful information. Worse than that, itcould frustrate the respondent and the questionnaire mightfind its way to the trash.

5. Produces variability of responses. When a questionproduces no variability in responses, we are left withconsiderable uncertainty about why we asked the questionand what we learned from the information. If a questiondoes not produce variability in responses, it will not bepossible to perform any statistical analyses on the item. Forexample:What do you think about this report? __A. It’s the worst report I’ve readB. It’s somewhere between the worst and bestC. It’s the best report I’ve readSince almost all responses would be choice B, very littleinformation is learned. Design your questions so they aresensitive to differences between respondents. As anotherexample:Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No)Again, there would be very little variability in responses andwe’d be left wondering why we asked the question in thefirst place.

6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Writing aquestionnaire is similar to writing anything else.Transitions between questions should be smooth.Grouping questions that are similar will make thequestionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent willfeel more comfortable. Questionnaires that jump from oneunrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likelyto produce high response rates.

7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Among themost subtle mistakes in questionnaire design are questionsthat make an unwarranted assumption. An example ofthis type of mistake is:Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes orNo)This question will present a problem for someone whodoes not currently have auto insurance. Write yourquestions so they apply to everyone. This often meanssimply adding an additional response category.Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance?_ Yes_ No_ Don’t have auto insuranceOne of the most common mistaken assumptions is thatthe respondent knows the correct answer to the question.Industry surveys often contain very specific questions thatthe respondent may not know the answer to. For example:What percent of your budget do you spend on

Direct mail advertising? ____Very few people would know the answer to this questionwithout looking it up, and very few respondents will takethe time and effort to look it up. If you ask a questionsimilar to this, it is important to understand that theresponses are rough estimates and there is a stronglikelihood of error.It is important to look at each question and decide if allrespondents will be able to answer it. Be careful not toassume anything. For example, the following questionassumes the respondent knows what Proposition 13 isabout.Are you in favor of Proposition 13 ?

___ Yes ___ No ___ Undecided

If there is any possibility that the respondent may notknow the answer to your question, include a “don’t know”response category.

8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording of aquestion is extremely important. We are striving forobjectivity in our surveys and, therefore, must be carefulnot to lead the respondent into giving the answer wewould like to receive. Leading questions are usually easilyspotted because they use negative phraseology. Asexamples:Wouldn’t you like to receive our free brochure?Don’t you think the Congress is spending too muchmoney?

9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely definedwords. This is one of the areas overlooked by bothbeginners and experienced researchers. Quantifyingadjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) are frequently used inquestions. It is important to understand that theseadjectives mean different things to different people.

10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations.Remember who your audience is and write yourquestionnaire for them. Do not use uncommon words orcompound sentences. Write short sentences. Abbreviationsare okay if you are absolutely certain that every singlerespondent will understand their meanings. If there is anydoubt at all, do not use the abbreviation. The followingquestion might be okay if all the respondents areaccountants, but it would not be a good question for thegeneral public.What was your AGI last year? ______

11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions.Branching in written questionnaires should be avoided.While branching can be used as an effective probingtechnique in telephone and face-to-face interviews, itshould not be used in written questionnaires because itsometimes confuses respondents. An example ofbranching is:


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1. Do you currently have a life insurance policy ?(Yes or No) If

no, go to question 32. How much is your annual life insurance

premium ? _________These questions could easily be rewritten as one questionthat applies to everyone:

1. How much did you spend last year for lifeinsurance ? ______

12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series ofmore than five items. Questions asking respondents torank items by importance should be avoided. Thisbecomes increasingly difficult as the number of itemsincreases, and the answers become less reliable. Thisbecomes especially problematic when asking respondentsto assign a percentage to a series of items. In order tosuccessfully complete this task, the respondent mustmentally continue to re-adjust his answers until they totalone hundred percent. Limiting the number of items to fivewill make it easier for the respondent to answer.

Pre-notification LettersMany researchers have studied pre-notification letters todetermine if they increase response rate. A meta-analysis ofthese studies revealed an aggregate increase in response rateof 7.7 percent. Pre-notification letters might help to establishthe legitimacy of a survey, thereby contributing to arespondent’s trust. Another possibility is that a pre-notification letter builds expectation and reduces thepossibility that a potential respondent might disregard thesurvey when it arrives.Pre-letters are seldom used in marketing research surveys.They are an excellent (but expensive) way to increaseresponse. The researcher needs to weigh the additional costof sending out a pre-letter against the probability of a lowerresponse rate. When sample sizes are small, every responsereally counts and a pre-letter is highly recommended.

1. Briefly describe why the study is being done and identify thesponsors. This is impressive and lends credibility to thestudy.

2. Explain why the person receiving the pre-letter was chosen toreceive the questionnaire.

3. Justify why the respondent should complete thequestionnaire. The justification must be something that willbenefit the respondent. For most people, altruism is notsufficient justification. If an incentive will be included withthe questionnaire, mention the inclusion of a free giftwithout specifically telling what it will be.

4. Explain how the results will be used.

Cover LettersThe cover letter is an essential part of the survey. To a largedegree, the cover letter will affect whether or not the respondentcompletes the questionnaire. It is important to maintain afriendly tone and keep it as short as possible. The importanceof the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides an

opportunity to persuade the respondent to complete thesurvey. If the questionnaire can be completed in less than fiveminutes, the response rate can be increased by mentioning thisin the cover letter.Flattering the respondent in the cover letter does not seem toaffect response. Altruism or an appeal to the social utility of astudy has occasionally been found to increase response, butmore often, it is not an effective motivator.There are no definitive answers whether or not to personalizecover letters (i.e., the respondents name appears on the coverletter). Some researchers have found that personalized coverletters can be detrimental to response when anonymity orconfidentiality are important to the respondent.The literature regarding personalization are mixed. Someresearchers have found that personalized cover letters withhand-written signatures helped response rates. Other investiga-tors, however, have reported that personalization has no effecton response.The signature of the person signing the cover letter has beeninvestigated by several researchers. Ethnic sounding names andthe status of the researcher (professor or graduate student) donot affect response. One investigator found that a cover lettersigned by the owner of a marina produced better response thanone signed by the sales manager. The literature is mixedregarding whether a hand-written signature works better thanone that is mimeographed. Two researchers reported thatmimeographed signatures worked as well as a hand-writtenone, while another reported that hand-written signaturesproduced better response. Another investigator found thatcover letters signed with green ink increased response by over 10percent.It is commonly believed that a handwritten postscript (P.S.) inthe cover letter might increase response. One older study didfind an increase in response, however, more recent studiesfound no significant difference.1. Describe why the study is being done (briefly) and identify

the sponsors.2. Mention the incentive. (A good incentive is a copy of the

results).3. Mention inclusion of a stamped, self-addressed return

envelope.4. Encourage prompt response without using deadlines.5. Describe your “confidentiality/anonymity” policy.6. Give the name and phone number of someone they can call

with questions.

Response Rate and Following up onNonrespondentsResponse rate is the single most important indicator of howmuch confidence can be placed in the results of a survey. A lowresponse rate can be devastating to the reliability of a study.One of the most powerful tool for increasing response is to usefollow-ups or reminders. Traditionally, between 10 and 60percent of those sent questionnaires respond without follow-up reminders. These rates are too low to yield confident results,so the need to follow up on nonrespondents is clear.


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Researchers can increase the response from follow-up attemptsby including another copy of the questionnaire. When design-ing the follow-up procedure, it is important for the researcher tokeep in mind the unique characteristics of the people in thesample. The most successful follow-ups have been achieved byphone calls.Many researchers have examined whether postcard follow-upsare effective in increasing response. The vast majority of thesestudies show that a follow-up postcard slightly increasesresponse rate, and a meta-analysis revealed an aggregate gain of3.5 percent. The postcard serves as a reminder for subjects whohave forgotten to complete the survey.

Nonresponse BiasMany studies have attempted to determine if there is a differ-ence between respondents and nonrespondents. Someresearchers have reported that people who respond to surveysanswer questions differently than those who do not. Othershave found that late responders answer differently than earlyresponders, and that the differences may be due to the differentlevels of interest in the subject matter. One researcher, whoexamined a volunteer organization, reported that those moreactively involved in the organization were more likely torespond.Demographic characteristics of nonrespondents have beeninvestigated by many researchers. Most studies have found thatnonresponse is associated with low education. However, oneresearcher reported that demographic characteristics such as age,education, and employment status were the same for respon-dents and nonrespondents. Another study found thatnonrespondents were more often single males.Most researchers view nonresponse bias as a continuum,ranging from fast responders to slow responders (withnonresponders defining the end of the continuum). In fact,one study used extrapolation to estimate the magnitude of biascreated by nonresponse. Another group of researchers arguethat nonresponse should not be viewed as a continuum, andthat late respondents do not provide a suitable basis forestimating the characteristics of nonrespondents.

The Order of the QuestionsItems on a questionnaire should be grouped into logicallycoherent sections. Grouping questions that are similar will makethe questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent willfeel more comfortable. Questions that use the same responseformats, or those that cover a specific topic, should appeartogether.Each question should follow comfortably from the previousquestion. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anythingelse. Transitions between questions should be smooth.Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to anotherfeel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates.Most investigators have found that the order in which ques-tions are presented can affect the way that people respond. Onestudy reported that questions in the latter half of a question-naire were more likely to be omitted, and contained fewerextreme responses. Some researchers have suggested that it maybe necessary to present general questions before specific ones in

order to avoid response contamination. Other researchers havereported that when specific questions were asked before generalquestions, respondents tended to exhibit greater interest in thegeneral questions.It is not clear whether or not question-order affects response. Afew researchers have reported that question-order does noteffect responses, while others have reported that it does.Generally, it is believed that question-order effects exist ininterviews, but not in written surveys.

Anonymity and ConfidentialityAn anonymous study is one in which nobody (not even theresearcher) can identify who provided data. It is difficult toconduct an anonymous questionnaire through the mail becauseof the need to follow-up on nonresponders. The only way todo a follow-up is to mail another survey or reminder postcardto the entire sample. However, it is possible to guaranteeconfidentiality, where those conducting the study promise notto reveal the information to anyone. For the purpose of follow-up, identifying numbers on questionnaires are generallypreferred to using respondents’ names. It is important,however, to explain why the number is there and what it will beused for.Some studies have shown that response rate is affected by theanonymity/confidentiality policy of a study. Others havereported that responses became more distorted when subjectsfelt threatened that their identities would become known.Others have found that anonymity and confidentiality issues donot affect response rates or responses.

The Length of a QuestionnaireAs a general rule, long questionnaires get less response thanshort questionnaires. However, some studies have shown thatthe length of a questionnaire does not necessarily affectresponse. More important than length is question content. Asubject is more likely to respond if they are involved andinterested in the research topic. Questions should be meaning-ful and interesting to the respondent.

IncentivesMany researchers have examined the effect of providing a varietyof nonmonetary incentives to subjects. These include tokengifts such as small packages of coffee, ball-point pens, postagestamps, key rings, trading stamps, participation in a raffle orlottery, or a donation to a charity in the respondent’s name.Generally (although not consistently), nonmonetary incentiveshave resulted in an increased response. A meta-analysis of 38studies that used some form of an incentive revealed thatmonetary and nonmonetary incentives were effective only whenenclosed with the survey. The promise of an incentive for areturned questionnaire was not effective in increasing response.The average increase in response rate for monetary and non-monetary incentives was 19.1 percent and 7.9 percent,respectively.Most researchers have found that higher monetary incentivesgenerally work better than smaller ones. One researcher pro-posed a diminishing return model, where increasing theamount of the incentive would have a decreasing effect onresponse rate. A meta-analysis of fifteen studies showed that an


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incentive of 25¢ increased the response rate by an average of 16percent, and $1 increased the response by 31 percent.

Notification of a Cutoff DateSeveral researchers have examined the effect of giving subjects adeadline for responding. While a deadline will usually reduce thetime from the mailing until the returns begin arriving, it appearsthat it does not increase response, and may even reduce theresponse. One possible explanation is that a cutoff date mightdissuade procrastinators from completing the questionnaireafter the deadline has past.

Reply Envelopes and PostageA good questionnaire makes it convenient for the respondentto reply. Mail surveys that include a self-addressed stampedreply envelope get better response than business reply enve-lopes. Some investigators have suggested that people might feelobligated to complete the questionnaire because of the guiltassociated with throwing away money—that is, the postagestamp. Others have pointed out that using a business replypermit might suggest advertising to some people. Anotherpossibility is that a business reply envelope might be perceivedas less personal.A meta-analysis on 34 studies comparing stamped versusbusiness reply postage showed that stamped reply envelopeshad a 9 percent greater aggregate effect than business replyenvelopes. In another meta-analysis on nine studies, anaggregate effect of 6.2 percent was found.

The Outgoing Envelope and PostageThere have been several researchers that examined whether thereis a difference in response between first class postage versusbulk rate. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed a small, butsignificant, aggregate difference of 1.8 percent. Envelopes withbulk mail permits might be perceived as “junk mail”, unimpor-tant, or less personal, and thus will be reflected in a lowerresponse rates.A few researchers have also examined whether metered mail orstamps work better on the outgoing envelope. The results ofthese studies suggest a small increase in response favoring astamped envelope. A meta-analysis of these studies revealedthat the aggregate difference was slightly less than one percent. Many researchers have reported increased response rates byusing registered, certified, or special delivery mail to send thequestionnaire. The wisdom of using these techniques must beweighed against the consequences of angering respondents thatmake a special trip to the post office, only to find a question-naire.It is not clear whether a typed or hand-addressed envelopeaffects response. One study, conducted at the University ofMinnesota, reported that students responded better to hand-addressed postcards, while professors responded better totyped addresses.This writer could find no studies that examined whethergummed labels would have a deleterious effect on responserate, although we might predict that response rate would be lessfor gummed labels because they have the appearance of lesspersonalization.

This writer could also find no studies that examined whetherthe color of the envelope affects response rate. First impres-sions are important, and the respondent’s first impression ofthe study usually comes from the envelope containing thesurvey. Therefore, we might predict that color would have apositive impact on response because of its uniqueness.

The “Don’t Know”, “Undecided”, and“Neutral” Response OptionsResponse categories are developed for questions in order tofacilitate the process of coding and analysis. Many studies havelooked at the effects of presenting a “don’t know” option inattitudinal questions. The “don’t know” option allowsrespondents to state that they have no opinion or have notthought about a particular issue.The physical placement of the “undecided” category (at themidpoint of the scale, or separated from the scale) can changeresponse patterns. Respondents are more likely to choose the“undecided” category when it was off to the side of the scale.There are also different response patterns depending onwhether the midpoint is labeled “undecided” or “neutral”.Several researchers have found that the physical location of themiddle alternative can make a difference in responses, and thatplacing the middle option at the last position in the questionincreases the percentage of respondents who select it by over 9percent. Frequently, offering respondents a middle alternative ina survey question will make a difference in the conclusions thatwould be drawn from the data. The middle option of anattitudinal scale attracts a substantial number of respondentswho might be unsure of their opinion.Researcher have also studied the “don’t know” option forfactual questions. Unlike attitude questions, respondents mightlegitimately not know the answer to a factual question. Surpris-ingly, the research suggests that the “don’t know” optionshould not be included in factual questions. Questions thatexclude the “don’t know” option produce a greater volume ofaccurate data. Furthermore, there is generally no difference inresponse rate depending on the inclusion or exclusion of the“don’t know” option. There is still a controversy surroundingthe “don’t know” response category. Many researchers advocateincluding a “don’t know” response category when there is anypossibility that the respondent may not know the answer to aquestion. The best advice is probably to use a “don’t know”option for factual questions, but not for attitude questions.

Question WordingThe wording of a question is extremely important. Researchersstrive for objectivity in surveys and, therefore, must be carefulnot to lead the respondent into giving a desired answer.Unfortunately, the effects of question wording are one of theleast understood areas of questionnaire research.Many investigators have confirmed that slight changes in theway questions are worded can have a significant impact on howpeople respond. Several authors have reported that minorchanges in question wording can produce more than a 25percent difference in people’s opinions.Several investigators have looked at the effects of modifyingadjectives and adverbs. Words like usually, often, sometimes,


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occasionally, seldom, and rarely are “commonly” used inquestionnaires, although it is clear that they do not mean thesame thing to all people. Some adjectives have high variabilityand others have low variability. The following adjectives havehighly variable meanings and should be avoided in surveys: aclear mandate, most, numerous, a substantial majority, aminority of, a large proportion of, a significant number of,many, a considerable number of, and several. Other adjectivesproduce less variability and generally have more shared meaning.These are: lots, almost all, virtually all, nearly all, a majority of, aconsensus of, a small number of, not very many of, almostnone, hardly any, a couple, and a few.

SponsorshipThere have been several studies to determine if the sponsor ofa survey might affect response rate. The overwhelming majorityof these studies have clearly demonstrated that universitysponsorship is the most effective. A meta-analysis of thesestudies revealed an aggregate increase in response rate of 8.9percent. This may be due to the past benefits that the respon-dent has received from the university. Another possibility is thata business sponsor implies advertising or sales to potentialrespondents.

SamplingIt is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the targetpopulation. There are no strict rules to follow, and the re-searcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population isdefined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, andthe researcher can include the entire population in the study.This type of research is called a census study because data isgathered on every member of the population.Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attemptto survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosensample can be used to represent the population. The samplereflects the characteristics of the population from which it isdrawn.Sampling methods are classified as either probability ornonprobability. In probability samples, each member of thepopulation has a known non-zero probability of being selected.Probability methods include random sampling, systematicsampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling,members are selected from the population in some nonrandommanner. These include convenience sampling, judgmentsampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. Theadvantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can becalculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample mightdiffer from the population. When inferring to the population,results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. Innonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differsfrom the population remains unknown.Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling.Each member of the population has an equal and known chanceof being selected. When there are very large populations, it isoften difficult or impossible to identify every member of thepopulation, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling.It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After therequired sample size has been calculated, every Nth record isselected from a list of population members. As long as the listdoes not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is asgood as the random sampling method. Its only advantage overthe random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematicsampling is frequently used to select a specified number ofrecords from a computer file. Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method thatis superior to random sampling because it reduces samplingerror. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at leastone common characteristic. The researcher first identifies therelevant stratums and their actual representation in the popula-tion. Random sampling is then used to select subjects fromeach stratum until the number of subjects in that stratum isproportional to its frequency in the population. Stratifiedsampling is often used when one or more of the stratums inthe population have a low incidence relative to the otherstratums.Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where theresearcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximationof the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selectedbecause they are convenient. This nonprobability method isoften used during preliminary research efforts to get a grossestimate of the results, without incurring the cost or timerequired to select a random sample.Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. Theresearcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usuallyand extension of convenience sampling. For example, aresearcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one“representative” city, even though the population includes allcities. When using this method, the researcher must beconfident that the chosen sample is truly representative of theentire population.Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratifiedsampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifiesthe stratums and their proportions as they are represented inthe population. Then convenience or judgment sampling isused to select the required number of subjects from eachstratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where thestratums are filled by random sampling.Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method usedwhen the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be ex-tremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents inthese situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals frominitial subjects to generate additional subjects. While thistechnique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at theexpense of introducing bias because the technique itself reducesthe likelihood that the sample will represent a good crosssection from the population.


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LESSON 27: PRACTICE CLASS ON QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

In this lesson we will

• Learn some tips on questionnaire design

• Practice some exercises on questionnaire design

The Functions of a Questionnaire

• Translates the research objectives into specific questions

• Standardizes questions and all or some of the response categories

• Fosters cooperation and motivation• Serves as permanent record of the research• Can speed up the process of data analysis• Can serve as the basis for reliability and validity

measures

Developing QuestionsResearch Questions

• A questionnaire (“survey”) item or question: statement or question used in research projects to obtain overt, written or oral communication from individual study participants

• Its intended function is to obtain meaningful responses from study participants.

• Survey item or question measures such as:• Attitudes• Beliefs• Behaviors• Demographics

Points to Ponder

The Questionnaire Development Process


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Developing Questions“Shoulds” of Question Wording

• Question should be focused on a single issue or topic. No “double-barreled” questions.

• Question should be brief.• Question should be interpreted the same way by

all respondents; no ambiguity in word meaning.• Question should use respondent’s core

vocabulary. Keep wording simple.• Question should be a grammatically simple

sentence if possible.

Developing Questions“Should Nots” of Question Wording

• Question should not assume criteria that are not obvious.

• Question should not be beyond the respondent’s ability or experience; also, you do the math.

• Question should not use a specific example to represent a general case.

• Question should not ask the respondent to recall specifics when only generalities will be remembered.

• Question should not require the respondent to guess a generalization.

Questionnaire OrganizationFive Functions of the “Introduction”

• Identification of the survey or respondent• Undisguised• Disguised

• Purpose of survey• Explanation of respondent selection• Request for participation/provide incentive

• Incentives• Anonymity• Confidentiality

• Screening of respondent

Questionnaire OrganizationTypical Question Sequence

Approaches to Question Flow

• Work approach: is employed when the researcher realizes that respondents will to need to apply different mental effort to groups of questions

• Sections approach: organizes questions into sets based on a common objective of questions in the set


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Precoding the Questionnaire

• Precoding: placement of numbers on the questionnaire to represent answers; facilitates data entry after the “survey” has been completed

• Numbers are preferred for two reasons: • Numbers are easier and faster to keystroke

into a computer file• Computer tabulation programs are more

efficient when they process numbers

Pretesting the Questionnaire

• Pretest the entire survey process, including the questionnaire: sampling frame, sample draw, data gathering (mail, phone, online, etc.), editing, coding, file building, data entry, and preliminary analysis

• Questionnaire pretest: 20-40 questionnaires; “10 percent change pretest rule” • Changes: add Q’s, delete Q’s, modify Q’s,

change order of Q’s• Less than 10 percent change no new pretest,

10 percent or more, pretest again

Computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design

• Computer-assisted questionnaire design: software programs allow users to use computer technology to develop and disseminate questionnaires

• Advantages: • Easier• Faster• Friendlier• More functionality

Exercise1. You work at The Taj Mahal Hotel, New Delhi as a Sales and

Marketing Executive. Design a feedback form to becompleted by visitors to any of your many coffee houses/restaurants. Use your initiative to decide which categories andstatements should appear on the questionnaire so that it willbe valuable to management in gauging customers’ opinions.

2. You are working with a market research company and havebeen given an assignment to do a survey to do acomparative analysis of the two media giants: Aaj Tak andNDTV. Prepare a suitable questionnaire.


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LESSON 28:MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION


• Explain the purpose of meetings

• Describe the different types of meetings which take place in business

• State the documents which are used in the meetings process

• Compose agenda and minutes

Students, I am sure you are very familiar with this term‘meeting’. But in business meetings is an effective and efficienttool in the communication process. Meetings enable face-to-facecontact of a number of people at the same time. They provide auseful opportunity for sharing information, making sugges-tions and proposals, taking decisions and obtaining instantfeedback.

Need and Purpose of Meetings1. To coordinate or arrange activities2. To report on some activity or experience3. To put forward ideas or grievances for discussion4. To give information to a group of people5. To obtain assistance6. To create involvement and interest

Types of Meetings

Formal MeetingsThe rules of conduct of formal meetings are laid doen in acompany’s Articles of Association and/or Constitution orStanding Orders. With such meetings a quorum must bepresent, i.e the minimum number of people who should bepresent in order to validate the meeting. A formal record ofthese meetings must be kept , usually by the company secretary.

Annual General Meeting (AGM)AGM’s are held once a year to assess the trading of the organi-zation over the year . All shareholders are invited to intend theGM but they must be given 21 days notice.

Statutory MeetingsStatutory meetings are called so that the directors and share-holders ca communicate and consider special reports.Companies are required by law to hold these statutory meetings

Board MeetingsBoard meetings are held as often as individual organizationsrequire. They are attended by all directors and chaired by theChairman of the board.

Informal MeetingsInformal meetings are not restricted by the same rules andregulation as formal meetings. Such meetings may take theform of brainstorming or discussion sessions where strictagendas may not be necessary and minutes may not be kept.However, it is usually considered good business practice for an

agenda to be issued to all members prior to the meetings sothat they can be prepare adequately in order to make a valuablecontribution.These meetings are attended by a group of managers who mayneed to discuss a specific matter, report of progress reports. Forexample the marketing manager, sales manager, productionmanager and research and development manager may meet todiscuss the launch of a new product being launched soon.

MeetingsMeetings are the most popular method of interactive commu-nication. They facilitate direct, face-to-face communication andare essential at various levels in all organizations. They facilitateexchange of information, fostering of team spirit and commit-ment to common goals and objectives. More importantly, theyhelp in elaborating ideas, clarifying concepts and clearingconfusion, if any, created on account of ambiguous andincomplete verbal and vocal messages. Misunderstandingsarising from unclear memos, circulars, directives, targets, etc. canbe cleared through meetings with the people concerned.Meeting of marketing people with prospective customers whilelaunching a new product or service helps in clearly bringing outthe significant features of the product and clarifying the finerpoints. Similarly, meetings with the computer or EDP person-nel facilitate detailed and effective planning of the Y2K or anysuch contingency planning and preparedness strategies. Theseare just two examples of the ways in which meetings can be ofuse to serve a vital communication need in an organization. Inaddition to these, there can be customer meets, dealer meets,managers meets, staff meetings, association meetings, businessmeets, review meets, and so on.

Meeting at What Cost

A recent study conducted by the American management consultants, Booz,Allen and Hamilton, as reported in the press, concluded that 299managers, at an average salary of$50,000 a year, spent half of theirtime in meetings. And that a large proportion of this time was wasted onuseless discussions, politi-cal maneuvering

and personal conflicts. Based on their study, the consult-antsadvised organizations not to call a meeting that costs $10,000for a deci-sion that is worth $1000.Like their Western counterparts, Indian executives too, in manyorganizations spend a large part of their working day in companymeetings. In the United States, it is to be noted, decisions aremade by groups of managers or executives rather than byindividual top management functionaries. Similarly, in India too,we have various committees in organizations like the CreditCommittee, Recovery Committee, Man-agement Committee,Audit Committee, Promotions Committee, Systems Committee,and Legal Committee which take decisions and that is why itbecomes necessary to organize many meetings.


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While meetings, which are effective, contribute to decision-making and positive outcome, illconceived and indifferentlyconducted meetings entail enormous waste of time, efforts andother resources. They may even lead to chaos and confusion. Itwould therefore be imperative to give attention to certain detailswhile convening meetings. The preparation for an effectivemeeting starts well in advance and there is a lot that needs to beattended to on the day of the meeting, during the meeting andthereafter till the minutes are drawn up and sent.

Hope Not

“Meetings keep minutes, but waste hours”.

“Meetings are indispensable when you don’t want to do anything”.

J K Galbraith

AgendaAgenda is the list of items to be taken up for discussion duringthe meeting. It provides the reason for calling a meeting. Itshould be ensured that there are ad-equate numbers of worth-while issues, which need deliberation at the meeting. All topicsand issues that will be taken for discussion during the meetingcall for advance efforts. The items stated in the agenda should berelevant and appropriate, keeping in view the purpose of themeeting and the expertise of members who will be participat-ingin it. If the agenda is not properly drawn up, the meeting maynot serve any useful purpose. The agenda should be such thatadequate numbers of issues that merit the attention of membersare drawn up and listed for deliberation so that the duration ofthe meeting is gainfully spent. Calling a meeting for the sake of itor just to ensure that the pre-determined periodicity is metentails waste of time and resources.

Before the MeetingBackground PapersEvery meeting of some importance will have a set of back-groundpapers, which are sent in advance to the members who, willparticipate in the meeting. These background papers relate to theitems listed in the agenda and provide glimpses of the issuesinvolved. Background papers are normally prepared by theconcerned functionaries or functional departments who are seekinga decision on the issue. Background papers cover all relevant detailsthat are germane to effective de-liberation and would normallyinclude facts, figures, different views, expert opinion, latestposition, and so on. Minutes of the previous meeting are also sentalong with the first lot of background papers since it is always thefirst item on the agenda . They are also taken up for confirmationbefore proceeding to the other items. Background pa-pers ensurethat deliberations are focused and cover all relevant dimensions ofthe subject under discussion.Background papers should state clearly what is expected of themeeting. Board notes, office notes, etc. put up for importantmeetings should state clearly whether the note is submitted for“consideration and orders” or submitted for “information”. Itis also a common practice to state the “Resolution” covering thetype of orders sought to ensure abundant clarity.

Whom to Invite To be effective, deliberations at the meetings should involve allthe concerned functionaries and persons. Regular members of

the committees, wherever formally constituted, will have to beinvariably invited. At the same time, in the ab-sence of a formallist, it would be essential to identify people whose presencewould be of significance when subjects are taken up fordeliberation. In some cases, senior functionaries will have to -be necessarily invited to lend authority to the decision makingprocess whereas some junior level functionaries and subjectmatter specialists may have to be present to provide technicaldetails and other relevant backpapers. Persons to be invited forthe meeting, wherever not specifically stated, are best decided inconsultation with the chairperson and other senior functionarieson whose behalf the meeting is called.Invitation for the meeting is to be clearly drawn up indicatingthe day, date, time and venue of the meeting. Invitations haveto be sent well in advance to ensure that outstation participantshave sufficient time to make appropriate travel plans. Meetingnotices will have to clearly indicate who should attend themeeting. Sometimes, people in organizations receive notices,which do not clearly indicate whether they are sent as aninvitation or just as intimation. The addressee in this case islikely to be confused and will have to start making furtherenquiries. The meeting notice should also state whether theaddressee, if not in a position to attend, can depute someoneelse on his behalf. Though most of these are-simple neces-saries, they are often overlooked.


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Company name and committee name Notice states place, day, date and time of meeting Use the heading AGENDA These three items of ordinary business are included on every agenda (some committees will also include ‘Correspondence’) Special business is listed separately (any official reports come first) Finish all agendas with these final two items of ordinary business Don’t forget reference and date

AURORA HODDINGS plc SOCIAL CLUB

A meeting of the Sports and Social Club will be held in the Conference Suite A on Friday 14 May 2000 at 1800

AGENDA

• Apologies for absence

• Minutes of last meeting

• Matters arising

• Chairman’s Report

• Football Results and Matches (Frank Jones)

• New Keep-Fit Classes (Carol Chen)

• Purchase of Tennis Equipment (Aileen Forster)

• Annual Dinner and Dance

• Any other business

• Date of next meeting

CE/ST 7 May 2000

Timing and Venue

Care should be taken in fixing up meetings in a manner that isgenerally convenient to most of the members or participants. Anotice in advance will ensure that participants get adequateopportunity to schedule or reschedule their en-gagements. Thedate and time should be fixed taking into account holidays,other important evel1ts and functions that may clash withmeeting timings and make it difficult for the members tochoose between one or the other. While it may not be possibleto totally avoid overlapping in all cases, some advance planningand enqui-ries will certainly help better attendance at meetings.Indication of the duration of the meeting will also be helpfulso that the participants would know how much time is to beallocated for it. Also, details such as arrangements for breakfast,lunch, etc. need to be mentioned.While reasonable advance intimation for any meeting facilitatesbetter atten-dance, any notice sent months in advance or much

earlier will have to be necessarily followed up with subsequentreminders.The venue of the meeting should be fixed up obviously wellbefore the meeting notices are dispatched. With so manymeetings taking place there is bound to be considerable demandfor meeting halls and conference rooms. The meeting roomshould lave all the physical facilities-fans, air conditioners,microphones, projectors, etc. that ensure minimum comfort forthe members and facilitate uninterrupted deliberations. As wehave seen in the earlier chapters, physical barriers such as non--availability of sound systems, extraneous sounds, crampedseating, etc. hinders effective communication. It is not uncom-mon in organizations to come across instances where theavailability of venue is not confirmed or there is some misun-derstanding in the date or time as a result of which eithermeeting are delayed or participants are made to move from one


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venue to another. A little extra care will avoid much embar-rassment at the time of meeting.There are occasions when the chief executive or other seniorfunctionary may decide to convene impromptu or emergentmeetings with very short notice in which case the availability ofvenue, physical facilities and other arrangements for refresh-ments, etc. will have to be attended to on priority: A situationwhere the deliberations have concluded and yet refreshments orlunch is not ready speaks of poor prepara-tions and has to bescrupulously avoided. Also the participants’ time is importantand cannot be taken for granted.

Punctuality Starting the meeting on time is an area that calls for consciousefforts. Keeping the venue open, reminding the Chairman andother members, ensuring that all papers have reached theparticipants, and table items are placed, and ensuring that theconvenors and organizers are at the venue well before thescheduled time are all a must in making meetings time boundand purposeful. A situation where the convenor is still inconsultation with the chairman of the meeting, well past thescheduled start-ing time, while the participants’ are waiting inthe venue not knowing when and if at all the meeting wouldtake place is the kind of situation that speaks of the indifferentattitude towards the meeting and must be avoided.

Time ManagementTime management is of essence in ensuring the effectiveness ofmeetings. Meetings, which start on time, end on time andprovide adequate time for proper deliberation of all listeditems, ensure cost effectiveness. On the contrary, meet-ings thatstart with undue delay, take up items not on priority and runout of focus entail waste of efforts and time and prove to becostly to the organization. On_ tan “assess the efficiency level ofan organization in terms of effectiveness of the meetingsconducted at various levels.

Checklist For MeetingsThe convenor or the secretariat for the meetings will have to takeresponsibility for the success of the meetings. They have toinvariably give attention to details and ensure that everything is inorder. It would be desirable to maintain a checklist of items to bechecked at various stages Le., before, during and after the meeting.The checklist should include, among others, the following items:• Venue arrangements such as ensuring that the meeting hall is

ready and open well in time, checking whether all equipmentssuch as mikes, air conditioners, fans, projectors arefunctioning, providing pens and pads, etc.

• Refreshments and catering as are appropriate to the meeting• Checking flight arrivals, room bookings, conveyance, etc for

chairper-son and others wherever required• Reminding the local members about the time and venue of

the meeting• Ensuring that all relevant background papers have reached

the members as intended’• Ascertaining the participation of members and the

availability of quorum Ensuring that table items required forthe day’s meeting are put up

• Briefing the chairman and other key members about theissues to be taken up in the meeting

• Entrustment of responsibility concerning the recording ofminutes or proceedings

• Preparation of minutes on time, obtaining approval for thesame and their dispatch

• Timely intimation of postponement, cancellation, change ofvenue, etc.

• Changes to be effected in the composition of the membersor participants, special invitees, etc.

• This kind of attention to all details by the convenor or thesecretariat brings in the much-needed professional approachin conducting meetings.

Role of the ChairpersonThe Chairperson, the convenor or the secretary and seniormembers have a vital role to play in conducting the meetingseffectively. He or she has to ensure punctuality and effective timemanagement. While providing the freedom for expressingviews on items taken up for deliberation, the chairpersonensures that discussions do not stray. The Chairperson ensuresthat as far as possible, all the agenda items slated for discus-sionare duly taken up for deliberation. The chairperson may alsohave to make appro-priate opening remarks and concludingremarks in the interest of directing delibera-tions and arriving atclear decisions. Through his experience, wit and wisdom, hebrings in authority and decisiveness to the deliberations. If,during the course of delibera-tions, members get into a war ofwords, or personal clash, the chairperson will have to use his orher skill in resolving such conflicts without hurting the peopleconcerned. When meetings are either long or very frequent,some time may have to be spent in warming up 9r refreshingthe participants or what may be called unwinding. Partici-pantsin all the meetings are the people and people management willhave to be done smoothly. It is common fact that sometimesdiscussions in meetings tend to revolve too much on insignifi-cant or irrelevant topics, leaving much less time for deliberatingon the most important topics. The chairperson or the convenorwho should play a complementary role in conducting themeetings, should intervene and bring in the much needed senseof proportion.To conclude, it should be reiterated that meetings, whenconducted effectively, could bring in substantial benefits inresolving even sensitive matters through collective wisdom.They can be very cost effective means of intensive interaction.When participants learn to talk, listen and interact in a respon-sible manner, meetings can be really result-oriented. At the sametime, it should be borne in mind that although the peopleparticipating are knowledgeable, they mayor may not speak outfreely and contribute to the deliberations. Sometimes, some ofthe participants may tend to dominate the deliberations, notgiving an opportunity to others to express themselves. In otherwords, it takes conscious efforts and attention to details inensuring that meetings are effective.


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Meeting Procedures: Conduct of theMeetingFor success of the problem-solving meeting, the leader’sattitude and efficiency-from the beginning statement throughthe entire discussion-are critically important. The leader shouldbe well prepared, be able to think and act quickly, get along withothers, respect their opinions, know objectives of discussionand the reasoning process, be patient, and have a sincere interestin the values of cooperative group action. This section listsprocedures the leader should follow in conducting the meeting:1. Begin with appropriate opening statement-

Obviously, you should prepare your introductory statementbefore the meeting but neither memorize nor read it. Presentit informally and naturally-in one or more of thesesuggested ways:Good morning/ afternoon, everyone.If we are all here, let’s.:.. . . .get started. . . .start the meeting... . .start.Other possibilities are open to you as chairperson, but theabove are some of the most common.

2. Stimulate discussion for solution discoveryIn general, try to encourage all member’s to participate, anddo keep the discussion moving forward. To help sparkdiscussion on each topic, ask questions and keep participantsfrom wandering onto irrelevant paths. Sometimes if theoriginal contributor of an idea cannot add to it, anothermember may be able to carry it further. If a participant’sstatement is vague, rephrase it clearly. Maintain anatmosphere of goodwill and cooperation throughout themeeting. If a situation becomes tense or some members arereluctant to speak or are annoying or antagonistic, try to calmdown the situation. Even taking a recess diffuses tensions.Try to be tactful, considerate, and understanding and show asense of humor.

3. Understand roles of participantsIn a meeting, different participants (including thechairperson) tend to acquire some roles. These roles may becategorized as task roles - roles facilitating the achievement ofthe task assigned to the meeting, and group building andmaintenance roles - roles facilitating the harmony in themeeting so that meeting goes undisturbed. Whileperforming a task role, an individual may playas coordinator,or information seeker, or opinion seeker, or informationgiver, or opinion giver, or recorder. While playing the groupbuilding and maintenance role, an individual may perform asencourager, compromiser, follower, and likewise.Knowing the various roles being played by group membersassists the leader in knowing how to react, how to handlerole statements made during a meeting.

4. Particularly important, however, is handling a problemparticipant

• Here are some suggestions for leaders on handling difficultmembers

a. The quiet, nonparticipating member -First ask this personquestion he can answer by a simple “yes” or “no”. Then,whenever possible, ask this member to give someinformation that he is sure to know because of job, training,or experience. Thank and praise the person as much as youcan; he may then be more likely to enter the discussionconfidently.

b. The “know-it-all- ‘: This person may be asked to justify everystatement he or she makes. Whenever possible, ask othermembers for their opinions of these statements.Sometimes, it necessary and you feel the majority areannoyed by this person’s arrogance, you may tactfully quietthe person by asking for a show of hands from the group,which strongly outvotes the know-it-all’s suggestions.If the negative member still insists on knowing all theanswers, a private, outside-the-meeting session can bring thegroup’s concern to the person. This one-on-one meeting in anon-threatening atmosphere may produce more positiveresults.

c. The long -winded speaker - You may thank this excessivetalker when he is at the end of a sentence, and then recognizesomeone else. Or you might move the discussion to anotherhighly important point, perhaps with a statement like “Well,we have two more points, perhaps with a statement like“Well, we have two more points to consider before we windup this meeting, so let’s move along to the next topic.

d The erroneous member - If the other members-out ofrespect-are reluctant to correct this person, an especially tactfulcomment by you, the leader, may be required. As with anybad-news message, avoid direct criticism, sarcasm, or ridicule.Shield the person’s pride. When praising people, single themout; when criticizing them, put them in a group. Perhapsanalyze a similar case, without referring to the speakerperson-ally.

e. The member who shows personal animosity -Though rare,sometimes an angry member shouts hateful, tactlesscomments towards another mem-ber or members. You canshow an attitude of calm understanding and turn him or herof by directing a question to another member.

5. Sort, select, interpret data for solution evaluation - After youhave listed members’ suggestions on the board, encourageparticipants to consider advan-tages and disadvantages ofeach suggested course of action. List them sepa-rately. Asleader, be careful not to impose your own opinions on thegroup, or if you wish to participate, ask another member tochair the meeting. Encourage each group member to feel asense of responsibility for the success of the analysis. Goodlistening by everyone. to what others offer is extremelyimpor-tant.

6. State the conclusion and plan of action – As with a writtenanalytical report, the terminal section is of major importance.Before you dismiss the meeting, review what the group hasaccomplished. Summarize what parts of the problemmembers have solved or partially solved. State the decision


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(conclu-sion) clearly and definitely. You might begin yourstatement of the conclusion by saying “You have agreed....”or “You have suggested.. ...” or It’s my interpre-tationthat we have approved” rather than. “I think this is whatshould be done.” If the group arrived at several conclusions,list them, preferably in order to importance.Make some statement about how the solution the groupdecided on will be carried out. Appointments may be madethen or announced later in a memo regarding the action.

7. Follow-up after the meeting - Two functions after themeeting are distribu-tion of the minutes and-mostimportant-seeing thatresponsible committees,departments, or individualsare appointed to carry out thechosen action. In somesituations the meeting leadermay have to confer with otherexecutives of higher authoritybefore appointments aremade regarding policydecisions.Copies of the minutes yoursecretary or assistant preparedshould be sent to the meetingparticipants soon after themeeting.

They usually should include:• Name of the organization,

department, or group• Date, time, place of the

meeting• Names of members present• Names of any others present

as invited visitors• Name of chairperson and (at

the end) recording secretary• Brief summary of reports, if

any, by those listed on theagenda

• Highlights of solutionspresented and decisions made

• Time of adjournment and (ifannounced) date or nextmeeting.

Same main headings as the Agenda

Leave right side blank and use the heading NOTES Chairman will write notes in this section during the meeting Mention any details which will help the Chairman to conduct the meeting Reference and date

AURORA HOLDINGS plc SOCIAL CLUB A meeting of the Sports and Social Club will be held in the Conference Suite A on Friday 14 May 2000 at 1800 AGENDA NOTES 1 APOLOGIES FOR ABSENCE 1 None received 2 MINUTES OF LAST MEETING 2 Circulated on 16 May. Point out error in 4.1 - £1,200 should read £ 12,000 3 MATTERS ARISING 3 4 CHAIRMAN’S REPORT 4 Separate notes attached 5 FOOTBALL RESULTS AND MATCHES 5 Frank Jones to report on 3 matches held during April. Also future match schedule. 6 NEW KEEP-FIT CLASSES 6 Carol Chen to propose the introduction of Keep Fit classes for staff. 7 PURCHASE OF TENNIS EQUIPMENT 7 Aileen Forster to report on new tennis equipment needed for July tournament. 8 ANNUAL DINNER AND DANCE 8 Discuss date and venue, ideas for programme and appoint person in charge. 9 ANY OTHER BUSINESS 9 10 DATE OF NEXT MEETING 10 Suggest 24 June 2000 CE/ST 12 May 2000


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Here are Some Tips to Help You TakeBetter Minutes at Your Next Meeting.

1. Have a copy of the agenda with you. Follow the agenda closely during the meeting and use a stopwatch to note when items begin and end.

2. If the agenda item has been addressed under the allocated time, the speaker should finish. The time that's left over can be used to address any items that couldn't be covered earlier in the discussion.

3. It's up to the group, with the help of the facilitator, to decide to keep on the issue or move on. For example, the group may want to get through the rest of the agenda and then revisit the extended issue at the end of the meeting. In some groups, the leader may make this decision. If it's important enough, a separate meeting may be scheduled to discuss an issue in more detail, which would also give people time to prepare better for meaning discussion.

4. It's the timekeeper's role to let the group know when a speaker's time is up. When one-minute remains, signal the group non-verbally (raise your hand, ring a small bell). This gesture should be determined before the discussion begins. When the speaker's time is up, make the gesture again. Using a non-verbal gesture is comfortable for the timekeeper since he doesn't have to interrupt and encourages the speaker to be concise and stay on time.

5. The timekeeper should also alert the facilitator and group members to breaks. You could say, for example, "I just wanted to let everyone know there are only 10 minutes before our break". You could also write reminders on cards and hold them up as a reminder.

As follow-up, e-mail an attachment of the meeting notes toeach of the participants. Or save them to the company’snetwork in a meetings folder. This way, all the meeting partici-pants have access to the meeting notes if there’s an idea ordiscussion they’d like to revisit. In the e-mail, also summarizethe action items assigned during the meeting. Outline what wasassigned, to whom it was assigned, the priority level and thedue date. When a meeting’s adjourned, it’s not always clearwho’s responsible for what, which means action items aren’talways carried through. By summarizing the action items in ane-mail, you can be certain all participants understand who’sresponsible for what.

How to Keep People Interested in aMeeting?With the number of meetings that most of us attend, keepingparticipants interested in what you have to say can be a major

challenge. The first thing you have to do is introduce somevariety into your meeting. Don’t be afraid to break away fromthe traditional meeting format and try something fun –attendees will appreciate the change to their routine and will bemore likely to pay attention if they’re enjoying themselves! Hereare a couple of ideas to get you thinking.

Try introducing each agenda item with a humorous quote or a comic strip. It will trigger the audience’s interest in what you have to say.

If your meeting objective is to introduce new information, let the group know that there will be a quiz on the content you're going to present. At the end of your presentation, ask the group questions about the content you've just presented. Whoever provides the correct answer first receives a prize. Not only will this generate some excitement, but you can guarantee that fewer people will be daydreaming during your presentation!

During a discussion or brainstorming session, try this simple game involving a soft, small ball. Begin by throwing the ball to a participant. That person must comment on the subject at hand and then throw it to another participant. Each time the ball is thrown around the room, another comment or suggestion is made. This encourages every participant to contribute to the meeting discussion.

Mixing up the meeting’s format should help keep participantson their toes. But if you sense that interest is waning, schedulea ten-minute break, or suggest you wrap up and continue thesession later in the week. It should be pretty easy to gauge if theaudience is losing interest – stifled yawns, wandering gazes andrandom chatter are all good clues. Remember – most peopleneed a ten-minute break every 50 minutes, so try to incorporatethat into your meeting. If you have a lot of detailed informa-tion to wade through, try to insert stories, analogies and guestspeakers into your presentation. Any change of pace will helprevive the audience’s interest.If you want people to fully participate in meetings, it’s worthputting some extra time and effort into your planning. Partici-pants who daydream or doze off during meetings make theentire session unproductive. As the wise philosopher Confuciussaid “Being fond of courage while detesting poverty will leadmen to unruly behavior. Excessive detestation of men who arenot benevolent will provoke them to unruly behavior.” Somake sure your meeting “troops” are kept happy or you may bestuck with an uprising on your hands!

Using Meeting to Help Rebuild TeamConfidence.Layoffs can spark hard feelings and fear in an office. It’s difficultto feel like a team player when you’re wondering if you’re nextin line for a pink slip.First, ask your boss to attend the meeting and give the team apep talk, reassuring them that their positions are secure. Havingthis message delivered in person, rather than in a memo or e-mail, will have a more positive effect. You can then explain therationale behind the layoffs. If people understand why the


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organization downsized and that these goals have beenaddressed, they will begin to feel secure again.To help bring the group back together, ask everyone to brain-storm some teambuilding activities. If they’re having troublegetting inspired, throw a few ideas into the ring: a lunchtimepotluck, a Friday afternoon scavenger hunt or a mini-golf gamethroughout the office. Organizing and participating in fun timetogether will help re-establish some of your department’s lostenthusiasm. Also use the meeting to recognize the team’sefforts and accomplishments. A simple acknowledgment oftheir achievements and a word of thanks will go a long way. Ifyou’re able, consider giving the team a more tangible reward aswell, such as a Friday afternoon off.By addressing the remaining employees’ status and showingthem how appreciated they are, you’ll be on the way to rebuild-ing their trust and, with it, their effectiveness and enthusiasm.As the wise philosopher Confucius once said, “To put theworld in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put thenation in order, we must put the family in order; to put thefamily in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and tocultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right.” Inother words, before you can expect your department to be aseffective and enthusiastic as it was, you must first help eachindividual realize that she is a valued member of the company.

What is an Effective Decision MakingProcess in a Meeting?Achieving a decision can be a rare occurrence in some meetingrooms. Here are some tips for ensuring decisions are made inyour meetings and helping the process run more smoothly.

Determine the meeting’s goal and state it clearly before, and several times during, the meeting. For example, “The purpose of this meeting is to decide on the publications in which we will advertise this year.” Help attendees be better prepared by sending them all relevant information for their review prior to the meeting. Brainstorm possible courses of action on a whiteboard so attendees can refer to them throughout the decision-making process. Explore the potential outcomes of each option including both the benefits and difficulties. Define and prioritize the criteria for judging the options. For example, is cost the most important factor, followed by past results? Having these criteria will help the process move more quickly. Determine how the decisions will be made – will you need full consensus or will the majority win? Make your final decisions, record them and send them to all attendees and other colleagues who are affected. Follow through with your decisions.

As Peter F. Drucker, author of The Effective Executive , said, “Nodecision has been made unless carrying it out in specific stepshas become someone’s work assignment and responsibility.” In

other words, successful decision-making requires that youfollow through with your decisions. Otherwise, you’ll havesucceeded in nothing more than wasting people’s time.

How to Become a Better AudienceMember?It takes great courage to recognize one’s shortcomings. Sinceyou’ve already come this far, I’m confident you will be able tochange your negative meeting behavior. Here are some ideas forbreaking your bad meeting habits• Avoid side conversations by writing down questions or

comments as you think of them. If the comments are relatedto the topic of the meeting, wait for an opening and shareyour ideas with everyone. If they’re not, address them after themeeting. Then start being an active listener – pay attention,make eye contact and respond positively to the presenter.

• Also, figure out why you’re nitpicking and making unwantedcomments, and take action. If the topics are boring or thepresenters longwinded, come up with some fresh ideas, suchas new ways to meet or new rules for talking out of turn.

• Most importantly, determine what’s behind your negativebehavior. Are you unhappy with the way meetings are run? Isthere not enough time for attendee feedback? Are youattending too many meetings? If these things are making youresentful, speak up – before the meeting – and suggest somechanges to make your meetings more interesting and effective.

Minutes of a MeetingDuring the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in theAgenda are discussed serially one by one. All the participantsexpress their views/ opinions and discuss amongst themselvesthe pros and cons of each item of Agenda. Finally they arrive atsome conclusions or decisions, which are always kept on officialrecord. We call them as minutes of a meeting.Thus minutes are the formal records of proceedings of ameeting. In other words these are the brief of discussions heldand decisions taken at the meeting. It is the duty of a Secretaryto retain all such discussions, deliberations and decisions inwriting specifically.The purpose of writing minutes is• To serve as the formal record of discussion and• To serve as a background for future discussions.Minutes comprises ofa. Date and number of meeting.b. A list of those names of those who attended the meetingc. A list of those members who did not attended the meeting

and from whom apologies were received.d. The record of confirmation of the previous minutes and any

amendments agreed to by the committee.e. The essential, relevant background to the topic under

discussionf. A succinct summary of the discussiong. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/

resolution and if appropriate, of those individuals/bodiesresponsible for talking subsequent action.


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h. Where discussion of a specific case leads to a policy issue , itis important that a separate minute be written on the policyissue(even if this item did not appear on the agenda)

Remember

Use the term Chairperson and not Chairman or Chairwoman. Nongender specific language must be used in the minutes.

Before setting out to write the minute, the following principlesshould be borne in mind for effective writing:• Brevity- A minute is a selective, not verbatim record.• Clarity- Clarity is essential for good communication. Those

who were not present should be able to understand whathappened at the meeting from reading the minutes. Allreferences should be specific, relevant and accurate.

• Self -containment - The minute should stand by itself sothat additional information is not required if it is required ifit is referred to somebody. If readers want more of the‘background’, they should be able to check references.

• Decisiveness – Decisions /resolutions should be conveyedclearly. The language of actual resolution or decision shouldbe reproduced.

• Immediate recording – Write up the minutes as soon aspossible after the meeting.

Further Readings

Do Your Meetings Measure Upto YourCEO’s Expectation?If the CEO of your company decided to sit in on a few of yourmeetings, would she be impressed or distressed? We asked NancyKnowlton, Co-CEO of SMART Technologies Inc. and BobHagerty, CEO of Polycom Inc., what they expect from meetingsand how important effective meetings are to the success of theircompanies. Find out if your meetings are effective enough tomeasure up to the expectations of these CEO’s.

What Your Meeting Means to the CEOBoth Knowlton and Hagerty feel strongly that the effectivenessof a company’s meetings has an impact on the organization’sbottom line. “Meetings are a huge investment of time, and thenumber-one expense that most companies have is theirpeople,” explains Knowlton. “When people make good use oftheir time there’s a terrific return on investment. But whenpeople don’t make good use of their time in meetings – theydon’t achieve their objectives, there’s useless chatter or they’recycling around on the same topic – that’s a prescription for noreturn on an investment.”Hagerty agrees, “I think unsuccessful meetings can be a disaster– they’re unpleasant to be in, they’re ineffective, they’re a wasteof time, and they create a huge productivity hole. If you lookaround the room in most corporate meetings, there’s a lot ofmoney being burned by the minute.”

What Would Your CEO Change AboutToday’s Meetings?”I think people are generally well prepared for most of themeetings I attend,” says Knowlton. “They’ve all read back-ground material and prepared their own materials. But I find it

frustrating when I’m not told what the objective of themeeting is and when I don’t see a clearly laid out agenda that’sgoing to accomplish that objective.” Hagerty’s first pet peeveabout meetings is lateness: “Don’t come in late. It’s disruptiveand it’s too expensive. People should be on time, be preparedand be ready to roll.” But what he thinks would make thebiggest improvement in meetings is for people in geographi-cally dispersed companies to have more access to technology. “Ijust don’t think a phone connection is quite adequate anymore.Meeting attendees need to be able to see the information andthe people – especially if they are remote,” explains Hagerty.He feels that in order for people to buy in to the focus of ameeting, they need to be fully engaged in the discussions thathappen in these meetings. “When people are engaged, they feelbetter because they know what’s going on, and they can takebetter and faster action because it’s direct information they aregetting, not second- or third-hand through some memo thatcame in the mail or through e-mail.”

How to Reach Your CEO’s MeetingExpectationsSo what can you do to make sure you’re measuring up to yourCEO’s meeting expectations? Follow their meeting advice.”Thebasics of holding a good meeting actually haven’t changed overthe years,” says Knowlton. “It all starts with whether or notthere’s a clearly stated objective for the meeting in the agenda – ameeting without an agenda is a recipe for a waste of time.”Knowlton explains that she expects the meeting organizer toinform people in advance of the meeting objective and agenda,stay on track in the meeting, cover off the action items andclearly state what the outcome of the meeting is.Hagerty says there are seven main steps to follow if meetingorganizers and attendees want to hold a successful meeting: stayfocused on the main point; stay in control of the meeting; havean agenda; discuss the important issues; make sure everyone isfully engaged; get a decision; get out. “Because action happensoutside the meetings.”

Six Tips for Effective Meetings1. Don’t Meet

Avoid a meeting if the same information could be covered ina memo, e-mail or brief report. One of the keys to havingmore effective meetings is differentiating between the needfor one-way information dissemination and two-wayinformation sharing. To disseminate information you canuse a variety of other communication media, such as sendingan e-mail or posting the information on your company’sintranet. If you want to be certain you have delivered theright message, you can schedule a meeting to simply answerquestions about the information you have sent. Byremembering to ask yourself, “Is a meeting the best way to handlethis?” you’ll cut down on wasted meeting time and restoreyour group’s belief that the meetings they attend arenecessary.

2. Set Objectives for the MeetingSet objectives before the meeting! Before planning theagenda for the meeting, write down a phrase or severalphrases to complete the sentence: By the end of the meeting,


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I want the group to… Depending on the focus of yourmeeting, your ending to the sentence might include phrasessuch as: …be able to list the top three features of our newestproduct, …have generated three ideas for increasing oursales, …understand the way we do business with customers,…leave with an action plan, …decide on a new widgetsupplier, or …solve the design problem.One benefit of setting objectives for the meeting is to helpyou plan the meeting. The more concrete your meetingobjectives, the more focused your agenda will be. A secondimportant benefit of having specific objectives for eachmeeting is that you have a concrete measure against whichyou can evaluate that meeting. Were you successful inmeeting the objectives? Why or why not? Is another meetingrequired? Setting meeting objectives allows you tocontinuously improve your effective meeting process.

3. Provide an Agenda BeforehandProvide all participants with an agenda before the meetingstarts. Your agenda needs to include a brief description ofthe meeting objectives, a list of the topics to be covered anda list stating who will address each topic and for how long.When you send the agenda, you should include the time,date and location of the meeting and any backgroundinformation participants will need to know to hold aninformed discussion on the meeting topic. What’s the mostimportant thing you should do with your agenda? Follow itclosely!

4. Assign Meeting PreparationGive all participants something to prepare for the meeting,and that meeting will take on a new significance to eachgroup member. For problem-solving meetings, have thegroup read the background information necessary to getdown to business in the meeting. Ask each group memberto think of one possible solution to the problem to geteveryone thinking about the meeting topic. For example, tostart a sales meeting on a positive note, have all participantsrecall their biggest success since the last meeting and ask oneperson to share his success with the group. For less formalmeetings or brainstorming sessions, ask a trivia questionrelated to the meeting topic and give the correct answer in thefirst few minutes of the meeting. These tips are sure-fireways to warm up the group and direct participants’ attentionto the meeting objectives.

5. Assign Action ItemsDon’t finish any discussion in the meeting without decidinghow to act on it. Listen for key comments that flag potentialaction items and don’t let them pass by without addressingthem during your meeting. Statements such as We shouldreally… that’s a topic for a different meeting… or I wonder ifwe could… are examples of comments that should triggeraction items to get a task done, hold another meeting orfurther examine a particular idea. Assigning tasks and projectsas they arise during the meeting means that your follow-through will be complete. Addressing off-topic statementsduring the meeting in this way also allows you to keep themeeting on track. By immediately addressing these statementswith the suggestion of making an action item to examine the

issue outside of the current meeting, you show meetingparticipants that you value their input as well as their time.

6. Examine Your Meeting ProcessAssign the last few minutes of every meeting as time toreview the following questions: What worked well in thismeeting? What can we do to improve our next meeting?Every participant should briefly provide a point-form answerto these questions. Answers to the second question shouldbe phrased in the form of a suggested action. For example,if a participant’s answer is stated as Jim was too long-winded, ask the participant to re-phrase the comment as anaction. The statement We should be more to-the-point whenstating our opinions is a more constructive suggestion.Remember – don’t leave the meeting without assessing whattook place and making a plan to improve the next meeting!


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LESSON 29 : PRACTICE CLASS ON MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION

By the end of this lesson you will

• Learn how to organize meetings

• Be able to state the documents which are used in meetings

• Discuss the basic presentation requirements of each document

• Compose agenda and minutes

Students, now that we know what meetings are and have alsobriefly studied the purpose and types of meetings let us do asmall exercise.Lets assume that you all are a part of the academic cell of RaiBusiness School. We need to choose amongst us a Dean,secretary and faculties. Since that we have recently implementedthe system of continuous evaluation system and there are yetsome confusions amongst the students about its reliability andprocedure, the dean has called for a meeting.Use the procedure discussed with you in the previous lessonand organize a meeting along with allocation of work as to whowill send the email informing about the meeting and agendaand who will write the minutes.

Meetings♦ Topics Discussed:

• Reasons for meetings• Types of meetings• Meeting structures and leadership• Participating in, organizing and conducting a

meeting• Recording• Following-up meeting outcomes

Why do people meet?♦ People meet to:

• Share ideas• Coordinate activities• Negotiate solutions• Plan policy and implementation strategies• Develop new procedures• Foster team spirit

Effective Meeting Skills

♦ Organisational skills:

• Planning• Informing• Preparing• Following-up

♦ Interpersonal skills:

• Active listening• Questioning• Using appropriate

non-verbal communication

• Demonstrating cultural awareness


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Evaluating Meetings

♦ Effective meetings:

• Have a clear purpose• Are well planned• Involve the participants• Result in action

Types of Meetings♦ Formal/Informal

♦ Internal/External clients

♦ Face-to-face/At a distance

♦ Individual/Small group/Large group

Organising a meetingPlan

Record

Conduct

Organise action

Follow-up

Planning a Meeting

♦ Determine the purpose♦ Organise the venue♦ Inform the participants♦ Prepare and circulate the agenda and

documentation♦ Check things on the day


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Conducting a Meeting

♦ Consider your purpose and audience and decide on the most effective:

• Type of meeting• Management/leadership style• Facilitation strategies• Recording process• Ways to follow-up meeting outcomes

During the Meeting

1. Establish the purpose of the meeting2. Specify the outcomes3. Get agreement on the process and rules4. Facilitate participation5. Maintain focus6. Pull the issues and outcomes together7. Get agreement on action8. Record decisions

Record decisions and follow up♦ The minutes record the proceedings of a

meeting and provide a basis for action

♦ Any decision on action should address what, who, how and when

♦ Summarise the actions and check that everyone understands what they have agreed to do


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LESSON 30:SALES MESSAGES

Upon completing this lesson, you will able to use persuasion effectively inmaking requests and composing sales messages. To reach this goal, youshould be able to:

• Use imagination in writing skillful persuasive requests that begin indirectly, develop convincing reasoning and close with goodwill and action.

• Compose sales messages that gain attention, persuasively present appeals, and effectively drive for action

Persuasive messages generally are written in the indirect order.While they do not necessarily involve bad news, their goals runcontrary to the reader’s wishes. The mindset of the reader mustbe changed before they can be successful. Achieving this changerequire indirectness. Requests that are likely to be resisted requirea slow, deliberate approach. You must persuade the reader thathe or she should grant the request before making the request.Moe specifically, you must present facts and logical reasoningthat supports your case. And you must do it convincingly. Sucha presentation requires that you begin by developing a plan.

Sales MessagesQuestioning the Acceptability of Sales MessagesAs we begin our discussion of sales messages, we should notethat they are a most controversial area of business communica-tion. Probably you know from your own experience thatdirect-mail sales literature is not always received happily. Called ‘junk’ mail, these mailings often go into the wastebasketwithout being read. Even so, they must be successful, for thedirect mail business has survived for over a century.Sales messages sent by email appear to be creating even morehostility among intended, customers. Angrily referred to as“spam” unsolicited, email sales messages have generated strongresistance among email users. Perhaps it is because these mes-sages clutter up inboxes. Maybe the rage results from the factthat mass mailings place a heavy burden on Internet providers,driving up costs to the users. Or perhaps the fact that theyinvade the reader’s privacy is to blame. There are the downrightuneth-ical practices of some email advertisers who use “mis-leading subject lines and invalid email addresses to thwartfiltering attempts and get respondents to open them.” What-ever the explanation, the resistance is real. You will need toconsider these objections any time you use this sales medium.As we shall note later, there are steps reputable advertisers cantake to minimize this resistance.We take no stand on the issue. Our goal in the followingparagraphs is to show you how to write sales messages. Youwill have to decide whether and when sales mes-sages should bewritten. We can only suggest that you follow your conscienceand practice good business ethics in whatever you do.

Benefiting from Sales WritingProbably you will never write sales messages - real ones, that is.In business, profes-sional writers usually write them. Theseprofessionals achieve their status by practic-ing long and hard,and usually they are blessed, with a special talent for writing.Why, then, you might ask, should you study sales writing?The answer is that even an amateurish effort to write salesmessages gives you knowledge of selling techniques that willhelp you in many of your other activities. Especially will it helpyou in writing other business messages, for in a sense most ofthem involve selling something-an idea, a line of reasoning,your company, yourself. Sales techniques are more valuable toyou than you might think. After you have stud-ied the remain-der of this lesson, you should see why.

Planning the StructureAs you probably know from experience, most direct-mail salesefforts consist of a number of pieces. Typically, brochures,leaflets, foldouts, a letter, and so on combine to, form a coordi-nated message. But usually a letter is the main piece. It carries themain message, and the other pieces carry the supporting details.Sales efforts by email also use support information, usuallyenough to give the reader all that is needed to complete a sale.The information may be in the basic mes-sage, perhaps brokendown into distinct subtopics in boxes, separate listings, or such.Or it may be in links or attachments skillfully arranged bysubtopics. With the use of artwork, color, font selection, andsuch the total email package can be as complete and attractive asthe comparable direct-mail package.After you have studied the following material, you should havea general idea of how to sell by the written word.

Knowing the Product or Service and theReaderBefore you can begin writing, you must know about theproduct or service you are selling. You simply cannot sell mostgoods and services unless you know them and can tell theprospects what they need to know. Before prospects buy aproduct, they may want to know how it is made, how it works,what it will do, and what it will not do. Clearly, a first step insales writing is careful study of your product or service.In addition, you should know your readers. In particular, youshould know about their needs for the product or service.Anything else you know about them can help their economicstatus, age, nationality, education, and culture. The more youknow about your readers, the better you will be able to adaptyour sales message.In large businesses, a marketing research department or agencytypically gathers in-formation about prospective customers. Ifyou do not have such help, you will need to gather thisinformation on your own. If time does not permit you to do

UNIT 3CHAPTER 7:

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION


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the necessary research, you may have to follow your best logic.For example, the nature of a prod-uct can tell you somethingabout its likely buyers. People with technical backgroundswould proba-bly buy industrial equipment. Expensive Frenchperfumes and cosmetics would probably be bought by peoplein high-income brackets. If you are purchasing a mailing, list,you usually receive basic demographics such as age, sex, race,education, income, and marital status of those on the list.Sometimes you know more-interests, spending range, con-sumption patterns, and such.

Determining the AppealWith your product or service and your prospects in mind, youare ready to create the sales message. This involves selecting andpresenting basic appeals. By appeals, we mean the strategies youuse to present a product or service to the reader. You could, forexample, present a product’s beauty or its taste qualities. Or youcould present a product through an appeal to profits, savings,or durability.For convenience in studying appeals, we can divide them intotwo broad groups. In one group are emotional efforts topersuade. Such efforts affect how we feel, taste, smell, hear, andsee. They also include strategies that arouse us through love,anger, pride, fear, and enjoyment. In the other, group is rationalappeals. These are appeals to reason-to the thinking mind. Suchappeals include strategies based on saving money, makingmoney, doing a job better, and getting better use from aproduct.In any given case, many appeals are available to you. You shouldconsider those that fit your product or service and those that fityour readers best. Such products as perfume, style merchandise,and candy and fine food lend themselves to emotional appeals.On the other hand, such products as automobile tires, toolsand industrial equipment are best sold through rational appeals.Automobile tires, for example are not bought because they arepretty but because they are durable, because they grip the roadand because they are safe. Sometimes the appeals can becombined to support each other.How the buyer will use the product may be major basis forselecting a sales strategy. Cosmetics might well be sold to thefinal user through emotional appeals. Selling cosmetics to aretailer (who’s primarily interested in their emotional qualities isonly to the extend that these make customers buy. A retailer’smain question about the product is: Will it sell? What turnovercan I expect? How much money will it make for me?

Determining the MechanicsAfter selecting the appeal, you should write the sales message.At this point , your imagination comes intot he picture. Writingsales messages is as creative as writing short stories , plays, andnovels. In addition to imagination , it involves appliedpsychology and skillful word use. There are as many differentways of handling a sales message as there are ideas. The onlysure measure of the effectiveness of each way is the sales thatthe message brings in.

Gaining Attention

The beginning of all sales messages have one basic requirement.They must gain attention. If they do not , they fail. The reasonis apparent. Because sales messages are sent without invitation,they are not likely to be received favorably. Infact , they even maybe unwanted. Unless they gain attention early, the messages arenit read.With direct mail , the envelope containing the message is thefirst attention getter. All too often the reader recognizes themailing as an uninvited sales message and promptly discards it.For this reason many direct mail writers place an attentiongetter on the envelop. It may be the offer of a gift (‘Free giftInside’). It may present a brief sales message (“12 months ofTime at 60% off the newsstand price”).

Holding Attention in OpeningThe first words of your message also have a major need to gainattention. The reader must be moved to read on. What you dohere is a part of your creative effort. But the method you useshould assist in presenting the sales message. That is, it shouldhelp set up your strategy. It should not just gain attention forattention’s sake. Attention is easy to gain if nothing else isneeded. In a sales letter, a small explosion set off when thereader opens the envelope would gain attention. So would anelectric shock or a miniature stink bomb. But the method, youuse should assist in presenting the sales message. That is, itshould help set up your strategy. It should not just gainattention for attention’s sake. Attention is easy to gain ifnothing else is needed. In a sales letter, a small explosion setoff when the reader opens the envelope would gain attention.So would an electric shock or a miniature stink bomb. Butthese methods would not be likely to assist the selling. One ofthe most effective attention –gaining techniques is a statementor question that introduces a need that the product will satisfy.For example , a rational –appeal message to a retailer wouldclearly tap his or her stron needs with these opening words:Here is a proven best seller – and with a 12percent greater profitAnother rational – appeal attention getter is this beginning ofan email sales message from eFax.com:Never type a fax again!As was mentioned previously, gimmicks are sometimes used togain attention in direct-mail sales. But a gimmick is effectiveonly if it supports the theme of the message. One Companymade effective use of a penny affixed to the top of a letter withthese words;Most pennies won’t buy much today, but this penny can saveyou untold worry and money – and bring you new peace ofmind.

Presenting the Sales MessageWith the reader’s attention gained , you proceed with the salesstrategy that you have developed . In general , you establish a need.Then you present your product or service as fulfilling that need.The plan of your sales message will vary with your imagina-tion. But it is likely to follow certain general patterns determinedby your choice of appeals. If you select an emotional appeal, forexample, your opinion has probably established an emotionalatmosphere that you will continue to develop. Thus, you will


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sell your product based on its effects on your product so vividlythat your reader will mentally see it, feel – and want it. Ingeneral, you will seek to create an emotional need for yourproduct.If you select a rational appeal, your sales description is likely tobe based on factual material. You should describe your productbased on what it can do for your reader rather than how itappeals to the sensesThe writing that carries your sales message can be quite differentfrom your normal business writing. Sales writing usually ishighly conversational, fast moving and aggressive.

Sales Letters: Four Point Action ClosingSecuring ActionHaving convinced your reader that your product or service isworth the price, you want to get action before the reader has achange of mind , before forgetfulness defeats you, before themoney goes for something else—before any of the things thatcould happen do happen. Therefore, a good persuasive closingis essential.A good action closing—or clincher—should include thefollowing four points:1. Clearly state what action you wish the reader to take.2. Make that action easy through facilitating devices and careful

wording.3. Date the action—if possible and appropriate.4. Pprovide a reader benefit as stimulus for action.1. Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To

TakeShould the reader order your product or service? Call youroffice to set up an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a localdealership or store to see a demonstration? Invite the visitof a sales representative? On finishing your letter, your readershould know just exactly what you want done and how itshould be done.At times, you may have to name two actions and ask thereader to take one or the other. If you possibly can, avoiddoing so. Some people faced with a choice resolve theirdilemma by doing nothing.

2. Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating DevicesAnd Careful WordingFacilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards orenvelopes already addressed and requiring no postage—remove some of the work in taking action. Also, your phonenumber (with area code and extension) are useful if you wantthe reader to call you. Finally, state your office hours andlocation if you want the reader to come to see you in person.References to these facilitating devices—preferably directing thereader to use them—reassure the reader that what you areasking is simple and requires little time and effort.Careful wording: through careful wording, you can alsoemphasize that what you are asking the reader to do is simple.“Write and let us know your choice” suggests more work than“Check your color choice on the enclosed card.” “Jot down,”“just check,” “simply initial” are also examples of wording

that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something. Suchwording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action.

3. Date The Action—If Possible And AppropriateName the date whenever you need the reader’s response by acertain time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then—perhaps to meet the deadline for a sale.

4. Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For ActionAlways mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain byprompt action. Such a reminder of the desirability of yourproduct or service—sometimes called a clincher—comesappropriately at the ending of your letter. It not onlyprovides motivation for the reader, but it also has decidedpsychological value as well because it emphasizes serviceattitude—rather than the greed stressed if you end withdollars and cents talk or the mechanics of ordering.You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the fourpoint action closing when you are writing a letter relating tosales. You should use dated action, item 3, ONLY when it isappropriate for your writing situation.

Further Readings

The 10 Laws for Writing Letters that Get Results

By Joe VitaleThe following is a letter in response to a question about how towrite sales letters. This is something you could model in layout,tone, and ideas, to write your own letters. By the way, this iswhere your letterhead should go.Dear Fellow Chicago Seminar Attendees,Jerry Jenkins asked me to tell you how to write letters that getread and get results. That’s a tall order! Well, here’s what I thinkthe “laws” are:1. Know what’s in it for your reader.

Get out of your ego and into your reader’s ego. Completethis sentence: “Get my book so that you can...(fill in theblank).” Your book (or whatever you are selling) is thefeature. What people get as a result of having your book isthe benefit. Focus on benefits. Always! Without this, yourletter will bomb.

2. Write a headline that telegraphs the key benefit to yourreader.ALWAYS use a headline. There is only ONE exception tothis rule. When you personalize your letter, the “Dear(whoever)” opening becomes your headline. There are fewheadlines more powerful than the reader’s own name. Theheadline is THE most important part of your letter! Spendnearly all of your time on it.

3. Be brief.Say what you have to say in terms of the reader’s self interestand shut up. This does NOT necessarily mean a short letter.If you are trying to make a sale, and the reader has neverheard of you or your item for sell, you may have to writefour or more pages to get your message across. If all youwant is a return call, a one page letter may do. Don’ be afraidof length. People will read any length of copy AS LONG ASIT’S INTERESTING!


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4. Always use a PS.Always. Why do copywriters who charge upwards to$15,000 to write a sales letter and have weeks to draft italways use a PS? They are always read. Always.

5. Look good.Visual attractiveness accounts for 70% of your letter’simpact. Use short sentences, short paragraphs, bulletedpoints, indented paragraphs, subheads, etc. Some peoplewill just skim your letter, so engaging subheads andbulleted points help reach them instantly.

6. Outline first.Use a planning tool such as the program Project Kick Startto help you think through your message. Or talk to afriend. Or to a tape recorder. Or to yourself. This also helpsyou get comfortable with speaking your letter rather thanwriting it.

7. Write first, edit last.Turn your inner editor off. You can rewrite later. For now,write spontaneously and quickly to get your ideas on paper.

8. Ask for something.Why are you writing? You want a call. Or an order.Something. Say so!

9. Get a reader.Find one person to read your letter OUT LOUD in frontof you. If he (or she) has trouble reading your letter, if hewrinkles his brow or stops to reread a sentence, rewritethose places. Don’t skip this step! It’s the secret of manyprofessional writers.

10. Rewrite your letter again.Is it the best you can do? Be honest! If not, throw it awayand call the person instead. Or hire a copywriter to write itfor you. Why waste your time or your reader’s withsomething that doesn’t communicate in a persuasive andinteresting way? (I rewrote this letter 24 times!)Well, there you have it. Of course, there are more rules,laws, ideas and suggestions for writing letters that getresults. You should always guarantee whatever you areselling, for example, and always offer proof for all of yourclaims. But the above will get you rolling.Sincerely,

Using Emotion for PersuasionBy Robert F. AbbottThe other day, I received the last issue of a business magazinebefore my subscription runs out. Now, I like this magazine, butI’m swamped with reading matter so I won’t renew.Of course, I’ve received many reminders and offers aboutrenewing; magazines try very hard to keep the subscribersthey’ve got. So when the last issue came with a special promo-tional wrapper on the cover, I wasn’t surprised.But, what made this one interesting was a clever piece of copythat hit an emotional chord: inside the back cover of the specialwrapper were the words, “You’re about to be dropped fromour list of active subscribers. Unless you act now.”

Personally, I thought it was an effective piece of copy (eventhough I still won’t renew). It made an emotional case for whatis essentially a business-to-business offer.Many people who write persuasive copy, whether in sales lettersor internal memos, say the rest of us underestimate the power ofemotion in getting the response we want from our messages.There’s a sort of rule of thumb that goes like this: Consumersbuy on emotion and justify on reason. In other words, we, asbuyers, think we’re being rational in making a decision topurchase, or in choosing among different offers, but in realitywe make the decision with our hearts and then justify thatdecision with our reasoning powers.In the case of the magazine copy, I was about to be dropped —Imagine! Me being dropped! — from the list of active subscrib-ers. I’m not sure what active subscribers are: do they also havepassive subscribers? But, the meaning comes through. I’mabout to get dropped from an exclusive club unless I act now.Which is where the emotional factor kicks in. Who wants to bedropped? Isn’t that like being in high school again and notwanting to be excluded from a popular group? Isn’t there aneternal desire to belong?With this appeal to my insecurities and ambitions, the copywrit-ers have forced me to think about my decision not to renew. Ican’t just make a ‘business as usual’ decision; it must be apersonal as well as business decision. And when a message gets‘personal,’ it demands more involvement from the reader orlistener. More involvement, in turn, means more attention tothe message, making it more persuasive.If you sell, this idea won’t come as much of a surprise. But, ifyou try to influence behaviors in other ways, you may wish toadd emotion to your communication toolbox. It’s somethingyou do by getting ‘personal,’ by tapping into the hopes, fears,or aspirations of those with whom you’re communicating.Of course, we must use emotion ethically and responsibly. Ifyou plan to use it, step back and ask yourself how you wouldrespond if someone else directed that kind of a message toyou. That’s always a simple but helpful litmus test.


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Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

3

Preliminary ConsiderationsPreliminary ConsiderationsààWriting Persuasive RequestsWriting Persuasive Requests

q Your Goal: Ask for something reader likely to oppose.

q You must develop strategy that w/convince reader to comply.


4

Procedure for WritingProcedure for Writingàà a a Persuasive RequestPersuasive Request

q Open with words thatv Set up the strategyàANDv Gain attention.

q Present strategy (persuasion), using persuasive language & you-viewpoint.

q As logical follow -up, make request clearly & without negatives.

q End message w/the request or words thatrecall the appeal.

MESSAGE PLAN:

Opening

Body

Closing

5


5

Why Write Sales Messages?Why Write Sales Messages?

Sales messages are helpful in training you because:

q Sales techniquesàuseful in your other activitiesv In writing other messagesv In actual sales workv In selling yourself

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Preliminary Steps to Sales WritingPreliminary Steps to Sales Writing

q Learn product or service you sell:v How it is madev How it worksvWhat it will do [AND WHAT IT WILL NOT DO]

q Learn about prospective customers:v Economic statusv Nationalitiesv Agesv Etc.


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Determining the AppealDetermining the Appeal

q Emotional: Appeals to the senses (feeling, tasting, smelling, hearing)

q Rational: Appeals to thinking mind (save money, make money, do better job, get better use)

2-Broad Categories:

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Determining the AppealDetermining the AppealSelect appeal that fits product or service:q Some better suited to emotional: Ø MusicØCosmeticsØ Fancy foods

q Some better suited to rational:qWork toolsq Tiresq Industrial goods

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Determining the AppealDetermining the Appeal

Select appeal that fits prospects:

q Sales to retailers (for resale): Ø Probably rational

q Sales to ultimate consumers:Ø Either rationalØOr emotional

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Organization of Sales MessageOrganization of Sales Message

Many variations are used:qWhatever worksq But there is this conventional pattern:v Gain attentionv Create desirev Cover all necessary informationv Drive for the salev Possibly add a postscript


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Conventional Org. Pattern of Sales Conventional Org. Pattern of Sales Letter in DetailLetter in Detail

q Begin w/words that set up sales presentation &gain attention.

q Present sales message. Use imagination, persuas-ive language, & you-viewpoint.

q Include sufficient information to convince.

q Then, drive for sale. Make it clear, use approp-riate strength.

q Urge immediate action.q May recall basic appeal in final words.

Message Plan:Opening

Body

Closing

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IF YOU WANT TO SUCCEED

“If you want to succeed, you should strike out on new paths rather than travel the worn paths of accepted success.”

--John D. Rockefeller


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LESSON 31:PRESS RELEASE


• Explain the function of the public relations department

• Explain the purpose of a press release

• Discuss the special writing skills needed for compiling a press release

• Explain the appropriate format for presenting press release

• Compose press release according to given instruction

Students, you must have studied about the role of publicrelations in marketing. Public relation is a part of the marketingfunction and press release is a part of the PR activity. A pressrelease is an announcement, which a company sends to thepress and other media about anything, which it considers to benewsworthy. A press release is not an advertisement but it canresult in useful publicity for the company issuing the release.

Public RelationsThe public relations (PR) function in any organization is usuallycarried out by staff who have specialized in this sector. Publicrelations, as the name suggests, is all about the relationshipbetween the organization and the general public. On of theaims of PR is to influence the general public through the massmedia, e.g newspapers, television, radio, information , services ,exhibitions, sponsorship. The job of the PR person in nayorganization is to constantly on the lookout for newsworthyevents, products, developments and human interest stories andthen turn them into any of the following:• A press release• A press conference• A photo opportunity for newspaper coverage• Corporate material for direct mailing• Briefing packs for potential customers• Briefing packs for special groups of visitors• Free educational packs for schools and collegesIf you are responsible for helping to produce public relationsmaterial, here are some guidelines to follow. Effective PRmaterial will:1. Be factual, newsworthy and impartial2. Appeal to human interest3. Contain up-to-date information4. Be appropriately distributed5. Be a produced professionally

How to Write a Press ReleasePlanning Begins Before You Write a Press ReleaseWhile no one can guarantee your press release will be publishedor used for an article, there are things you can do to improveyour chances. The biggest obstacle to most press releases is therelease itself.

When writing your press release, it should be• Concise - editors receive hundreds of press releases a week

(perhaps more) and appreciate releases that are brief and tothe point.

• Well-written - a good way to ensure your press release endsup in the wastebasket is: bad spelling, poor grammar, andillogical or unsubstantiated claims.

• Factual - stick to logical and substantiated claims, avoidingstatements of belief: we’re the best, the cheapest, etc.

• Honest - avoid the padded quotes by company officers; evenif they are experts, they come across as biased. If used, stickto the facts.

• Timely - if your press release isn’t topical, considerincorporating it with a recent news event — but don’t stretchit.

Questions to Consider Before You Writea Press Release• Who is the preferred audience of your press release?• What do you want readers to take away from your press

release?• What does your press release provide: invaluable

information or just another offer?• What is the support or justification for the information in

your press release?• What is the tone of your press release?• Are you aware of possible pitfalls or areas to avoid?• What do you want to accomplish with your press release:

increase business, disseminate information or both?Does the press release’s lead (opening) address or answer thebasic tenets of journalism• Who• What• When• Where• Why• How

Write a Successful Press ReleaseA press release is one of the primary ways you can communicatenews about your company to the media. Reporters, editors, andproducers are hungry for news, and they often depend onreleases to tip them off to new and unusual products, companytrends, tips and hints, and other developments. In fact, muchof what you read in newspapers, magazines, or trade publica-tions, hear on the radio or see on television originated in pressrelease form. Unfortunately, the average editor receives as manyas several hundred press releases each week, the vast majority of


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which end up getting “filed.” Your challenge is to create a releasethat makes the journalist want to know more and discover thatyour story is one they must tell.Use these 10 tips to write a release that will get noticed.1. Use an active headline to grab the reporter’s attention

The headline makes your release stand out. Keep it short,active, and descriptive; in other words, use something like“Rajdeep Named Man of the Year” instead of “RajdeepGets Award.”

2. Put the most important information at the beginningThis is a tried and true rule of journalism. The reportershould be able to tell what the release is about from thefirst two paragraphs. In fact, chances are that’s all they mayread. So don’t hide good information. And remember the“5 W’s and the H” - make sure your release providesanswers to Who, What, When, Where, Why and How.

3. Avoid hype and unsubstantiated claimsA writer can smell a sales pitch a mile away. Instead ofmaking over-inflated statements, provide real, usableinformation. Find legitimate ways to set you and yourcompany apart and stress those points. To promote yourbusiness, write a release that answers questions about yourbusiness, rather than one that provides only generalstatements about how great or interesting your business iswithout saying why.

4. Be active and to the pointUse language that will get the reader as excited about yournews as you are. If your release is boring or meandering,they may assume that you will not be a good interview.

5. Keep your release to two pages or lessOn the rare occasion, you can opt for a third page if it isnecessary to provide critical details. Otherwise, if you can’tstate your message in two pages, you’re not getting to thepoint.

6. Include a contactMake sure your release has a person the journalist cancontact for more information. This person should befamiliar with all the news in the release, and should beready to answer questions. And issue the release on yourcompany letterhead - it looks professional and gives thewriter another way to reach your firm.

7. Keep jargon to the minimumIf you’re in a technical field, try not to use technical terms.Many reporters are not as intimate with your company oryour industry as you are. Real English, not jargon, bestcommunicates your story.

8. Stress benefitsThis falls into the category of “don’t say it, show it.”Avoid saying something is “unique” or “the best.” Instead,show how people will benefit - i.e. save time, save money,make their life easier, etc.

9. Be specific and detailed

Marcia Yudkin, author of “Six Steps to Free Publicity” callsthis “Yes, but what IS it?” syndrome. The reader needs tobe able to visualize a new product, or know how a newservice works. If in doubt, have someone unfamiliar withyour product or service read the release and asks him or herto describe what you trying to publicize. And it’s better touse too many details than too few. So, as Yudkin notes,“Instead of ‘Shekhar’s new book contains informationdesigned to benefit any stock market investor,’ write,‘Shekhar’s new book contains seven principles of marketanalysis that enable even casual investors to chooseprofitable stocks.’ Even better, describe two of the sevenprinciples right in the release.”

10. ProofreadWhen you’ve finished your press release, remember toproofread it for typographical errors. If you don’t have agood eye for spelling or grammar, give the release to afriend or colleague who does. If your release looks sloppyand careless, so will you.

Who do I send my press release to? In order to properly answer your question, I’m going to askyou to put on two pairs of shoes. The first pair belongs to theeditor or producer of a particular publication or broadcast. Whywalk in these shoes? These are the people responsible forassembling a publication or broadcast. If your informationdoes not fit the format or purpose of the publication orbroadcast, this editor or producer will ignore and bypass yourpress release information.The second pair of shoes to wear are those of the reader orviewer of a publication or broadcast. What are they interested inreading or viewing? Do they want news, entertainment, tips ortechniques? Knowing what readers and viewers want and howeditors and producers supply these needs will help you craft andtarget your press release.With these two pair of shoes in mind, who do you now sendthe press release to? The logical answer is daily or weeklynewspapers that serve your target market. You can get a list ofthese from your library or from search engine research. Once youhave identified the publication, then you can contact each to findthe appropriate contact person for your genre of information.Sometimes this will be a reporter, a feature editor, a managingeditor or, in rare cases, the actual publisher. For radio andtelevision, this person is the producer, executive producer, newsdirector, program manager, feature editor (sports, food,lifestyle) or individual reporter. Again, calling the station orsearching the Internet will help you track down the correct nameand contact information.Once you’ve compiled your lists, it’s time to send your informa-tion. Hopefully in your contact information research, you wereable to obtain an e-mail address and/or fax numbers. There is atrend today toward e-mail communication, although faxes dostill work. In some cases, when pictures, graphics or exhibits arepertinent, snail-mail works best. Knowing which method yourcontact prefers and then delivering accordingly will enhance yourchance of publication or broadcast.


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Keep your list of contacts, add to it, work it and keep in touch,even when you don’t have an actual press release. Remember,though, these people are very busy and usually face tighterdeadlines than you and I work with on a daily basis. Respectthis and work with their schedules, and you’ll be on your way tohitting your target with PR.What are the preferences of some of the well-known publica-tions as far as submitting PR-related material?The advice given here applies to any situation in which you aresubmitting PR materials to the press. This is Part I.What do magazines and newspapers look for in a story pitch?• Not all magazines are looking for news stories. Instead, as

one editor put it, “We want leads about people who areflying beneath the radar and doing something quiteremarkable. Your best bet is to offer a story very grounded inbest practices. Give us a company that no one has really heardabout before or a new effort from a fascinating company thatis trying something different.”

• Some magazines prefer to examine case studies, though theirwriters do them in their own way. Most importantly, knowthe magazine. Although editors admit it’s not somethingthat can be easily explained, all too often they receiveirrelevant pitches that don’t relate to the publication. If, forinstance, you wanted to pitch an idea for a technology article,use the press release to tell the editor that you’re pitching aproven example of something. And get their attention intwo paragraphs or less.

• Magazines love it when a company approaches them withreal examples of how it differs from the competition. It’salso not a bad idea to give a clear definition of what segmentof the market you are playing into. Keep in mind, though,editors don’t like companies that come off as boastful intheir press releases.

• Before you pitch a newspaper in a major city, heed this advice:Read previously published articles. Make sure your story isone no one has written about. And if it’s a new campaign, ithas to be different and relevant.

• If you’re trying to get PR for your new product, make sureyour press release communicates to editors exactly whatmakes the product unique, be it pricing or a cool technicalaspect. Above all, know their audience.

What is the best way to contact editors?• Most editors are too busy to field phone calls. Voice mail is

unreliable because it tends to clog up really fast. Postal mail iseven worse; most of it gets discarded by editors. So use e-mail instead. To make it work for you, don’t say “pressrelease” in the subject line. And, most importantly, get to thepoint early. Tell editors quickly why your story is soimportant to their readers.

Where can you go to meet the publication staff?• Magazine editors attend a variety of conferences each year.

Most tend to shy away from the standard issue trade showsand instead go to conferences that feature new ideas,intriguing case studies and fresh thinking.

• There are certain big events that attract the attention of themedia.

• It’s rare, but some magazine editors will take time to visitindividual companies, but something in the trip must makeit worthwhile for them to travel. And if you’ve got a greatstory and you’re in the local area, some newspaper editorsjust might be receptive to meeting you.

• Newspaper editors try to attend any local ad and mediaconferences.

What about deadlines?• Monthly magazine editors plan ideas all the time, so there’s

no magic window of opportunity. It’s best to just take yourshot. But before you do, contact the marketing department.They should have a good sense of what is coming up on theeditorial calendar. The calendar is proprietary, so you’ll needto go through them to get it.

• Newspaper editors, on the other hand, are on deadline everyday of the workweek, but they will do their best to respondin a timely manner. Frequently, articles will go to print ataround 6:30 p.m. in the city where the publication is based,but days are set by 4 p.m. Unless it really is breaking news, tryto reach them early in the day.

10 Essential Tips to Ensure Your PressRelease Makes the News.1. Make sure the information is newsworthy.2. Tell the audience that the information is intended for them

and why they should continue to read it.3. Start with a brief description of the news, then distinguish

who announced it, and not the other way around.4. Ask yourself, “How are people going to relate to this and

will they be able to connect?”5. Make sure the first 10 words of your release are effective, as

they are the most important.6. Avoid excessive use of adjectives and fancy language.7. Deal with the facts.8. Provide as much Contact information as possible:

Individual to Contact, address, phone, fax, email, Web siteaddress.

9. Make sure you wait until you have something with enoughsubstance to issue a release.

10. Make it as easy as possible for media representatives to dotheir jobs.

Further Readings

Beyond the Press Release

Develop a public-relations plan that will keep your business inthe spotlight.Business Start-Ups magazine - May 1997By Catherine A. ReillyIf you build it, they will come. This abstract concept worked forKevin Costner in “Field of Dreams.” His character, an Iowafarmer, built his dream baseball field. Eventually, his visionturned into reality as the players came, followed by an audience.Hollywood makes it seem so easy! But if you want to attract


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employees and customers to your new business, you mustpublicize your field of dreams.Trouble is, while you know that you must do more than fire upthe old computer and hang out a shingle, you’re not exactly surewhat you should do. So you place an advertisement in yourfavorite magazine. Or, in a marketing frenzy, you try to promoteyour company on every level possible, which is as futile as tryingto boil the ocean. As a result, you spend a lot of money andtime, and garner very few results.Owners of thriving ventures know that, just as they must startwith a good business plan to launch their businesses, they mustdevelop a solid public-relations plan to promote their enterprises.If you have a good plan, and devote enough time and energy tocarrying out that plan, you will obtain a great deal of positivepublicity for your company—at very little cost.

What is Public Relations?Public relations—or PR—is, literally, the relationship yourcompany has with its public. Your public includes your currentcustomers, your future customers, and even potential custom-ers. Your employees, if you have any, are a part of your public,as are your neighbors and the local press. All these people havean interest in your company—in the prices it sets, and in theproducts and services that it provides.The relationship you create with these people will have aprofound effect on the future of your business. The functionof PR is to publicize your company to these people, and tocreate a positive image of your business which will translate intosales dollars. No one will know that your company exists if youdon’t tell them, but you must tell them in a systematic, plannedmanner. If you don’t plan what you want to say, and how andwhen you will say it, your public will be left to develop theirown opinions without any guidance from you.It is important to remember that PR is not marketing, althoughit can play a key role in marketing your products and services.Defined literally, marketing is the use of pricing and distribu-tion to sell a product. Certain PR practices can aid the marketingprocess, and as a new business owner, you can learn to use PRto enhance your marketing plan.

Do I Really Need a Plan?Imagine yourself in a car, beginning a long road trip. You want todrive from New York City to Las Vegas. So you throw someclothes together, point your van southwest, and head off. Youdon’t know how long the trip will take. You don’t know what theweather will be like along the way. You don’t have a road map.You don’t have a plan.You may get there—eventually. But it will be much easier if youfirst research what you want to accomplish, and plan how youwill achieve this feat.Planning the publicity for your business is similar to planning atrip. It may require a little extra time, initially, but it will save youtime—and money—in the long run. You may be successfulwithout the plan, but you have a much better chance of arrivingin Las Vegas if you have a map in the glove compartment andconsult it regularly during your journey.

Craig S. Rice, former president of Royal Crown Cola Ltd.Canada, and author of Marketing Without a Marketing Budget(Adams Media Corp., $10.95, 800-872-5627), says planningshould be an ongoing part of your day-to-day businessoperations. “When should you plan?” he asks. “All the time.You should always be thinking about next steps, just as asports coach or combat commander is constantly evaluatingtactics.”All good planning begins with research. Consider your roadtrip: In planning for this journey, you must first decide on yourobjective (in this case, Las Vegas). You should then consult amap, select the roads you would like to travel and the places youwould like to visit along the way, and determine how long itwill take to drive there. Once you’ve determined these basics,you can plan the best method for achieving your goal. You willplan when to leave, when you will stop along the way, andwhen you will finally reach your destination.Similarly, in creating a PR plan, you must first do your research.What does your public know about your business, if anything?Who are your competitors? How do they publicize theirbusinesses? Understanding your competition will help you rivalthem in the marketplace.With this information in mind, determine your objectives.What do you wish to accomplish with your PR plan? Ofcourse, you want to expand sales volume. However, what otherthings do you want to achieve? Perhaps you want to increase thenumber of repeat customers your company has. Maybe youwant to introduce a new product or service. If your company isvery new, your initial PR plan may include simply getting theword out about your business. Write down your objectives.Look them over. Rearrange them. Put them into a logicalsequence. Naturally, you cannot increase sales volume beforeyour potential customers know about you. Put your goals intoan orderly list of achievable objectives.

Beyond the Press Release

How Do I Create a Plan of Action?Now that you know what you want to accomplish, you mustcreate a plan of action—a way in which you will achieve yourobjectives. Let’s begin with a time chart.Your time chart should be a weekly calendar of things that youwill do to promote your business. Each promotional effortshould be listed, with its start and completion dates indicated.It is important to remember that the media, whether print orbroadcast, all have lead times—the time between when theyreceive your promotional material and when it appears. For thisreason, your promotional materials must be released well inadvance. For example, suppose your new company is going tointroduce a new product. Obviously, you want people to knowabout it. Once you send a press release to a publication,however, it can take from two to four months for that release tobe printed. Therefore, your time chart for promoting your newproduct should begin four to six months prior to the releasedate, if you are to realize any benefit from your effort.If you’re running a one-person show, you must be realistic inyour action planning. It’s best to keep your initial plan simple,


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and expand it later, when you have more people and resourcesto assist you.

What is a Press Release?The press release is the most common communication toolused in PR efforts. It is an informational letter describing anewsworthy fact about your company. Written correctly, thepress release can be very effective in promoting your business.Also, unlike advertising, which can be very expensive, magazinesand newspapers do not charge for editorial coverage. Thatmeans you pay only for the cost of postage (and photography,if you choose to include a photograph).Of course, editors receive many press releases, and there is noguarantee that yours will be printed. Therefore, you must try tomake your release stand out from the crowd. How? Be profes-sional. Remember these tips when issuing a press release:1. Keep your target audience in mind. The worst thing you

can do is to inundate all publications on your mailing listwith the same press release. Research the publications first.Make sure you tailor your release to their respective markets.

2. Start with the most important information. Publicationsrarely run press releases word for word. Editors usually cutfrom the bottom up, so make certain you’ve included all thenecessary facts in the opening paragraphs.

3. Keep it factual. The fastest way to diminish your credibilityis to put gushing, biased copy in your press release. Editorswant the facts, not your opinion.

4. Make sure it’s news. Editors want to create publicationsthat are interesting to their audiences. Find the angle. Is yourcompany new, unique or unusual? Tell them how runningyour release can benefit their readers.

5. Photos help. Editors love photos. Supply a caption,identifying any individuals pictured, and type it on a separatesheet of paper. (Never write on the back of a photograph.)

Characteristics of News

n Conflict ¨ Is the subject man vs. man, man vs. nature, etc.?

n Novelty ¨ Is the subject unusual, bizarre? Is it the first, the last

or once in a lifetime? Does it show progress or human interest?

n Usefulness ¨ Is the information useful to those reading it?

Elements of News

n What¨Subject of the story, person, object, action,

phenomenon or arean Who¨People by name, title and description, if

appropriaten Why¨Reasons for action, attitude, event


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Writing Style

n Inverted Pyramid¨Most important points expressed first¨Required by newspapers and other

publications that have limited space

Lead

n Most critical part of the news releasen Without an effective lead, the reader will

not read further. n A good lead “sells” the story. n What, how, why, when and who should

be covered in the first paragraph. n Give this information in three or four

sentences (no more than 30 words).

Lead

n Answer the following questions:¨What will take place?¨Why are you holding this event?¨Who will be there?¨When and where is it?¨How many people are participating and what

will they be doing?¨What do you expect to come out of the event?

Parts of the Releasen Body¨ Inverted pyramid¨ Include support for each point

n Quotesn Comparisonsn Statisticsn Causes and consequencesn Background information


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Parts of the Release

nClosing¨Tell how one can receive more information

nName of person, phone number, e-mail, etc.

Closing example

n For more information about OSU’sbasketball team, contact Coach Eddie Sutton at (405) GO-POKES.

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE CONTACT: JANE DOEJanuary 14, 2003 (405) 555-1234

Headline is centered and bolded

STILLWATER, Okla. – First paragraph: interesting lead sentence,

general description of event, date, place, and who is invited.

Second and succeeding paragraphs: more description, background

of the event, quotes from people involved.

Final paragraph: program details, contact information.

# # #


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Upon completion of this lesson you will

• Learn the structure of a sales letter

• Compose a sales letter

Writing an Effective Sales Letter(32 easy ways to give a new life into your sales letter...)1. Write your sales letter with an individual in mind. Go ahead

and pick out someone, a real person to write your salesletter to. Doesn’t matter if it is grandma or your next doorneighbor or your cat. Write your sales letter just like you arewriting it to them personally. Why? Because when yourpotential customer reads, it then it will seem personal,almost like you wrote it with them in mind. Too often,sales letters are written as if they were going to be read to anaudience rather than one person. Keep your sales letterspersonal, because one person at a time is going to readthem.

2. Use an illustration to get your point across. In my salesletters I have told stories about my car stalling on the sideof the road to illustrate the idea that we must constantlyadd the fuel of advertising to keep our businesses running.I have compared the hype of easily making millions onlineto the chances of me riding bareback across Montana on agrizzly bear. Leads have read of how getting to the top ofan oak tree relates to aggressively marketing online. Peoplelove a good story that pounds home a solid message. Tellstories that illustrate a point you are trying to make.Emphasize a benefit by sharing an account from the “realworld.” It effectively creates interest and further establishesthe point.

3. Create an interest in the reader from the very first line. Yourfirst line of the sales letter should immediately create adesire in the reader to want to know more. Go back to thebeginning of this article. The first words were, “It’s true.” Ican guarantee you that either consciously or subconsciouslyyou thought “What’s true?” Immediately, your mindwanted to know what I was talking about. Before you evenknew it you were right here, 8 paragraphs into this article.Carefully craft your first line. If you can immediately getthem wanting to know more, you’ve got a winner.

4. Use bullets. People spend a lot of time reading bulletedlists. In fact, they often reread them over and over. Usebulleted lists to stress the benefits of your product orservice, to spell out exactly what is included in your offer.Use an extra space in between each bullet to really highlighteach line and create a sense of more length to the list.

5. Launch into a bullet list immediately. Shortly after youropening line, immediately give the reader a bullet list ofbenefits to absorb. Hit them with your best shot. Pull out

the big guns and stress “just a few of” the most importantthings the reader will discover. By offering a killer list early inyour sales letter, you will automatically create a desire in thereader to continue through your ad copy. After all, if theyare already interested after the first list of benefits, they willcertainly be open to finding out even more reasons whyyour product or service will aid them.

6. Just let it all flow out. Write down everything that entersyour mind as you are writing your sales letter. You can editit later. If you just sit and start writing everything you knowabout your product or service and how it will benefit yourcustomer, you will be amazed at how much informationfloods your mind. Write it ALL down. Then read through it- you’ll be able to add a lot more detail to many of thepoints. Edit it after you have exhausted all of your ideas.

7. Make your sales letter personal. Make sure that the words“you” and “your” are at least 4:1 over “I” and “my.” Yourad copy must be written about YOUR CUSTOMER notyourself. I’m not sure how the old advertising adage goes,but it’s something like this, “I don’t care a thing about yourlawn mower, I just care about my lawn.” Leads aren’tinterested in you or your products; they are interested inthemselves and their wants and needs. When you arefinished with your sales letter and have uploaded it to a testweb page, run a check at http://www.keywordcount.comand see what the ratio between “you” and “your” versusreferences to “I,” “me,” “my,” etc. It’s a free service. Makesure it’s at least 4:1 in favor of the customer.

8. Write like you speak. Forget all of those rules that yourgrammar teacher taught you. Write your sales letters ineveryday language, just like you would talk in person. Don’tbe afraid to begin sentences with “And” or “Because.”Don’t worry about ending a sentence with a preposition.Write like you speak. Your sales letter isn’t the greatAmerican novel, so don’t write it like you are ErnestHemingway.

9. Use short paragraphs consisting of 2-4 sentences each. Longcopy works...but long paragraphs do not. Use shortparagraphs that lead into the next paragraph. Don’t beafraid to use short sentences. Like this one. Or this. Seewhat I mean? Shorter paragraphs keep the interest of thereader. Longer paragraphs cause eyestrain and often force thereader to get distracted.

10. Stress the benefits, not the features. Again, readers want theburning question answered, “What’s in it for me?” Whatneed is it going to meet? What want is it going to fill? Howis your product or service going to be of value or benefit tothe reader? Spell it out. Don’t focus on the features of yourproduct or service , but rather how those features will addvalue to the life of your reader. For example: If you are


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selling automobile tires, you may very well have the largestassortment of tires in the world, but who cares? I don’t careabout your selection. But, I do care about keeping my 3-month-old baby girl safe while we are traveling. So, insteadof focusing on your selection, you focus on the fact that mybaby girl can be kept safe because you have a tire that will fitmy car. You’re not selling tires, you’re selling safety for myfamily. Stress the benefits, not the features.

11. Keep the reader interested. Some sales letters read like theyare a manual trying to explain to me how I can performsome complicated surgery on my wife. They are filled withwords and phrases that I need a dictionary to understand.Unless you are writing to a very targeted audience, avoidusing technical language that many readers might notunderstand. Keep it simple, using words, language andinformation that are easy to understand and follow.

12. Target your sales letter. When you are finished with yourfinal draft of the sales letter, target it to a specific audience.For example: If you are selling a “work at home” product,then rewrite the sales letter by adding words in the headlinesand ad copy that are targeted towards women who arehomemakers. Then, rewrite the same sales letter and targetit to college students. Write another letter targeting seniorcitizens. Still another could be written to high schoolteachers wanting to earn extra income during summervacation. The possibilities are endless. All you need to do isadd a few words here and there in your ad copy to make itappear that your product or service is specifically designedfor a target audience. “Work only 5 hours a week,” wouldbecome “College Students, work only 5 hours a week.”Your sales letter is now targeted. Upload all of the salesletters to separate pages on your website (you could easilytarget 100’s of groups).Then, simply advertise the targeted pages in targetedmediums. You could advertise the “College Students” pagein a campus ezine. The “Senior Citizens” page could beadvertised at a retirement community message board.By creating these targeted sales letters, you can literally openup dozens of new groups to sell your existing product to.And, in their eyes, it looks like the product was a matchmade for them.

13. Make your ad copy easy to follow. Use short sentences andparagraphs. Break up the sales letter with attention grabbingheadlines that lead into the next paragraph. One thing that Ihave always found to work very well in sales letters......is to use a pause like this.Start the sentence on one line, leaving the reader wanting toknow more, and then finishing up on the next line. Also, ifyou are going to use a sales letter that continues on severaldifferent pages of your website, use a catchy hook line at theend of each page to keep them clicking. “Let’s get youstarted down the road to success, shall we? CLICK HEREto continue.”

14. Use similes and metaphors for effect. When the customerpurchases your product, they will generate “a flood of trafficthat would make Noah start building another ark.” If they

do not order today, then they will “feel like a cat that let themouse get away.” Use words to create a picture in thereaders’ mind. When you think of Superman, what comesto mind? Immediately, we remember that he is “faster thana speeding bullet.” “More powerful than a locomotive.”“Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound.” See howword pictures stick in our minds?

15. Focus on one product or service. Don’t try to sell yourcustomer multiple products at the same time. It onlyconfuses the reader. Keep your ad copy directed at onespecific product or service. Then, use other products andservices as back-end products.

16. Make it stand out. Don’t kid yourself. There are hundreds,maybe thousands out there on the web doing the samething you are doing. How will you stand out among thecrowd? Your sales letter must inject personality. It mustbreathe of originality. Your product or service is different.It’s not like all of the rest. It is unique. Right? Your salesletter must separate you from the competition. It mustcreate a feeling of “You won’t find this anywhere else.”

17. Be believable. “Earn $54,000 in the next 24 hours!!!!!”Delete. Good grief, do they think I am an idiot orsomething? Get real. Don’t make outrageous claims that areobviously not the truth. You’ll ruin your reputation. Let metell you a simple universal fact that cannot be reversed. Onceyou have been branded a liar, you will NEVER be anythingbut a liar. It doesn’t matter if you launch the mostrespectable, honest business available anywhere, people willalways have doubt because they remember the crazy stuffyou’ve said before. Be believable. Don’t exaggerate, mislead,stretch or distort the truth.

18. Be specific. Don’t generalize your information, but rather beEXACT. Instead of “over 100 tips for losing weight” use“124 tips for losing weight.” By generalizing information, itcreates doubt and questions in the reader’s mind. “What amI really getting here? Does he even know?” When you usespecific information, the reader begins to think, “Thisperson must have counted. I know exactly what I canexpect.” “Platitudes and generalities roll off the humanunderstanding like water from a duck,” wrote ClaudeHopkins in his classic book “Scientific Advertising.” “Theyleave no impression whatsoever.”

19. Be complete. Tell the reader everything they would want toknow about your product or service. Answer all of theirquestions, anything they would want to consider beforemaking a purchase. Think about it from their point of view.Ask yourself, “Why wouldn’t I buy this?” Then, addressthat in your sales letter. Remove anything that would keepthe reader from making the purchase.

20. Use testimonials to boost your sales. Share actual excerptsfrom what your current customers are saying about yourproduct or service. Many websites have an entire section oreven a separate page that has endorsements andcompliments listed. Satisfied customers remove some ofthe doubt in the mind of the reader. “If these people havefound a lot of value and benefit in the product, then I


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probably will too.” Especially effective are testimonials fromrespected, well-known “authorities” within your target field.

21. Use headlines over and over throughout the sales letter. Aheadline isn’t just relegated to the beginning of your adcopy. Use them frequently -but don’t overuse. A well-placedheadline re-grabs the reader’s attention, brings them deeperinto the letter, and readies them for the next paragraph. Youwill want to spend as much time working on your headlinesas you do the entire sales letter. They are that important.

22 Avoid asking stupid questions. “Wouldn’t you like to make$1,000,000 a year?” “Doesn’t that sound great?” “Wouldyou like to be as successful as I am?” Avoid any questionthat insults the intelligence of your reader or makes themfeel like they are inferior.

23 Offer a freebie even if the customer doesn’t buy. If thecustomer decides he or she isn’t going to make a purchase,then you want to follow-up with them later to try toinfluence them to buy in the future. By offering a free item,you can request their email address in order to obtain thefreebie. By doing this, you can now follow-up with thecustomer for a potential future sale. Additionally, you cancontinue the sales process by having your ad copy, banners,flyers, etc. within the free item. And, of course, if your freeitem is a high quality, useful product or service whichimpresses the customer, they probably will be back as acustomer soon.

24 Use bonuses to overwhelm the reader. One of the thingsthat I have found very effective in writing sales letters is toinclude bonus items that OUT-VALUE the actual product Iam offering. Ginsu made this one famous. They wereselling a set of steak knives, but before the commercial wasfinished, you had so many bonus items on the table it washard to refuse. Make sure you provide quality bonuses andnot some worthless, outdated junk that damages thecredibility of your main offer.

25. Use connective phrases like “But wait, there’s more” and“But that’s not all.” These phrases effectively lead the readerfrom one paragraph to the next, particularly when the nextparagraph is a bullet list of benefits, or leads into bonusitems. Again, the idea is MORE and MORE value andbenefits to the reader.

26. Always include a deadline. By including a deadline, youcreate a sense of urgency in the mind of the customer. “If Idon’t order within 24 hours, then I won’t get thebonuses.” “Oh no, there are only 10 items remaining, I’vegot to hurry.” Let the customer know what they will bemissing out on if they don’t make the deadline. Remember,they won’t miss out on your products or bonuses, they willmiss out on all of the benefits of your products. Deadlinesare very effective. Every sales letter should have one.

27. Tell them exactly how to order. Be clear as to the orderprocess. Point them towards the order link. Tell them whatmethods you offer. (I.E. credit cards, checks, etc.) Make thisprocess as simple and clear as can be. If it takes more than 2steps, most people won’t continue.

28. Explain when the product will be delivered. How quicklywill the order be processed? When will the order beavailable? Let the customer know exactly what they canexpect when they place their order. The more specific youcan be here, the better. Let them know that you have asystem in place. “Operators are standing by.” Their orderwill be handled properly. Tell them.

29. Offer a money back guarantee. Take away their last reason tohold back. Offer a “no questions asked” 30 day guarantee.Most people may not realize this, but in most cases, it’s thelaw of the land. You are REQUIRED to give them theirmoney back if they are not satisfied with the product orservice. Since it’s the law anyway, why not make it a benefit.Let them know that they are purchasing your product orservice RISK-FREE.

30. Instruct them to respond immediately. Many people justneed to read those words, “Act Now!” “Order today!”“Click Here to Instantly Place Your Order.” You’ve gotthem this far, now tell them what you want them to do.Get them to “Act Fast!” Have you ever heard a mail ordercommercial on television that didn’t prompt the viewer toorder right way?

31. Include a postscript. People will always read the P.S. Always.In fact, the P.S. is one of the MOST IMPORTANT partsof your sales letter. Why? Because in many cases the visitorat your website will scroll immediately down to the end ofyour page to see how much it is going to cost. A P.S. is aperfect place to recap your offer, so when they see your pricetag, they will also see a very detailed description of whatthey will receive for their money. Use your P.S. to restateyour offer in detail.

32. Include a second postscript. You better believe if they readthe first P.S., they will read a P.P.S. Use this post script toremind them of the deadline or offer another bonus orpoint out some compelling factor that would make themwant to order. I guarantee you they will read it.

Exercises1. Write a sales message for Memories Forever, a photography

group socializing in weddings. The group’s primary service ismaking videos of the complete wedding and the postwedding festivities. In addition, they can prepare theconventional individual photographs of the weddinghighlights. In fact, they can do just about everythingphotographic that the wedding couple desires.The group has decided to send sales messages presentingtheir services to the brides as their weddings are announcedin the society columns of the local newspaper. The messagewill be designed to sell idea of preserving the wedding for alltime. It will use whatever appeals and approaches will bestachieve this goal. As the one who will write this salesmessage, you will need to think through this situationcarefully to determine just what these appeals are. Then youwill develop them in a carefully worded message that willcreate conviction.In preparing your message, you will use this basicinformation plus any additional facts consistent with the


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information given. The photographers in the group are allexperienced professionals. They guarantee ‘ satisfaction oryour money back’. For the basic video and selected stillphotographs package the charge is Rs 8000. But it can go p ordown, depending on what is wanted. A companyrepresentative would meet with the customer in advance todetermine precisely what is wanted and the cost. You cansupply the names of satisfied customers if necessary, for youhave a number of good testimonials.


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UNIT 3CHAPTER 8: LEAFLETS AND INVITATIONS

LESSON 33:DESIGNING LEAFLETS

By the end of this unit you will be able to

• Explain why leaflets may be produced in business

• Describe different designs, which may be used for leaflets.

• Design leaflet according to given instructions.

Student’s in this class we will understand what are leaflets, itspurpose. We will also learn to design leaflets.

LeafletsLeaflets are very powerful tools for promoting your products.The idea is to find potential customers by distributing leafletsto their homes or workplaces. Alternatively they can be placedwhere potential customers will see them.Although many network marketers achieve great results usingleaflets it is not without hard work and careful preparation.This section runs through the key stages in a leaflet campaign -and includes suggestions and questions to consider whendesigning your particular approach.

One Step or Two?First you must decide what kind of campaign you want to run -one step or two.In a one-step campaign your leaflet asks your customers to buyyour product immediately. So the leaflet has to include all theinformation to persuade them to buy - and place their order.In a two-step campaign the leaflet is only intended to attract thecustomer’s attention - and persuade them to phone or writerequesting more information. You capture their contact details andsend them a brochure or information pack. This then contains thematerial to persuade them to buy, and place their order.The telesales variant of the two-step campaign asks thecustomer to phone for more information. When they phonein, you answer their questions and try to clinch the sale thereand then. It can work well but requires good telephonetechnique.

Distribution OptionsThere are several options for distributing your leaflets:• Push them through letterboxes in your area. Place them on

car windscreens.Place piles of them in public places insert them intonewspapers or magazines.Include them in mail shots.

• Think about the product you are trying to sell - and moreimportantly - think about the kind of people who are likelyto buy it.

• Where do they live? Are you just aiming at people in yourneighborhood? Or do you have wider ambitions? Willsaturation coverage of your area reach the people you want tofind? Or will your leaflets just get chucked in the bin?

Do they have cars? If so, where do they park them? Will a blitzon the town center car parks reach the people you want to find?Or will they just get thrown away?Which public places do they visit? Supermarkets? Libraries?Sports centers? Doctors’ surgeries? Use your imagination.You’ll need permission to leave your leaflets in these places -and some may demand a small fee. Leave a small heap and seehow quickly they get taken.Which publications are they likely to read? Don’t just thinkabout well-known titles. If your product is aimed at a selectgroup of people then look for specialist publications aimed atthat group. Do they insert leaflets? How much does this cost?Who is already mailing your target customers? Use yourimagination. Suppliers of related products? Clubs and specialinterest groups? Do they insert leaflets? Look for advertsunder Business-To-Business headings. There are specialistmailers who charge for their services.Pick out a few promising candidates and evaluate them a bitmore. For each one: How many people will see your leaflet?What proportion is likely to be interested? How much will itcost? Don’t forget to include the cost of the leaflets as well asany charges for distributing them.Finally, work out the Value For Money rating - our transatlanticcousins charmingly call this the “bang for a buck”. How manyinterested people you can contact for each £1 spent? Estimatehow many people will see your leaflets - and adjust it by yourguess at the percentage interested in your product. Then dividethis figure by the total cost of the leaflets plus any charges fordistributing them, ie:Value For Money = People Contacted x % Interested ÷Leafleting CostObviously, to get the most out of your hard-won cash,distribute your first leaflets via the options offering the bestValue For Money.Remember: It’s worth taking your time to get your planningright because it’s easy to waste a lot of money and effort onunsuccessful leaflets.

Designing LeafletsLeaflets vary in size from A6 (a quarter of an A4 page) up to A3(folded to A4 size). They can include color, photos, drawingsand logos, which make them extremely effective.The great advantages of leaflets are1. They can be made to stand out so they’re very good for

attracting the reader’s attention2. They put across your sales message very powerfully3. With the bigger leaflets you can include a cutout form for

enquiries or immediate purchases.


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The Main Disadvantages are1. They have to look good so you may have to pay someone to

design them and produce the “camera-ready copy”2. Printing can take time so you have to plan ahead3. Flashy ones can be quite expensive.There are some basic rules for designing leaflets - but there isalso great scope for artistic inspiration. Like most things, themore you do the better you get. Start by being clear what yourleaflet is intended to achieve.Many leaflets are part of a two-step campaign - where the objectis to persuade the reader to phone, write, fax or email for moreinformation. If you want them to write, and you can afford thespace, include an information request form for the reader to fillin and post to you. This makes life easier for them. And youcan make sure they fill in all information you need. You canalso put a code on the form so you know which campaignproduced the response.One-step campaigns - where the object of the leaflet is topersuade the reader to buy your product immediately - are lesscommon. You’ll need to describe the product, persuade readersto buy, and tell them where to send their order and payment -which takes space and increases the cost. If you can afford thespace, include an order form for the reader to fill in and post toyou. This makes life easier for them. And you can make surethey fill in all information you need. You can also put a code onthe form so you know which campaign produced the response.Your customers get bombarded with lots of leaflets. Most getthrown straight in the bin. So, if you don’t want your messageto end up in landfill, you’ll have to use your artistic ingenuity tomake your leaflet stand out from the crowd.

All Leaflets Should Follow the Tried andTested AIDA Formula• Attract the reader’s Attention• Interest the reader in the product• Excite the reader’s Desire• Ask for Action from the readerThe big advantage of leaflets is that you can use photographs,drawings and logos to attract the reader’s attention.If you can’t afford the artwork, or you’re limited for space,maybe you can use lines, boxes, large print or special typefaces toachieve the same effect. Some printers offer colors, but theseusually cost more. Glossy paper looks more professional butcosts more. Photographs or drawings of people help catch theattention. Obviously they need to be happy people. If yourcustomers are mostly men then a picture of a woman will bemost effective - and vice versa. (Reverse that if your targetmarket is gay people).Pictures of the product don’t just catch the attention. Theyalso help to arouse the reader’s interest and desire. They’reespecially important if you’re trying to sell “off-the-page”. Ifyou’re selling a service then consider a picture of somethingrelated to it. For example, a car for motor insurance, orsomeone on the phone for cheap calls. Logos also work well,especially if the brand name is well known.

Short phrases enclosed in simple graphics (banners, stars,speech balloons, etc) can be used to attract the attention and putacross key points. For example, “Sale!”, “Special Offer!”,“New!”, “Half Price!”.Use all these special effects sparingly. A few of them will create astrong visual impression. Too many looks fussy - or even amess! Leave some “white space” around the content as thathelps to draw the reader’s eyes.The headline - the first phrase or sentence - is critical. It shouldbe written in large bold type, possibly capital letters, andseparated from the rest of the text. Use the headline to attractthe reader’s attention - and make your leaflet stand out from therest. Take some time thinking of alternative headlines andpicking out the best. You want people to stop and read yourleaflet - not other things around it.If you’re inserting in publication with a broad readership, eg. thelocal paper, then your headline should probably specify yourproduct, eg. Rare Books!. This will only attract the attention ofpeople who are genuinely interested in rare books. If you’reinserting in a publication with a specialist readership, eg. BikersNews, then your headline can focus on what makes yourproduct different from the rest. For example, More Studs ThanAny Other Jacket.Another powerful approach, especially suitable for businessopportunities, is to forget the product and lead with the benefitto the customer. Examples include: Be your own boss! Earnin your spare time! Or you can use blatant attention grabberslike: Free! Brand New! Only Rs20! Two for the price of one!The middle wording needs to interest the reader and build uptheir desire. Where possible, emphasise the benefits for them.Give enough information about the product so they under-stand what you’re offering. But, if you’re two-stepping, don’tattempt to do the job of your brochure or your telephone salespitch. Make good use of “power words” - words that make thereader sit up and take notice. These include: avoid, bargain,bonus, discover, earn, easy, enjoy, exciting, exclusive, extra, fast,fortune, free, how to, learn, money, more, mystery, new, now,profit, save, special, win. Don’t force these words into yourleaflet - but use them rather than weaker alternatives.The tail end of the leaflet must tell the reader what to do next.For example: Phone 567890 for details. Send 4 x 26p stampsto Anita at ... Visit our website at www.mehraonlin.comProof read this bit especially carefully. It would be a cryingshame to excite your customers’ desire and not be able to receivetheir responses.If you’re one-stepping, include an order form for the reader tocut out, fill in and post to you. This makes life easier for them.And prompts them to fill in all information you need. Put acode on the form so you know which leaflet and publicationproduced the response. Make sure it tells them who to makeout their cheque to, and clearly shows your postal address.Check with your company. They may already have someeffective leaflets you can use or modify. They can probablysupply you with “camera ready copy” - which will save a lot ofeffort. Also they may have restrictions about where or how youdistribute leaflets. They may insist on approving your leaflet


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before it’s published. You’ll definitely need permission to usetheir trade names, photos and logos.Make sure you proof read what you send for printing.Spelling errors and nonsense wording make you look an idiot.Incorrect contact details will lose you business and annoy yourcustomers. If you’re setting the leaflet yourself, you’ll need tosend “camera ready copy” to the printers - a good quality originalof your leaflet. It must be clear and sharp enough for them tophotograph or scan into their publishing / printing system.For simple non-glossy leaflets, you can produce acceptablecamera ready copy using your PC with a good laser or inkjetprinter. If you don’t have the expertise or the facilities you mayhave to pay someone else to do this. Some printers willproduce the artwork for you - for a fee! For very small leafletscheck whether the printer can photo-reduce a larger original.This may well give a sharper image than you can achieve directlyfrom your PC’s laser or inkjet.If you’re posting camera ready copy to the printer - don’t fold it!It won’t photograph cleanly with a fold line down the middle.And put a stiffener or some padding in the envelope so yourprecious original doesn’t get mangled by the postman.For most publications there is no flexibility about theirdeadlines. If you want your leaflet to go into a particular issue,get it to the publisher in good time for the deadline. Make sureyou tell them (preferably in writing) which issue you want it togo in. If you don’t tell them it’ll be your own fault if it goeswrong. And you won’t be able to claim a refund.

Handling ResponsesTelephone CallsGood telephone manner is vitally important. Speak clearly andat a comfortable speed - not too fast - not too slow. Try tosound keen and interested in what the customer is saying. Butbe yourself. If you try to put on airs it will sound false.Work out a standard greeting and use it whenever you answeran incoming call. This should include your trading name - sothe caller knows they’ve got through to the right number - andyour name - so they know who they’re dealing with. Forexample: “Akash traders – Anil speaking”.You should also get an answering machine to field your callswhen you’re out, or otherwise unavailable. Murphy’s Law saysthat the phone only rings when you’re in the toilet.Work out a standard message along the lines of: “Thank youfor calling Akash Traders. I’m sorry we can’t take your call rightnow. If you’d like to leave your name and number after thetone, we’ll get back to you”. Note this doesn’t say you’re out(which might give a hint to burglars) and it doesn’t say whenyou’ll call back (which might raise false hopes).Your friends and family may think you’re a bit odd - but theonly alternative is a separate phone number. Answering with“Hello?” will make your customers wonder just what kind ofbusiness they are dealing with.You’ll also have to train the family to answer the phoneproperly too. Stroppy teenagers often baulk at this - it doesn’thelp their street cred. Explaining that new clothes or computergames depend on business success may tip the balance.

Modern telephones are very good at picking up backgroundnoises - even with your hand over the mouthpiece. For some reasonthe television, the kids fighting, and the toilet flushing - allsound much louder over the phone than they do in the room.So try to find somewhere quiet for your business calls. Never,ever, make remarks about the caller! Assume they can heareverything.If you just want to capture the callers details and send them aninformation pack then keep the call short and business-like.Capture the bare minimum of information: name, address,postcode, phone number, what product they’re interested in,and where they saw the leaflet. Write it all down - there andthen. Keep a notepad and pen by the phone. Human memoryis notoriously unreliable - so don’t rely on it!If you want to clinch the sale over the phone then make sureyou’re well prepared. Work out the key points of your sales pitchand rehearse how you’re going to say them. Emphasis andintonation can be quite important here. Prepare counters forobjections they might raise. For example: “It costs more thanbrand X”, “Yes, but you use less each time so it lasts longer”.Try to establish a personal relationship with the caller.Make sure you get their name early on and use it occasionally. Ifthey mention their family, or their job, or where they live - showan interest, or tell them something similar about yourself. Butdon’t overdo this or you’ll spend all the time gossiping ratherthan selling. Make a note of key points. They’ll come in handythe next time you talk to them.Listen carefully to what the caller is saying. Ask them openquestions (ones that can’t be answered yes or no) so you’re clearwhat they’re looking / hoping for. This should be a conversa-tion - with them speaking as much as you. Don’t let itdegenerate into a monologue. Try to tune your comments tofit in with their train of thought. Find ways to agree withthem. Simply dropping in the occasional “Yes” helps build arapport. Even if you have to disagree with them try to say“Yes, but ...”.When you’ve told them about the product and its benefits, andthey seem to be interested, you come to the crunch point -asking them to buy. Sales people call this “closing the sale”.Don’t approach this head on. “Do you want to buy one?”comes across as aggressive - and allows them to answer “No”.Much better to ask them a question that implies they havedecided to buy. Like “How many would you like”, “Whichcolor would you like?”, “How would you like this delivering?”,or “How would you like to pay?”. Usually they’ll just answerthe question and you can move swiftly on to capturing theirorder details.Even if they baulk at this question all is not lost. They’llprobably say “I don’t know” or “I haven’t decided”. You justswitch back into your sales pitch and try to close the sale whenthey’ve had a bit more time.If you don’t have the enough time to make the sales pitch - eg.you have to get the kids out of school - explain the problem,take the caller’s name and phone number, and sort out amutually convenient time to call them back. You should callthem (and pay the call charges) because you’re the one causing


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the problem. Whatever you promise to do - do it! This isessential to build up their trust.At the end, thank them for their call - and say goodbye.Then wait for a second so they can hang up first (otherwise theymay think you’re glad to be rid of them). You’d be surprisedhow many people forget these simple courtesies.If you’ve promised to send the caller an information pack thenget it on its way today! Follow the guidance below aboutreplying to letters, faxes and emails.If you’ve taken an order from the caller then move it on topayment collection and delivery promptly. If possible despatchthe order today. Fast delivery is always very impressive andmakes them well-disposed towards further purchases.Letters, Faxes and EmailsFirst rule - strike while the iron is hot! Your customer has seenyour leaflet and taken the time to ask for more informationabout your product. It’s vitally important to reply quickly whilethey’re still keen. Aim to post, fax or email your reply the sameday. If illness or absence delays your response then apologize!Keep an accurate record of who has responded and whatyou have sent to them - with dates. Store their personal detailssecurely - and don’t give this information away to anyone else.What are you going to put in the reply? Make sure it includeseverything the customer needs to make their purchase decisionand return their order.Where possible, use the standard brochures, price lists and orderforms produced by the company who supplies your products.They’re usually well printed on glossy paper with nice pictures.And the wording has usually been carefully crafted to present theproduct in a good light, explain the offer accurately, and complywith the law. Substitute your own material at your peril.Make sure your name and contact details appear on the materialyou send out - even if you have to add a sticky label to each item.Adding a short personalized letter or note is a nice touch that canendear you to the customer. But write it neatly (or type it) onquality paper - or you can undo all that goodwill at a stroke. Thesame goes for the envelope. Appearances really matter a lot.If you’re replying by fax or email then take your time to get thewording right. Also lay out the text so it’s easy to read and thepage looks visually attractive. You’ll only get this one chance tomake your pitch so prepare it with the same care as you lavishedon the original leaflet.You can use graphics on faxes to improve their appearance butcheck what they look like after faxing. Shades of grey get changedto black or white, which can have some unfortunate effects. Ifyou have a PC with a modem, try sending your faxes direct fromthe PC. The appearance at the receiving end is often much betterthan if you send from a low-cost fax machine. If you’re replyingby letter, make sure you put enough stamps on it. Having thepostman knock on their door to demand excess postage will puta customer right off you. Check the weight of the sealedenvelope on your kitchen scales if you’re in any doubt.If you can afford it, use first class postage for replies. Secondclass may be cheaper but it allows the customer 24 hours longer

to cool off and gives the impression you’re less serious aboutwanting their business.

Following UpYour campaign will have given you the names and contactdetails of paying customers (even if you didn’t recover yourcosts). Record these people in your customer list and guard itjealously.Once you’ve captured a customer, follow up every few weeks/months. Send them the latest brochure when it’s updated. Orphone them for a brief chat (but back off if they don’t seemkeen to be called). Your aim is to encourage them to buy again.Remember, it’s much easier to get further orders than to findnew customers.

Sanity CheckOK. You’ve now worked out what leaflets to distribute where- and what to do with the responses. However, it’s possible todesign a leafleting campaign that successfully sells products tocustomers - but ends up losing you money! So, before you leapinto action, take a short breather and conduct a Sanity Check onyour plans.

Review ResultsAt the end of your campaign you should review how well itworked so you can learn how to do better in future. Count uphow many responses your leaflet produced (and, if you’re twostepping, how many orders). Work out the value of the orderstaken and your commission / profit. Then take away yourcosts. Did you recover your costs? Earn a bit of extra cash?Were the response rate, order rate and average order value whatyou predicted before you started? If they were higher - welldone, your campaign design worked better than expected.Remember that publication and the key elements of yourleaflet. They’re probably worth using again.If your campaign didn’t do as well as you hoped, have you anyclues as to why it went wrong? Should you use that distribu-tion option again? Was there something wrong with theleaflet? Keep a note of what happened, and bear this hard-wonlearning in mind for future campaigns.Types of LeafletMost organizations produce leaflets or brochures for anynumber of reasons:1. To prublicise goods or services2. To promote special events an promotions3. To give information of any kindSuch leaflets may take the form of a single page or they could bedesigned as a folded document – A4 size couldbe folded onceor twice to make a four page or six page leaflet as shown here:


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Most infections get better without antibiotics

In cases where patients will get better without antibiotics, it makes sense for your doctor not to prescribe them. Your body’s defence system can often protect against infection without the need for antibiotics.

Listen to your doctor

Your doctor will be able to recognize whether you have an infection that needs antibiotics, so you should not always expect to be given a prescription. Doctors need to prescribe antibiotics with care: This is because inappropriate use of antibiotics can be dangerous for

individual patients and for the whole population. Overuse of antibiotics can also cause resistance and result in them not working in the future. This is a very worrying trend, especially for patients with serious life threatening infections. Harmful side-effects Potential side-effects are another reason why doctors

are cautious about prescribing antibiotics. Some antibiotic treatment can cause side-effects such as stomach upset and thrush. For women on the pill,

antibiotics can reduce contraceptive protection. Antibiotic facts

• Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections (eg. Colds, flu and most sore throats). Viral infections are much more common than bacterial infections.

• Inappropriate use of antibiotics can encourage the development of resistant bacteria. This could mean that the antibiotic may not work when you really need it.

• Some antibiotics have harmful side-effects such as diarrhoea and allergic reactions.

• Antibiotics do not just attack the infection they are prescribed for they can also kill useful bacteria which normally protect you against other infections such as thrush.

• There are effective alternative remedies for managing the symptoms of many infections.

If you have an infection such as a cold, flu or sore throat

(1) Take paracetamol according to the instructions to help reduce fever and relieve aches and pains.

(2) Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration. (3) Ask your pharmacist (chemist) for advice.

Many infections can be managed effectively with over-the-counter medications. The pharmacist will refer you to your doctor or practice nurse if they think it is necessary.

When to contact your GP Call your GP’s surgery for advice if, after taking over-the-counter medications as directed, you or your child

are experiencing any of the following: • symptoms which are severe or unusually

prolonged. • extreme shortness of breath. • coughing up of blood or large amounts of

yellow or green phlegm.

DOCTOR PATIENT PARTNERSHIP Promoting a healthy partnership between patients and health professionals

BMA House Tavistock Square London WC1H 9JP

Fax : 0171 383 6403 Internet : www.doctorpatient.org.uk

Reproduced courtesy of Doctor Patient Partnership

If you are prescribed antibiotics ensure you take the medication according to instructions. (1) Although you may begin to feel better, you

must take the full course of antibiotics to prevent your illness coming back.

(2) Not taking the full course of antibiotics can lead to future antibiotic resistance.


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LESSON 34:INVITATIONS


State reasons why invitations are used

Compose formal and informal invitations

Reply to formal and informal invitations

Student’s I am sure you must received many invitations forbirthday parties, weddings, etc. You must have liked some ofthe invitations you have received. Can you tell me what did youlike about that invitation? Is it the wordings or is the paperquality or the color combinations, what?Many companies organize special functions for various reasons:• To publicize a special event• The launch of a new product• The opening of a new branch office• The retirement of a senior executiveYou may be expected to know how to prepare invitations tosuch functions , or how to reply to such invitations, when youremployer gives you an instruction simply to accept or refuse.

The History of the InvitationThere is a long history to the evolution of the Invitation, as weknow it today. How did they arise? Who used them? How wasa wording composed? How were they delivered? What was theimpact of the printing press? Why do current invitations allappear to follow a consistent style? Why is calligraphy sopopular?Knowing the history and the traditions behind the socialinvitation will help you in your selection. You can then takeexception to current “standards” and still conform to sociallyaccepted standards. Or if you wish, you can create a new, uniqueinvitation that will set you apart from the norm yet still be ingood taste.

Only for the Elite . . .The aristocracy in England and France probably beginning inthe 18th century used invitations to social events. It may bepossible to go back another hundred or two hundred years tofind the foundations, which began the tradition of theinvitation.The Kings, Queens, Lords, Ladies, Dukes, Duchesses, or intoday’s vernacular, “High Society” would invite their peers totheir social events with hand written announcements of theevent. The wife, butler, or secretary wrote these. Writing was amark of education. Even after the printing press, the aristocracyhand wrote invitations since “mass production” would be inbad taste.

CalligraphyIn those days, society was not in a hurry, and most who couldread and write had excellent penmanship. Do you recall what thepen was like as an early writing instrument? It was a quill made

of a feather with a carefully cut tip. As one wrote, while holdingthe pen in one position, the characters that were formed werethin in one direction and broad in the other. For example, acircle or ‘o’ might be thin at the top and bottom and wide onthe sides.When you couple excellent penmanship with the writinginstrument of the day, handwriting, by today’s standards, was awork of art.

The WordingThe actual wording was very similar to the ‘socially correct’wordings used today. The major difference was that thewording, in most cases, included the name of the guest as partof the wording. Everything was spelled out, including the eventdate and time.Once written, each invitation was placed in a protective enclosure(a handmade envelope). That ‘envelope’, what is now called theinner envelope, would include the invitee’s names (For example,“The Duke and Duchess of Windsor”). When finished, a hotwax seal was affixed to the envelope. (Wax seals often indicatedthe crest of the family.)

The Postal ServiceWithout any form of postal service, these invitations had to behand delivered. This was the task of one of the servants, onhorseback, under all weather conditions.Thus arose the need for an ‘outer’ envelope. This outerenvelope served a dual purpose. It was used to protect the innerenvelope from water and dirt and to also provide directions tothe recipients estate, castle, or farm. In addition, there were no‘addresses’. Thus, the ‘inner envelope’ was again wrapped orplaced in an outer envelope. The ‘address’ was often a set ofdirections something like, “Go one days travel down the roadto Chelsea. There, cross the stone bridge and proceed past thethree farms until you see the stone entrance marked “Wesley”.There, remove this covering, and give to the doorman. Wait fora response and make note of same.”

The Printing PressThe printing press appeared in Europe in the mid 13th century.Even so, the printing of wedding or social invitations did notbegin until the start of the 20th century. Some of the elite,fascinated with industrialization, began using ‘mass produced’invitations probably as either a novelty or simply as anotherexpression of wealth.The real beginning of the commercially printed weddinginvitation began in the United States probably after World WarII. One or the great features of the combination of democracywith industrialization is to give the common man the ability tomimic the life-styles and materialism of society’s elite. Aboutthe same time, Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post appear on thescene to help correct the fumblings of society.


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The first appearance of the printed invitation was probably forlarge events hosted by wealthy industrialists wishing to exploit‘new technology’. Gradually, these factors coalesce to give youand I, an affordable, commercially printed invitation.

The TissueTechnological advances in the design of the printing press increasedthe speed at which paper could be printed. Since printer’s ink tooksome time to dry, as each invitation was removed from the press, atissue was place over it so that the next invitation laid on topwould not pick up the ink from the one below.One might ask why it became common place to send invita-tions with this ‘protective’ tissue still in place. One could guessthe answer. Was it simply a mark to clearly show that theinvitation was printed using a new and fascinating technology . .. as opposed to the ‘old fashioned hand written’ invitation? Inany event, the inclusion of the tissue continues to this day.

Raised Ink Versus EngravingOrdinary printing simply stamps ink rolled on lead type ontothe paper. It is a messy process and does not produce very highquality lettering. Lithography, on the other hand, is a method ofprinting which retains a very high quality replica of drawn orsketched artwork. It produces very sharp and distinctive inking.If you and I could afford ordinary printed invitations, then thesocially elite needed to distance themselves from such anabomination. They then elected to have their invitations“engraved”. This served a second purpose. It permitted theprinted invitation to emulate hand writing since engravedcopper plates were made by hand.Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to “handwrite” in reverse into a metal plate using a carving tool. To thisday, the finest invitations are engraved.But today’s engraving plates are made by first producing aphotographic plate of the wording using a typesetting machine.This plate is then used to expose a sensitized copper platewhich is then acid etched. Movable lead type is replaced bycomputers with a wide variety of lettering styles, called fonts.Some fonts even mimic calligraphic lettering styles. So if you areupper-crust, your invitations are engraved and printed on onlythe finest paper stock.Us lesser folk, not to be outdone, again tried to mimic thequality open only to the very wealthy. Along comes a cheapversion of engraving called Thermography or ‘raised ink’printing. Unlike ordinary printing, engraving actually cut thesurface of the paper. The print quality was beautiful and youcould feel where the ink was deposited because you could feelthe slight cuts in the surface of the paper. The thermographyprocess, unlike engraving used ordinary lead type washed withink. When the printed paper is removed from the press withwet ink, a plastic powder is sprayed on the wet ink and thenblown off. The plastic powder absorbs the ink color. The paperis then heated until the plastic powder melts leaving a raised inkwhich you can feel.

Three Dimensional Hand MadeInvitationsTo be complete, there is one more form of the invitation. Thisis a custom invitation, hand made and assembled. Typically,

these can be three dimensional with multiple layers of paper,custom or hand-drawn artwork, even with moveable layouts,pop-ups, or doors. (Such invitations are often in the region oftens to hundreds of dollars each.)

Mimic the Elite and Stick with TraditionNow you know why there are inner envelopes and why there aretissues. These are simply the traditional assets from the olddays. Similarly, envelope seals are the mass produced equivalentfor replacing the hot wax seal.What is not so apparent is that raised ink is a cheap alternativeto engraving. But consider this, engraving was a less timeconsuming way to mimic true handwriting.If you want the finest invitations possible, you must purchasethe finest paper and hire an artist and a calligrapher. The artistwill personalize your invitation with a hand drawing on each.The calligrapher will hand write your wording and address yourenvelopes.

Or are there New TechnologiesWhat of the truly old fashioned, hand written invitation? Youcan see that over the years, technology on has given you the abilityto mimic the old traditions. Else why would we stick with inners,outers, tissues, envelope seals, raised ink, and engraving?Consider this, while adhering to all the ‘old stuff’, the mostimportant aspect of the invitation has been ignored. Yourinvitation is mass produced and is not directed to therecipient. Their name is MISSING!!!Today, you can go the full circle. You can print invitations eachincluding the Guest’s name as part of the wording and you cando this with your computer. Even better, while all the socialexperts tell you to hand write those envelope addresses and tohand write the Guest’s name on the Respond Card, you canprint all of these things on your computer.Is raised ink or engraving important? No, these were justtechnological innovations. By printing your own, you are aboutas close to truly following the original intent of the invitation asyou will ever be.But wait . . . what about emailing those invitations? Sorry,that’s for people with no taste.

Contents1. Names of party hosts or sponsoring organization.2. Type of event (birthday party, business networking meeting,

etc.).3. Place.4. Date.5. Time.6. RSVP date and phone number.7. Any special dress requirements from black-tie to bathing suits.8. Rain date (if any).9. Be specific about who is invited, whether addressee only,

with guest, or with spouse and children.


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Tips1. Always send written invitations for formal events such as

business gatherings, formal dinners, and special occasionslike showers, weddings or events honoring someone.

2. If guests are not from your local area, include a map tolocation of event.

3. Send anywhere from 8 - 2 weeks in advance depending onformality of occasion. Weddings require the longest lead-time; casual dinners and brunches require the least.

Do you have an engagement, wedding, baby shower, orgraduation coming up? Is there a performance, school event, ormeeting to which you want to invite people? Any specialreligious ceremonies like Communion or a Bar Mitzvah? Doyou want to invite someone to speak at your meeting orconference?Whatever your event is, the following will help you write aneffective invitation.

Guidelines for Writing Invitations• State the occasion, date, time, and place. Include addresses

and a map if necessary. Mention if refreshments will beserved. List any charges that may apply. Include a telephonenumber for RSVPs. If there is a dress code, state thepreferred dress in the lower left-hand corner of the card.

• If you need a response, include a self-addressed, stampedreply card or envelope with your invitation.

• Express that you are looking forward to seeing the person.• Do not use abbreviations and do not use contractions

(don’t; we’ll) except for name titles, such as Mr., Mrs., etc.• If dinner will be served, state two separate times: the time

people can start arriving and the time dinner will be served.• If you do not want gifts, briefly state that gifts are not

wanted or needed. Explain that their presence is the only giftyou need.

• Make sure you send your invitations out with ample advancenotice.

• If you have guests coming from out of town or from othercountries, you may want to send out your invitation severalmonths in advance (especially if your event takes placearound a holiday.) This will allow your guests adequate timeto make preparations, reservations, save money, etc.

• For smaller, less formal events that include local guests orguests from nearby areas, you may only need to provide afew weeks notice.

• If you are inviting someone to speak at a conference, yourinvitation should include the following information:• Name of the conference and the sponsoring

organization;• Date, time, place of the conference and speech;• Type of audience;• The type of speech, topic, and how long the speech

should be;• Any accommodations that will be made, including

lodging, meals, and transportation;

• The name of the contact person along with phone numbersand addresses where the person can be contacted; and

• Finally, articulate your pleasure of having the person speak atthe meeting or conference.


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Format for Writing Invitations

Formal Invitation

Mr. and Mrs. Arun Mehta

cordially invite you to a reception

celebrating the engagement of their daughter

Meghna with Yash Sharma

to be held on Sunday, the sixth of June

at six o'clock

Le Meridian

108 , Akbar lane

Bangalore

RSVP Semi-Formal Dress

(202) 555-6908


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Business Invitation

Longman's Transportation Services

Cordially invites you to the

15th Annual Employees Appreciation Picnic.

The whole family is welcome!

12:00 pm to 8:00 pm

Saturday, May 22, 1999

New Friends Colony club

New Friends Colony, Calcutta

Food, drink, games, and

entertainment will be provided.

Personal Invitation

You are invited to Aneesha’s 10th birthday!

Date: Saturday June 12, 1999

Time: 11:30 am to 3:00 pm

Where: 345 Eastern Avenue

New Delhi

Call Tania at (307) 555-1234 to RSVP


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Envelopes and AddressingAddressing the Inner EnvelopeWrite the guests’ names only. Use “Mr. and Mrs.” for marriedguests; first names for children under 13 years old (i.e. Mr. andMrs. Matthew and Kate) ; and family names for relatives (i.e.,“Aunt Mehra,” “Grandmother,” etc.).Addressing the Outer Envelope• Avoid the expression “and family.”• If the couple lives together, use their full names and join

them with an “and” (i.e. Mr. Amit Rai and Ms. ElizaTondon)

• Print the list of names with the appropriate titles: Mr. - Mrs.- Ms. - Miss - Dr. - Reverend - Captain - Lieutenant - Rabbi -Fr. - Messrs. - Honourable - etc.

• Spell out the addressee’s middle name if you are going toinclude it, otherwise leave it out.

• Use full addresses with no abbreviations. Always spell out“Street,” “Drive,” “Road,” and “Boulevard.”

• For a married couple, address the envelope to both parties:Mr. and Mrs. Allen Johnson

• If a widow: Mrs. John Smith• If divorced: Mrs. Susan Smith (as opposed to using her ex-

husbands first name).• For children over 13 and living at home, they receive their

own invitation or are list their individual names separately onthe inside envelope of their parent’s invitation:

• Over 13, living at home with parents:Mr. and Mrs. Bernard ShawMs. Melissa Shaw

• Under 13Mr. and Mrs. Bernard ShawMelissa

• If inviting two people sharing a home or living together, ora married couple with different names, use both full names:Dr. Katrina RossMr. Peter Campbell

Wording EtiquetteWhen writing wedding invitations keep these rules close inmind:• There is no punctuation, except for commas after the day of

the week and periods after abbreviations such as Jr., Mr., andMrs.

• All dates and times are spelled out.• “A.M.” and “P.M.” are never used. Complete times with

“o’clock.” You may also choose to write “three o’clock in theafternoon” or “seven o’clock in the evening” etc.

• Avoid the expression “and family.”• Do not include the address of the church or place of

worship unless the guests are unfamiliar with it’s location,such as the case may be in a large city.

• Do not mention anything about gifts on your invitations,whether you want them or not. If you do not want gifts,have family and friends spread this message.

• No words are capitalized except proper nouns, such as titles,people’s names and titles, place names, and names of the dayand month.

• Print names with the appropriate titles: Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss,Reverend, Captain, Lieutenant, Rabbi, Fr., Messrs.,Honorable, etc. Doctor is usually written in full unless thename following is quite long.

• When sending invitations to guests invited to the weddingceremony only, an RSVP is not included.

Practice Sheet for Wording a Formal Invitation WithEnclosure

(Names of parents/hosts) ________________________________________________

request the honour of your presence at the marriage of their daughter

(given names only) ________________________________________________

to (groom's name written in full, including Mr., Doctor, etc.)

________________________________________________ (day and date written out)

_______________________________________________ at

(time, written out) ________________________________________________

(place, without street address) ________________________________________________

(city and state) ________________________________________________

(enclosure) Reception immediately following the ceremony at

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________


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LESSON 35:PRACTICE CLASS: LEAFLETS AND INVITATIONS

Student’s this will be a very interesting class where in you needto use your creativity in designing invitations and leaflets.1. Your company will be opening its new branch in a nearby

town next month and is arranging a cocktail reception tomark the occasion.Prepare an invitation, which can be printed to send to anumber of special clients.

2. Prepare a reply accepting the invitation from one of theclients.

3. Prepare a reply from Doctor Anthony Long of OrchardMedisave Pte Ltd. Unfortunately Dr Long cannot attend thecocktail reception as he will be overseas on a business trip.

4. Here is an invitation which I received. Follow myinstructions and prepare a reply.

Angela and Tony

would like to invite

Shruti Tondon

to celebrate the

Blessing of their Marriage

on

Saturday 22 nd August

at Taj Mahal Hotel

at 4pm

followed by a party at

Golf and Country Club, Akbar Lane, Calcutta

RSVP by 15 th May 1998

By the end of this unit you will be able to

• Compose invitations

• Reply to invitations

• Prepare a leaflet

5. Your company, Arora Holdings, of Temple House, TempleStreet, Delhi , has recently appointed a new office manager –Mr Anurag Purie – who will replace Mr Abhishek Mehta.Write a letter to be signed by the Managing Director –Harshvardhan Sharma – to one of your customers (make upthe details). Invite the customer and his partner to areception to mark Mr Purie’s retirement and to introduce MrMehta to them. It is to be held on 14 October at 7.30 pm atthe Park Royal Hotel, New Delhi .

6. You work at a local health center where the aim is to providea high standard of service for all patients. To help to meetthis aim there is a team of fully qualified and trained practice

nurses and health visitors. You have been asked to design aleaflet to highlight the work of the nursing team.Practice Nurses and Health Visitors = role developed to bridgethe gap between medical and nursing care. They see anyonewith minor illnesses (some throats, earache, coughs / fever /asthma, diarrhea and vomiting, minor traumas, sticky eyes)Doctors = more time for more serious consultations.Nursing Team always works closely with Doctors to ensurebest possible care for all.Practice Nurses are available Mon – Fri 8.30-12.15. Mon/Wed/Fri 2.00-6.00, Tues/Thurs 4.00-6.00.Design either a leaflet (either A4 size, or fold A4 into three tomake a six sided leaflet) to issue to patients at the health center.


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UNIT 4CHAPTER 9 : REFORMULATING AND

SUMMARISINGLESSON 36:REFORMULATING AND SUMMARISING

• Complete ‘look and write’ production tasks involving labeling adiagram, form or flow chart

• Complete ’reformulation’ tasks involving expanding, reducing orselectively rewriting a passage of English for a specific purpose

• Use summarizing skills effectively

• Produce a business summary from a given passage of English.

What is a Summary?To make a summary means to convey all or most of a sectionof text using a reduced number of words. We use summariz-ing skills all the time in response to question like what did youdo last night? Or so how was your holiday? This is usuallydone orally instead of in writing.The written summary will not be new to you. It is somethingmost of us have done throughout our school days. However, itis very rare in business to be asked to do a straightforwardcontinuous prose summary. Summaries in business may bewritten in the form of an advertisement or notice, an article forthe staff newsletter, a handout for issue to trainees. These are allexercise in summarizing, picking out relevant and importantinformation and then presenting it in an appropriate manner.It is to this type of more realistic exercise, which many examin-ers are now turning in order to provide realistic tasks, which anemployee may very well be asked to perform in the businessworld. This type of ‘business summary’ will be discussed inmore detail later.

Using SynonymsWhen summarizing or reformulating you may be expected touse your own words as far as possible instead of quoting hugechunks of the original passage. This exercise is designed to giveyou practice in choosing synonyms for words.Provide synonyms for each of the following words (rememberthat very often more than one word could be used):1. Huge 11. Certain2. Afraid 12. Vital3. Regularly 13. Price4. Retain 14. Desire5. Impression 15. Apparent6. Accurate 16. Inquisition7. Honesty 17. Objective8. Specimen 18. Reluctant9. Common 19. Inadequate10. Immune 20. Terminate

Reducing PhrasesThere are many expressions in the English language, which arelong winded and could be expressed in a simpler or shorter way.

This exercise will help you be aware of such expressions andspot them, and others like them, when summarizing.Reduce the expressions shown without changing the meanings.Use the number of words shown in brackets:1. In the near future (1)2. It appears that (1)3. Put up with (1)4. The same amount of (1)5. In modern times (1)6. As a result (1)7. Because of this (1)8. Always bear in mind (1)9. A lot of (1)10. At all times (1)11. At the beginning of each day (2)12. Owned by private individuals (2)13. Equipment should be checked (2)14. Make a record of all appointments (3)15. On the day of the interview (3)

One Word for ManySummarizing means saying the same thing but in not so manywords. In these sentences replace the section in italics byproviding just one word.1. When the meeting is over, you must produce the accurate

transcript of the accurate transcript of the main discussions,which took place and the decision made.

2. She is not interested in work – only in tennis, swimming,hockey, golf – anything requiring physical activity.

3. The next meeting of the board is coming up soon. I mustprepare the list of items to be discussed at the meeting.

4. The person who greets visitors to an organization mustportray a good impression.

5. When goods have been purchased, it is used to send out anitemized statement informing the buyer of the quantity,description and price of the goods which were bought.


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6. We must send out a document to all the customers on ourmailing list

7. This is a list of all the duties which the employee may berequired to perform. (2 words).

8. Some job advertisements require applicants to send aseparate schedule showing their education, qualifications,employment history and other personal details whenapplying for jobs. (2 words)

Retain or Remove?Summarizing anything requires the ability to find and removeunimportant details or , more to the point, choose whichdetails should be retained. A lot of information which can beremoved from summarizing exercise can be categorized, e.g.example definitions, additions and rephrasing.’ clues’ are oftengiven in such cases, as shown below. Categories Clues1. Examples ‘For example…’

‘…….., e.g……..’2. Definitions ‘This is ……..’

‘This means ……….’3. Rephrasing ‘In other words……’

‘That is ……….’‘………, i.e.………’

4. Additions ‘……., especially ……..’‘…….., particularly ……’

example : (the information to be removed has been underlined)it has been argued, (1) especially in recent years, that an examina-tion summary is not a realistic exercise, (2) i.e. not the type ofsummary one is required to do in the business worls.Number 1 : why should it be removed? (addition)

What was the clue given? (especially)Number 2: why should it be removed? (rephrasing)

What was the clue given? (i.e.)The sentences below all contain some information, whichshould be removed from a summary – examples, definitions,rephrasing or additions. Highlight the details which should beretained, and state the reason why the rest should be removed,together with the clue which was given.1. An essential part of any documentary evidence, for example

letters, invoices, orders, is that it should have the names andthe addresses of both parties to the correspondence.Reason?Clue?

2. References often include departments and file numbers,especially in correspondence with government departments.

Reason?Clue?

3. All business documents should be grammatically correct, i.e.they should contain no errors in grammar, spelling orpunctuation.Reason?Clue?

4. It is becoming popular for large organizations to use a‘house style’ for their correspondence in the same,standardized formats.Reason?Clue?

5. Business letters should be free of slang and othercolloquialisms, i.e. expressions used only in conversation.Reason?Clue?

6. Some circular letters are unsolicited. This means therecipients have no particular interest in the message.Reason?Clue?

7. It is important to retain grammatical precision when writingbusiness documents. In other words, all sentences in aseries should consistently follow the same grammaticalpattern.Reason?Clue?

8. Many companies, particularly the larger ones, are turningmore and more to computerization of their clericalprocedures.Reason?Clue?

9. A quorum must usually be present at formal meetings, e.g.annual general meetings, meetings of shareholders.Reason?Clue?

10. Certain items appear on the agenda of many regularmeetings, e.g. any other business and date of next meeting.Reason?Clue?

Removing Reasons1. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table

belowIn the name of safety, gangways between desks should notbe blocked with boxes, files or waste bins as employees maytrip over them causing injury. Filing cabinet drawers shouldbe closed immediately after use, or the cabinet may becomeunbalanced and topple over. Torn of frayed floor coveringcould cause a person to fall, so it should be repaired orreplaced. Office doors should be locked and windowssecured at the end of the day. This will prevent burglars frombreaking in. to avoid a fire hazard electrical appliances shouldbe unplugged and switched off at eh end of each day.


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Safety Precaution Reason1. Do not block gangways between

desks with boxes, files or waste bins.2.3.4.5.

(NB: Retain consistency of expression by using verbs at thestart of each item in column one.)2. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table

below:When transcribing recorded dictation assess the size of papercan be chosen. To avoid making unnecessary errors andhaving to type the document again, always check anydoubtful points in the dictation with the dictator. If there isany doubt about spelling, look up unfamiliar words in adictionary.

Letters required urgently by the dictator should be typed andreturned to him first, so that the document can be dealt withquickly. Letters cannot be signed with grammatical errors, somake sure they are grammatically perfect. To avoid having toinsert the paper back into the typewriter to correct errors, alwaysproofread carefully before removing work from your typewriter.

Rules for TranscribingReason1. Assess the size of each

document before typing it.2.3.4.5.

Counting the WordsSummary assignments normally state the number of words tobe used. This will usually be expressed in one of two ways:1. Use no more than 160 words

In this case, do not exceed 160 words. 150 –160 willnormally be accepted, but anything less than 155 will bepenalized.

2. Use approximately 160 wordsHere, 155 –165 will not be penalized.

What to CountWhen counting the number of words used, do not count thewords in the heading or any numbers used in your display. Sub–headings, however, should be included in your word count.

Will yhe Examiner Check?An examiner with many scripts to mark will know approxi-mately how much space your summary should rake up on youranswer sheet. He / she will be able to see if yours looks toolong or too short.

If you indicate that you have used the precise number of wordsinstructed (perhaps a white lie?) then the examiner may justspot that it looks too long or too short, and will double –check.If you do not indicate the number of words used, you will alsobe penalized. The best option is to try to stick within the wordlimit and always include it at the end in brackets.

A Worked Example of a Short SummaryThere are many ways in which summaries can be handled, andmany different final versions, which could all able quitesatisfactory. However it may be helpful to take a look at thevarious stages involved in just one method of producing aneffective summary.Step 1 Read through the next carefully.Step 2 Highlight important words and phrases, by using the

method of circling shown here, by underlining, or byusing a highlighter pen

Summaries the following passage using approximately 50words.

A lot of personal contact is associated with secretarial work – contactwith people inside the company, eg fellow employees, juniors, management,other departments, as well as clients and other people outside the company.Being able to communicate well with people is therefore a most importantaspect of the secretary’s role. The nature of a secretary’s job means she isin constant communication with many people in her own company, and sheis expected to treat all office personnel, form senior management to thejunior mail clerks, with the same amount of respect. Tact, diplomacy, apleasant disposition, friendliness and helpfulness are some of theinvaluable qualities a secretary needs when dealing with people outside theorganization. When in contact with such people, either by telephone or inperson, the secretary, as a representative of her company, is expected toreflect a good image of the organization she represents at all times.

(148 words)

Step 3 Having double checked that nothing in the originalhas been overlooked, produce a first draft.

Step 4 nothing that too many words have been used in thefirst draft, again highlight key words and phrases.Make notes about how it can be reduced still further,and where words can be altered.

A lot of personal contact is involved with secretarial work. A secretary isin constant contact with people both inside and outside the company. Animportant aspect of the secretary’s role, therefore, is the ability tocommunicate well. As she communicates a lot with people inside her owncompany she must be able to treat all personnel with the same amount ofrespect. She also deals with various people ourside her organization; somany invaluable qualities will be necessary for this. As a representativeof her company, it is important that she reflects a good image at all times,

(99 words)

Step 5 Produces your first summary.Secretarial work involves much communication with people both internallyand externally. It is, therefore, essential to acquire effective communica-tion skills.

Inside the company, the secretary should treat all levels of staff withequal respect. When dealing with people outside, many personal qualitiesare vital. A good impression of the company must always be reflected.


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Guidelines for Writing Summaries1. Read the instructions carefully and determines what is

required in your summary. May be only a certain theme fromthe passage needs to be picked out, or perhaps it should allbe summaries. Whatever, many students produce very goodsummaries, but lose marks because they have not done whatthe instructions requested.

2. Read the passage through carefully twice – the importance ofthis reading period cannot be over – emphasized. You reallyneed to ‘think yourself into the theme’ of the passage andensure a complete grasp of the topic before continuing.

3. After checking the instructions again, go through the passagehighlighting the information, which should be included inyour summary.

4. Re –check what you have highlighted in case you have missedsomething or highlighted something incorrectly.

5. Make a rough draft from your highlighting, using your ownwords and avoiding the language of the original passagewherever possible.

6. Check your draft carefully against the original, making surethat you have not left out anything of importance, or addedanything, which is not relevant.

7. Write out the summary in its final form. Take every possibleopportunity to rephrase in an attempt to cut down on thenumber of words used.

8. Count the words used, and if necessary make some moreamendments ot keep within the limit prescribed.

9. Read your summary through carefully to check forgrammatical, punctuation or spelling errors.

Business SummariesThe summaries we have looked at so far have been ‘continuousprose’, i.e. a straightforward paragraph or two. However, therecent trend is towards realistic summaries, summaries to suit aspecific purpose. Virtually any type of presentation could,therefore, be required. It is important that the instructions arestudied carefully so that you pick out only the informationrequired in your summary, and that you display it appropriately.Here are some example of different types of business summa-ries which you could be asked to produce:

Advertisement / NoticeObviously an advertisement or notice should be presentedsuitably. Items should be centered to attract attention. Perhapspoints can be listed, with subheadings. Use capitals andunderscoring to add to effect.

ChecklistEnumeration is required in any checklist. Perhaps an introduc-tion is necessary also. Take care with consistency of expression,so that all points on the checklist follow the rule of grammaticalparallelism. (A useful word –saving ploy here is to use verbs atthe start of each point.)

Handout / Information SheetSub – headings may be appropriate, as well as numberedpoints. Again, take care with consistency of expression

Notes for a SpeechFor reference when making a speech, again enumeration wouldprobably be easier to follow, perhaps also with subheadings fordifferent aspects of the main theme.NB: There ca be no hard and fast rule to say ‘Oh it’s a handout– I must do it like this’, or whatever. The instructions will tellyou for what purpose your summary is to be used. Afterreading the passage carefully, and double – checking theinstructions, careful thought should be given to using the mostsuitable format.)

Covering MemoWhen instructed to compose a business summary of the typediscussed, it may be relevant for covering memo to be writtento the person who requested it. Your memo should be shortand state the source of the material which has been used.

ExampleSafety In The Office

As requested, I have made a summary of the article which appeared inthe May edition of ‘Business Digest’ for its inclusion in the next issue ofthe staff newsletter.

I hope you find this satisfactory.

Enc

A Worked Example of a BusinessSummaryAs with any assignment, it must be remembered that no twopeople will produce identical summaries, yet many could besuitable for the purpose intended. However, this workedexample of a business summary is given to illustrate theprinciples and procedures involved in effective summarizing.Step 1Your employer is giving a talk entitled “Running your ownBusiness” at a local club. She says to you, “will you please listthe main points about being your own boss and the miscon-ceptions people have about it from this leaflet? It will help mein giving my talk.Use approximately 120 words for your summary.Read the instructions carefully, marking the important points.

Your employer is giving a talk entitled “Running your own Business” at alocal club. She says to you, “will you please list the main points aboutbeing your own boss and the misconceptions people have about it from thisleaflet? It will help me in giving my talk.

Use approximately 120 words for your summary.

Step 2Consider a suitable format. Your summary is to be used byyour employer as reference when giving a talk about ‘Runningyour Own Business’. Your employer stresses she wants a listsof the ‘main points’ as well as ‘misconceptions’. These twoterms give you a clue as to sub – headings, which could be used.Also important here is the world ‘list’ – obviously youremployer does not want to read from a script, so continuousprose will not be suitable. A list will be easy to refer to, and youremployer will be able to expand on each point, thus making hertalk sound very natural.


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Step 3Read the passage carefully several times, highlighting theimportant points.

There are all kinds of reasons for wanting to be your own boss. Somepeople like the idea of there being no – one in authority over them, tellingthem what to do, saying their work is not up to standard, turning downtheir ideas, or insisting on methods that seem pointless. Others areattracted by the thought of deciding their own hours, or days, of works.

Running your own business gives you the status of being self employedperhaps also of being a company director. There is the general feeling ofindependence, and that your income – is in your own hands. Some areattracted to the idea of starting a small gardener tends his plot and makesa number of creating further growth.

If your are your own boss, say some people, worked is so much morepleasant. You can get someone else to do the less interesting jobs and youare not bogged down in annoying details. Work becomes easier, too,because you can get someone else to do the more difficult tasks.

Many others want to set up a little business of their own ot occupy theirspare time, and as a pleasant way or earning extra money from work theylike doing.

These are just a few of the reason commonly given. Some have good sensebehind them; others are based on completely false ideas. Most containsome element of truth which gets magnified out of all proportion andseized upon without it being borne in mind that there are other points toconsider as well.

As with so much else in life, running an enterprise of your own entailsdisadvantages as well as advantages. It is surprising how rarely peoplestop to consider in real detail just what the drawbacks are, yet this is anessential first step for anyone thinking about whether it is even practicablefor him to be his own boss.

An important reason why there is such glamour about being in charge ofyour own business is that when you are working for someone else, many ofthe petty irritations of life, as well as the chore of often having to get sownto work that you do not feel like doing at that particular time, becomeassociated with being an employee. There is a feeling that, if only you wereyour own boss, life would immediately become infinitely pleasurable andfree from irksome details.

This is almost entirely misleading. Many of the little annoyances probablyhave nothing to do with being an employee: being interrupted when youhave at last immersed yourself in some disagreeable task, missing the buswhen you are in a hurry, feeling tired or in other ways not really up toworking hard

At the moment, and so on. These occur just as much when you are yourown master. In fact, they tend to happen much more often, while at thesame time, their effects can be far more upsetting.

There are very real drawbacks to running your own business, though forthe right kind of person, immeasurable benefits also.

Step 4Produce a rough draft or notes from the original, referring tothe instructions again to ensure you are picking out what isrequired.

Step 5Get through your draft/ notes and make marginal notesregarding amendments / synonyms / rephrasing. Rememberthat your summary should be expressed in your own wordswherever possible.

Main Points

- No – one to give you instructions

- Choose own hours/ working arrangements

- Self – employed status – directory?

- Independent, responsible for own income/ life

- Satisfaction from seeing enterprise grow

- Less interesting work – other people also more difficult work

- Business occupies spare time – earn money too

Misconceptions

Few consider all details – essential first step.

Being the boss seems glamorous – thinking that life would be better if nomundane chores, no annoyances, like employees – wrong!

Irritations also when you are boss – more often? Effects more upsetting!

Conclusion

Consider drawbacks carefully.

If right for you – immeasurable benefits.

Step 6Produce your final summary by linking up the notes into fullsentences. Count the words. If necessary, make further amend-ments. Make sure your summary reads smoothly and is correctin spelling and punctuation. Finally, ask yourself if yoursummary is a satisfactory condensed version of the original, andalso if your summary could be used for the purpose mentionedin the instructions.Step 7Don’t forget to produce a brief covering memo for summa-ries of this nature.

Memorandum

To Mrs Anita Sharma, Managing Director

From : Rakesh Singh

R e f GS / ST

Date 12 july 19 - -

Running Your Own Busines

I have summarized the leaflet you gave to me, listing the main points aboutbeing your own boss, together with misconceptions. This is attached.

I hope this helps you in giving your talk next week.

Enc


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Running Your Own Business

Benefits

1. You have no one to answer to, and have self-employed maybe director, standing.

2. You make your own choices, including working hours.

3. You are self reliant, accountable for your own income.

4. You obtain pleasure from seeing your company grow.

5. Delegations is possible – of the simple and the laborious jobs.

6. It can fill your spare time and create income formwork you enjoy.

Misconceptions

1. Some do not consider the drawbacks – a vital preliminary step.

2. Some feel life would improve without the aggravations oftenencountered as an employee.

However, most of such aggravations occur to employers as wellas employees, but with more disagreeable consequences.

Conclusion

Consider the disadvantages carefully. If it is for you, the rewards arelimitless.

(115 words)

Summarizing Tips1. A summary is a short version of a longer piece of writing.2. It contains all the main parts of the original, but puts

them more briefly.3. Summarizing is a very useful skill when gathering

information or doing research.4. The summary should be written in your own words.5. It’s better to re-write, rather than copying out parts of the

original.6. You might need to summarize a passage as a

‘comprehension’ exercise.7. This proves that you can understand it.8. Read the original quickly, and try to understand the main

subject.9. Then read it again - in more detail.10. Underline or make notes of the main issues. Use a

highlighter if this helps.11. Look up any words or ideas you don’t know.12. Make a list of the main topics - or make a diagram.13. A simple picture of boxes or a spider diagram can often be

helpful.14. Write a sentence, which states the main idea of the original

writing.15. Then write a paragraph which combines all the points you

have made.16. The final summary should capture the main point of the

original.17. Remember that it should be in your own words.

Here is an Example

OriginalAt a typical football match we are likely to see players commit-ting deliberate fouls, often behind the referee’s back. They mighttry to take a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect but moreadvantageous positions in defiance of the clearly stated rules ofthe game. They sometimes challenge the rulings of the refereeor linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves punish-ment or even sending off. No wonder spectators fight amongstthemselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their ownhands by invading the pitch in the hope of affecting theoutcome of the match. [100 words]

SummaryUnsporting behavior by footballers may cause hooliganismamong spectators. [9 words]

Further Readings

Purposes of the summaryBefore you write the summary, consider why your audience(professor, boss, client) wants to read it. Why shouldn’t thereader just read the original? Summaries benefit the readerbecause they offer a concise, general version of the originalinformation. For a busy reader, summaries provide quickoverviews of material. Summaries also show readers that youhave understood the general point of a text, and in this way,teachers can test your knowledge. The process of summarizingsomeone else’s material enables you to better understand thatmaterial. Finally, summaries allow you to introduce knowledgewithin a research context: you can summarize someone’sargument in order to analyze or critique it.

What and When to SummarizeMany student writers tend to quote when they should summa-rize material. Quote only when the author expresses a point in aparticularly telling or interesting language. Otherwise, simplysummarize. Use a summary to restate an entire argument. Use asummary to present information. Summary is more economicalthan quotation because a summary allows the writer morecontrol over the argument.

How to Summarize1. Read the original passage or text very carefully.2. Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the

main point of the original text, or make notes in themargins or on another sheet of paper.

3. If you’re summarizing an entire essay, outline the writer’sargument.

4. Now tell your audience what the original source argued.

Summary Conventions1. Summaries can range in length from two sentences to several

pages. In any case, use complete sentences to describe anauthor’s general points to your reader. Don’t quoteextensively. If you quote, use quotation marks anddocument the quotation. If you fail to document thequotation, ven one word that the author used, you areplagiarizing material (presenting another person’sinformation as if it were your own).


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2. Use the author’s last name as a tag to introduce information:“Smith argues that population growth and environmentaldegradation are causally related.” “Brown notes thateducation in the U.S. has undergone major revolutions in thepast 20 years.”

3. Use the present tense (often called the historical presenttense) to summarize the author’s argument. “Greencontends that the Republican and Democratic parties arefunded by the same major corporations.”

Writing Summaries• · A summary is intended to highlight objectively the

main points of another writer’s work. Although written inyour own words, the summary does not include youropinions of the piece you are considering. Since the summaryeliminates those details that are not needed to convey themajor points, it is naturally shorter than the original. Ingeneral, a summary is from one fourth to one half thelength of the original.

• The problem we all face when attempting to summarize apiece of writing is figuring out what to include and what toleave out. Below are some tips on how to choose material toinclude in your summary.

• Cross out the less important detail• Underline topic sentences and key ideas in each paragraph• Take notes on those key ideas—jot down the information

that clarifies a topic sentence, for example.• Model the summary on the structure of the original. Keep

the size of your paragraphs in roughly the same proportionas the paragraphs of the original and in the same order. Thiswill help you eliminate details that should not be included.

• These steps may also help you write a good summary:• Read the piece for understanding first. Never summarize as

you read the article for the first time.• Before you begin to write, check for topic sentences and key

words (words that are underlined, italicized, or capitalized).These will clue you in on main ideas.

• Jot down the organization of the original and follow thatpattern in your summary.

• Check your summary to be sure you have been objective.Your opinions are not part of the original!


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LESSON 37: PRACTICE CLASS

This is a practice class, which will help you hone your skills onsummarizing. At the end of this lesson you will:

• Use summarizing skills effectively

• Produce a business summary from a given passage of English

1 You are secretary to the Principal of a secretarial college andthe Principal feels the following article contains useful pointsfor students who will be leaving shortly, in preparing themfor job interviews. Make a suitable summary for the Principalto issue to teachers for the_ to use in class discussion. Useno more than 70 words.Interviews - experiences which some people love, and somehate. Whichever category you belong to, a few tips should beborne in mind to ensure interview success. In nearly allmeetings, the first impression is that which makes thestrongest impact on new acquaintances, be they colleagues,friends or other associates. If that goes wrong, it may beimpossible to correct. Secretaries are often seen as statussymbols, so an employer would prefer a smart andpresentable person to fulfill this role. Not many employerswould be impressed by a provocative evening-type dress andhair tossed seductively, and it certainly would not be everydayoffice attire, so plan your wardrobe carefully. Personalfreshness is also important, particulate when under stress.You must consider the effect you may have on the peoplearound you. If you have ever stood next to someone on abus whose personal ‘aura’ makes you rush to get off beforeyour stop, then you know what I mean. Give your teeth agood going-over too, to make sure they sparkle and thatyour breath smells fresh. Long tapering nails also wouldn’tbe able to whizz across a keyboard if you are asked to do atyping test, so give yourself a good manicure and ensureyour nails are. attractive.The evening before the interview, get all your clothes ready soas to avoid a panic and not being able to decide what to wear.Make sure your hair is clean and shining too. A rumblingtummy is a sure sign of nerves, so avoid embarrassment byhaving a hearty breakfast. Nerves can often make. Your noserun too, for no apparent reason, so be sure to carry tissues.If you are wearing tights, make sure you carry .a spare pair incase you damage them on the way to the interview.Before you walk into the interview room, take a few deepbreaths to calm your nerves - always -a useful calmingtechnique. And when you walk in, smile! Don’t get carriedaway so that your smile looks forced, but be as natural as youcan. Be friendly in the interview itself, and it will make it easyfor the interviewer to conduct the interview. Howevernervous you feel, sit in as relaxed a manner as you can, anddon’t keep twitching nervously, with your fingers, with thestrap of your handbag, with your skirt hem, or whatever.

Look at the interviewer directly and don’t avoid eye contactor it will not give a good impression. When answeringquestions, avoid using ‘yes’ or ‘no’ - they tell an interviewerabsolutely nothing and result in a very dull interview. Try toanswer as fully as possible, without going off the mark.Remember that the aim of an interview is to allow theinterviewer(s) and the interviewee to get to know each otherin a short space of time in order to decide quickly if. it wouldbe possible to work together. it is not intended to be likeentering the torture chamber Relax - and try to enjoy it!

2 All the secretaries in your organization use audiotranscription, as the employers prefer not to use shorthanddictation. In informal talks with many secretaries personally,you know there is a considerable amount of fru8trationbecause of poor audio dictation technique by theiremployers; You recently came across the following article in asecretarial magazine, and feel it includes helpful advice foremployers on effective audio dictation techniques. Youdecide to summarize it as a checklist for employers to followwhen dictating, and to send it to the editor of the staffmagazine asking him to consider it for inclusion in the nextissue. (Use approximately 100 words.)Using dictation machines saves considerable time, as thesecretary does not need to be present, thus it leaves thesecretary free to deal with her other responsibilities while theboss dictates his correspondence. But how many secretariesout there continually bang your head against the office wall infrustration because the boss has coughed loudly in your ear?Does your boss mumble, talk too loudly occasionally andthen almost whisper? How many times have you rewoundand listened to an unfamiliar word 20 times and just wishedthe boss had the sense to spell it out?Well maybe your boss is an admirable Accountant or amarvellous MD, but good dictation technique requiresconsiderable practice. I hope this advice will be helpful-perhaps you can casually put it on your boss’s desk with hiscoffee in the morning, but don’t admit where it came fromof course!Before starting dictation, it is essential to be organised. Allthe necessary papers should be to hand. Otherwise you’ll getfrustrated and start scrambling about in the mi4st ofdictation and it will be especially infuriating for your secretaryif you forget to switch off the mike during this process!Interruptions will affect your train of thought during thedictation so try to time your recording when you know youhave some time free and do it in a room which is free fromnoise.Once these preparations have been made, you’re off. Beforestarting dictation on each piece of correspondence, do statethe exact nature of the document, e.g. ‘short letter’, ‘long


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report’, etc. Also give an indication of the number of copieswhich will be required. This type of information isinvaluable to your secretary as to the correspondence to betranscribed.As for the dictation - the microphone is not a lollipop, sodon’t try to eat it! Hold it two or three inches away fromyour mouth. If you hold it too close, your speech. will beblurred; too far away and you won’t be heard at all. Don’tmumble into the mike, but try to ensure your speech is clear.And please don’t go like a bull at a gate - a secretary will notthank you if you dictate at 50 miles an hour!When you have dictated the first sentence or so, listen to itagain by playing back the recording, so that you can make anynecessary adjustments - the sound may. be too high or toolow, so it’s much better to correct it at this point than deafenyour secretary later!If the volume’s OK, then go ahead. We all need to pause forthought now and again, so when you find it necessary to doso, or when the phone rings, remember to switch off themike. Your secretary doesn’t want to listen to a few minutesof nothing, or to :i conversation with your wife about what’sfor dinner!Wherever you can, try to include a mention of newparagraphs, and give clear instructions to your secretaryregarding headings and any items which need to benumbered.Your secretary will also need to clarify things with you everyfew minutes if you don’t spell out personal names, placenames, foreign names anything which she may be unfamiliarwith. Numbers too - prices, sums of money, percentages, etc.When you’ve successfully reached the end of a document,mark the length of the document on the index slip - this willbe a valuable reference tool for your secretary on the size ofpaper to use for the correspondence. “Finally, make sure you keep any letters, memos, reports, filesand other relevant documents connected with the dictationin a special pill and pass “all this to your secretary with therecording. In this way all the information she needs will bejust where she can find it, and she won’t need to bother youwith queries.If you follow the above advice, it should save your Secretarymuch frustration - and a happier secretary makes your lifeeasier too, doesn’t it? Happy Dictating!

3 After reading the following assignment carefully, study theanswer given. Discuss what is wrong with it, and rewrite theanswer more appropriately.You have been asked” to give a talk at a secretarial seminar onthe secretary’s duties in connection with meetings, and thetext of your speech is printed below. You have also beenasked for a one-page summary of your speech for inclusionin the seminar booklet, which delegates will keep for futurereference. Using an appropriate format make your summaryin not more than 150 words.Meetings form an essential part of business life and, assecretaries; our role is to ensure that they are organized and

administered efficiently, and that all the paperwork is dealtwith correctly. I would like to talk to you today on thevarious things we have to think about when preparing formeetings, and the disorientation involved.Once it has been agreed that the meeting will take .place on aparticular day there are many practical tasks you should attendto. First of all make sure you enter the date of the meeting inyour boss’s diary and your own. This will, of course, avoid therisk of a clash of apP9intments at a later date. Then check thevenue for the meeting, and if there is a regular room makesure it is available. This may be the company’s own boardroom, or in the case of a departmental meeting perhaps youwill use the manager’s office. “ You then need to prepare andcirculate the notice of meeting and agenda. If you will turn topage 41 of your seminar booklet you will see examples of the“wording and layout of the notice and agenda.

(NB: Discuss from examples printed in “seminar booklet page41.)Any additional documents for distribution, such as reports,statistics, etc., should be circulated with the notice and agenda,so that members may become thoroughly familiar with theircontents prior to the meeting. Remember also to ‘makeadditional sets of such documents - isn’t it .always the case thatsomeone forgets to bring their copies on the day of themeeting, “and we end up having to get “extra copies for themat the last minute! If you take extra copies to start with, you willavoid this last-minute rush.In consultation with your Chairman you should then produce adraft of the Chairman’s agenda which he may amend asnecessary. The Chairman’s agenda is a little more detailed thanthe ordinary members’ agenda. It is .for use only by theChairman, containing” extra notes for his own reference inhelping him to conduct the business of the meeting efficiently.So much for the preliminary documentation, what about othermatters? If you have a regular caterer, a provisional ordershould be made for refreshments at this stage, which will beconfirmed when. the number of participants is known nearerthe date.Any equipment which may be required at the meeting shouldbe arranged, including making sure any visual aids required willbe available if necessary. (Does anyone require the overheadprojector, spirit pens, video recorder, etc.?)Place names should be prepared if these are needed to ‘identifythe participants at the meeting. Obviously these will not benecessary at a departmental meeting where everyone knowseveryone else,” but at more formal meetings they may be useful.Once these provisional arrangements .have been attended to,you can more or less relax until the day of the meeting itself.Then you” will need to make sure everything is organised asefficiently as possible, “using- a bit of the foresight we aresupposed to develop as secretaries. First of all arrange themeeting room, attending to’ such things as seating arrange-ments, water and glasses, writing paper and pencils, andashtrays. Any-doc-Nments to because during the meetingshould be laid out on the table. Spare copies of the agenda and.minutes of the last meeting should be at hand, as well as the


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official minute book and any other reports which I mentionedearlier. You should also check that any equipment and accesso-ries required are in the right place and in working order. Youdon’t want your boss to switch on the OHP during themeeting only to find the bulb has blown, or for him to writeon a transparency only to find the spirit pen has run out!Next reconfirm that refreshments will be served at the appropri-ate time, and give any last-minute instructions regarding thenumber of members attending the meeting. .The switchboard and receptionist should also be given a list ofparticipants at the meeting, together with instructions fordiverting their calls as necessary. Perhaps a colleague will be calledupon to take all calls, or the switchboard operator herself maybe required to take messages. Whatever the arrangements, makesure the relevant people know what is required of them.If you are attending the meeting as secretary, gather your ownpaperwork together with suitable materials to take down theminutes. Ensure that you have your own and your boss’sdiaries available to check details of appointments when futuredates have to be arranged during the meeting. Finally place a‘meeting in progress’ notice on the door. This will ensure noone walks in and disturbs the progress of the meeting. I willnot mention anything about Minutes here because my colleaguewill be discussing that with you in detail later in theprogramme.Arranging meetings can be a bit of a headache - collating all thereports and material for the meeting, making sure all thedocumentation is issued at the appropriate time, and. all thevarious other matters which we have to attend to. But if youthiI1k them through logically, step-by-step, and use thesummarized checklist which I have included in the seminarbooklet, you can ensure that. nothing is overlooked.So whether you are organising your first meeting or your‘fiftieth, I wish you success.


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UNIT 4CHAPTER 10 :

COMPREHENSIONLESSON 38:COMPREHENSION


• Choose synonyms for given words

• Identify the meaning of words from the context

• Calculate how marks are allocated in comprehension questions

• Develop effective techniques to answer comprehension question

Students, No communication in our business or private life cantake place successfully without comprehending. Any assignmentwe undertake in any aspect of our studies is an assignment incomprehension. Most examiners and assessors would com-ment that many questions are badly answered becausecandidates do not answer the question which has been set-theydo not fully understand what is required before answering thequestion.Comprehension is tested every time we read or write. Mosterrors in previous units of this book will have resulted fromnot having read a question properly, and fully understood it,before attempting an answer. The importance of careful andthorough reading cannot, therefore, be over-stressed.It is most unlikely that you have not studied comprehensionexercises before now. We all know what comprehensionexercises requited – a passage has to be read and then questionsbased on the passage must be answered.Read the first question before you begin reading the passage. Bydoing so, you can read more actively—with an eye out for theinformation you need.1. Never confirm your answer to a question until you’ve read

the entire passage. Information relevant to a question canappear anywhere in the passage.

2. Using your pencil and scratch paper, jot down a roughoutline as you read. It will help you locate relevant detailsquickly as you answer the questions, and minimize verticalscrolling and re-reading.

3. Don’t be overly concerned with details (dates, examples, andlists) as you read; instead, jot down in outline form wherethese details are located in the passage so you can locate themquickly as needed to respond to the questions.

4. After reading the entire passage, take about 15 seconds tosum it up in one sentence—in the form of a rough thesisstatement. Doing so is well worth the effort, because you’llbe able to answer some Reading Comprehension questionswith nothing more than the thesis in mind.

5. No matter what type of question you’re dealing with,eliminate any answer choice that runs contrary to thepassage’s overall thesis.

6. Be on the lookout for answer choices that provideinformation supported by the passage but not responsive to

the question. This is one of the test-makers’ favorite wrong-answer ploys.

7. If the author of the passage adopts a position, or stance, onan issue, but discusses other viewpoints as well in thepassage, be on the lookout for answer choices that confusethe author’s viewpoint with the viewpoints of others. Thisis another common wrong-answer ploy.

8. Be on the lookout for wrong answer choices that provideinformation not mentioned in the passage—yet anothercommon wrong-answer ploy. These wrong answer choicescan be tempting, because it’s remarkably easy to assume thatyou overlooked the information as you read the passage.

The importance of using a dictionary has to be emphasized.Occasions will arise when you are not familiar with a word usedin a passage. Always look up unfamiliar words immediately, andrelate the dictionary meaning to the contextual use of the world.In view of the importance of vocabulary work, preliminaryexercises are provided in this unit on the meanings of words incontext, followed by a look at the types of question asked, howto word and display your answers and how marks are allocated.

Using a DictionaryComprehension all about understanding. That is why use of adictionary is so important, to ensure understanding. Use adictionary if necessary to fill in the blanks in the words below.You should choose a word, which could be used to replace thephrases in italics.1. My boss is always finding fault with anything and everything

in my work. ( f—t—i—s )2. Since the company recruited a new Account, the accounting

and book keeping records seem to have gone from bad toworse. (d- - -r- -r- - -d)

3. I understand Personnel haven’t decided on a replacementfor the MD’s Secretary, but Laura and Jackie are in therunning. (c- - t- -d- -g)

4. I felt like a fish out of water on my first day at work. I knewno one at all. ( m- - - -t)

5. If I work hard at all these exercises, I’m sure I’ll make thegrade. ( s - - - - -d)

6. You must bring home to Lesley that she cannot leave it untilthe last week of term before she starts work on herintegrated project. ( c - -v- - -e)

7. You must be honest with yourself and others – don’t try togloss over the truth. ( c - - c - -I)

8. Stella is always assuming superior airs, but she’s really no betterthan the rest of us. ( p-tr-n——g)

9. John has been the main person behind the formation of newcompany. ( m- - - - m - -d)


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10. When my car’s engine is cold, it goes in fits and starts until itwarms up. ( j - -k - -y)

Grammatical PrecisionWhen choosing the meaning of a word mentioned in apassage, care must be taken not to alter the meaning or changethe tense. You must make sure you answer fits exactly in thepassage in place of the stated words or phrases.Example: He intentionally left the fire door open.

Incorrect: on purpose/deliberateCorrect: deliberately

In each sentence below, one word is italicized. From the choicesgiven, choose one word which could replace it.1. This electronic typewriter is going to be superseded by a

new model.a. Replace b. Replacedc. Replacing d. Replaces

2. Do you remember the balcyon days we spent whiling awaythe hours on Rawa, our paradise island off the east coast ofMalaysis?a. Tranquil b. Tranquilityc. Tranquiliser d. Tranquilising

3. My boss is always making insinuations about a pay increase,but I’ve still not had confirmation.a Hint b. Hintsc Hinted d. Hinting

4. If may son is contumacious, I always making insinuationsabout a pay increase, but I’ve still not had confirmation.a. Disobey b. Disobeyedc. Disobedient d. Canceling

5. Don’t forget to have your work permit abrogated beforeyou fly home.a. Cancel b. Cancelsc Cancelled d. Canceling

6. It’s women’s prerogative to arrive a few minutes late for adate.a. Privilege b. Privilegedc. Privacy d. Private

7. Linda is a peripatetic author – she been all over the worldwhile writing her first novel.a. Travel b. Traveledc. Traveling d. Ttraveler

8. A secretary has to perform quite a lot of esoteric duties inher job.a. Specialist b. Specializec. Specialized d. Special

9. I need a corroborator to back me up or I’ll be in big trouble,even though it’s not my fault.

10. My boss is always very irascible over the tiniest mistake inmy work.a Irritate b Irritable

c. Irritant d. Irritability

Contextual CluesVery often the meaning of an unfamiliar word can be identifiedfrom the context. In the following sentence:a. Choose one word from the choices given to replace the

nonsense word which is in italics.b. Unsubtle the word in italics to make a synonym for the word

you chose to replace it.Example : I have to act as the idyaremrinet between my bossand his callers.

Answer: go-betweenSynonym: intermediary

1. Don’t be a victim of crotinarspation – you should not putoff until tomorrow what you could do today.a. Dilettante b. Dilapidation c. Dilatoriness

2. Suzanne has those intone qualities which make her perfectfor the joba. Inert b. Inhuman c. Inborn

3. A letter which is written in a genniscodencd tone will not givethe recipient a very good impression.a. Courteous b. Patronizing c. Polite

4. If any of the company’s rules are lovetiad you will not givethe recipient a very good impression.a. Disobeyed b. Followed c. Obeyed

5. Since the new Chairman was appointed, the company hasgrown substantially and become very orpserpuso.a. Unsuccessful b. Successful c. Profit – sharing

6. Drinking too much coffee at night causes mosainin.a. Caffeine b Sleeplessness c. Tiresome

7. The disciplinary matter is yebacean for the Manager to may adecision when he returns tomorrow.a. Awaiting b. Suspension c. Suspense

8. If you want to change you lunch hour, you must obtain thecontains of your manager first.a. Appendix b. Deprecation c. Approval

9. The new secretary shows a lot of togismanna towards me,but I don’t know what I’ve done to upset her.a Resentment b. Friendship c. Contentment

10. When the fire bell rings, employees must leave the buildingand report to their gestideand safety officer.a. Nomination b. Nominated c. Nominal

Types of AnswerMost comprehension questions ask for a certain type of answer:• Who? ( a person )• When? ( a time)• Where? (a place)• Why? ( a reason )• How? ( a method )• What? ( a thing/idea )


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Example : Question: In what year did Henry Ford produce hisfirst motor car?

Question type: When?Answer required: A time

In the following questions, what type of question is asked, andwhat type of answer is required.1. Which sister wrote the book Wutbering Heights?

Question TypeAnswer required

2. Give one reason for the drop in prices of computers.Question typeAnswer required

3. What did Lisa’s boss find was the most convenient time fordictation?Question typeAnswer required

4. What are the peak advertising hours on television?Question typeAnswer required

5. Mention one item of equipment which could help Janicewith her tasks.Question typeAnswer required

6. In what why do Pam’s methods differ from those of theother secretaries?Question typeAnswer required

7. Suggest one reason why some people collect stamps.Question typeAnswer required

Giving OpinionsSome comprehension questions require the candidate to statesomeone’s opinion. It could be one of three people whoseopinion is required.1. The author’s2. The candidate’s ( based on the passage)3. Someone else’s ( someone else mentioned in the passage )If no one else is motioned, you should give the author’sopinion.Example : Question: How will the new technology affect thesecretaries mentioned?Answer : Give the author’s opinion, as in the passage, regardlessof how much you know about the subject.Decide whose opinions are required in the following questions:1. Do you agree with the author that shorthand will never be

completely redundant?Whose opinion?

2. State two advantages of facsimile transmission mentioned.Whose opinion?

3. Mention two of the factors upon which the choice ofmethod of communication is dependent.Whose opinion?

4. Why is Great Britain thought to be the ideal market for theproducts mentioned?Whose opinion?

5 Mention three ways in which the secretary in the passageconsiders information technology has changed her role.Whose opinion?

Working and Displaying AnswersAn examiner often has hundreds of scripts to mark. A littleextra thought in presenting your answers neatly will put him/her in a much better mood than will a paper which looks messyand has arrows everywhere.As with other aspects of your communication course, presenta-tion of comprehension answers is very important. Bear in mindthe following guideline.1. Do not waste time writing out the questions on your answer

sheets. The examiner is well aware what questions have beenset.

2. Unless the instructions state otherwise, answers should beexpressed in complete sentences, not in note form.

3. Your answers must be grammatically correct and suitablypunctuated.

4. It is worthwhile following the pattern suggested by theworking of the question.

Study the Following Example1. Why are bank notes advantageous over coins?

Bank notes are advantageous over cons because…2. Why did the workers go on strike?

The workers went on strike because…3. What impression does the writer give you of …?

The impression the writer gives me is.,,4. Which fact best illustrates the…?

The fact which best illustrates the … is …5. Mention two ways in which …

Two ways in which … are:a. …b. …

6. Why did the writer think…?The writer thought… because…

7. How was … understood in the past?In the past … was understood as…

8. Name four qualities essential for …Four qualities essential for … are:a. …b. …c. …


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9. Which sentence in the passage shows most clearly the …?The sentence which shows most clearly the … is ...

10. In your own words, what do you think is meant by theexpression’ …’?I think this expression means…

Marks Awarded for ComprehensionQuestionsOne way of judging whether a lot or a little is required of anyquestion is to refer to the number of marks awarded. Somestudents write half a page in answer to a 2-mark question, andtwo lines in answer to an 8-mark question.Obviously that cannot be right!Comprehension questions need careful consideration. Youshould check carefully the number of marks allocated to eachquestion and bear this in mind when looking for and writingout your answers.Very often questions ask for reasons, advantages, arguments,effects. Remember in such cases that the number of marksallocated will be divided equally between the number ofreasons, advantages, etc., which you give.For example, a 6-mark question may mean there are threereasons, with 2 marks for each. An 8-mark question may meanthere are four advantages,with 2 marks for each, and so on. .There can be no hard and fast rules. All I say is be aware thatexaminers do not usually award marks ad hoc. There is generallya strict marking scheme to which they work. Wording youranswer in close relationship with the marks available should beremembered at all times.Remember, too, that, marks are probably awarded for neatnessand presentation.

Guidelines for Comprehension1. The importance of careful and thorough reading cannot be

over-emphasised. Concentrate carefully and read the passagethrum once. Then read through the questions. On yoursecond reading of the passage, it should be possible toidentify area-s to which certain questions refer.

2. Make a note in the margin of the passage as a cross-referenceto the question number concerned. In some comprehensionpassages, questions are posed so that they work logicallythrough the text, but this is not always the case.

3. Answer the questions one by one, tackling them in the orderin which they are printed if possible.

4. Use your own word rather than those used in the passagewherever’ possible.

5. Take particular note of the number of marks allocated toeach question. This gives you an idea of how much isrequired in your answer, and how much detail is necessary. ‘

6. Base the wording of your answer on the wording of thequestion. This also helps to reinforce in your mind thequestion which is asked.

7. When you are required to give definitions of words orphrases, be sure your answer is in the same part of speech. If

a noun is given, your answer should be a noun, etc. Becareful when consulting a dictionary because often more thanone meaning is provided - be careful to choose the rightmeaning which matches the meaning of the word in thepassage. Do not copy dictionary definitions out ‘wholesale’ -use your initiative to rephrase accordingly.

8. Your handwriting should be legible and your expression ascorrect as possible. Present your answers neatly, withquestion numbers clearly shown. Marks can be lost becauseof poor presentation and untidy work:

Assignments1 Read the following passage carefully.

Luxor Hotels and Conference FacilitiesOur company name stems from the day when the founder,George Meredith, was staying in Luxor and planning a confer-ence to be held in. Singapore. He decided to set up his ownbusiness and began with one hotel in 1989. Today there areLuxor hotels in more than 100 countries around the world. Thebiggest, with 600 rooms, is in Chicago and the smallest, with100 rooms, in Perth, Western Australia. There are no hotelswith fewer than 100 rooms. All Luxor hotels in the USA have atleast 250 rooms whereas European hotels prefer smaller units.Over 66% f Asian hotels have more than 300 rooms.“Quality is emphasised at all Luxor hotels. They are all decoratedannually, all fittings are regularly checked and any worn furnitureis immediately replaced. In 1992 alone, 5000 litres of paint wereused in Singapore and about 50% of the carpets were replaced inour hotels in China. During 1994, 1000 beds were replaced inCape Town by new ones imported from Canada. In 1996 everyconference centre in Asia replaced its video facilities with thenewest German equipment. By 2001, half the video’ facilities inall European hotels will have been updated.Staff training is paramount at Luxor hotels. The largest hotelshave a training manager and smaller ones are grouped togetherfor training. All staff from senior managers to bar staff andreception staff attend training sessions annually. The quality oftheir work is assessed at monthly meetings with their linemanagers.From the very beginning, Luxor’s conference trade has devel-oped at great pace. In 1990 there were three conferences withjust 200 delegates, but by 1995 there was at least one conferenceevery week of the year and almost 10,000 people attended.Subjects ranged from international trade to private meetings ofnational sports bodies. One of the strangest topics for aconference was plankton farming. This was attended by 700delegates from around the world - half the number who wereat the Chicago conference on whales in Lake Michigan in 1994.Luxor Hotels—and Conferences continues to grow and we lookforward to the future with confidence and anticipation.Indicate whether these statements are true or false. Quote a fewwords from the text to support your answers.a. There are 100 Luxor hotels.

Tr.ue/Falseb. All meetings held at Luxor hotels are concerned which

business.


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True/False’c. In 1995' 50 conferences took place.

True/Falsed. Every Luxor hotel has a training manager.

True/Falsee. 400/0 of Asian hotels have 250 rooms.

True/False _f. George. Meredith attended a conference in Luxor.

True/Falseg. 700 delegates visited a place called Whales in Lake Michigan.

True/False .h. Half the carpets in China’s hotels are new.

True/Falsei. All Luxor hotels have at least 100 rooms.

True/Falsej. Seventy per cent of the video. equipment in European hotels

will be changed in 2001.True/False

2 Read this passage and then answer the questions whichfollow. Use your awn wards as far as possible.

To. please his san, John Wilson recreated the wood and peanetting goal he had first made as a bay. He then saw the hugepotential far a portable goal that could be packed away in a bagand used anywhere - beach, lawn or field.Funding came from remortgaging his home in Sheffield andfrom a government grant. Using John’s patented design, a localplastics company then produced goals that were strong, easy to.assemble, safe, virtually impassible to. knack aver and yet lightenough far children to. carry and _rect. ‘ITSA Goal’ (InterTrading Sports Associates) was now in business.The first half: John’s initial plan to. sell the goals via sportsshops was dashed when retailers told him there was no. marketfar a product costing £125 when <;heaper, albeit inferior,portable goals already existed. John turned to. the FootballAssociation who. agreed to test the product, liked it and gave itofficial approval. Luck then took a hand.The FA was talking to. Coca-Cola about a Youth Developmentproject far small team games far which John’s product was ideal.John calls the resulting deal a win win win situation.‘Coca-Cola buys regularly from me in bulk at a discounted price.I sell the goals - Coca-Cola “Big Red Bag” branded - to. schoolsand football clubs. I target through leaflets and other literatureand ward-of-mouth. Customers ‘benefit from the discountedprice. I return the money from the sales to. Coca-Cola who. also.get the brand name displayed nationwide.’The second half: John generously stresses the role that Midlandhas played in helping him aver the years. John felt he lackedsound ‘financial advice. The Midland Branch Manager farRatherham met that need. ‘‘He restructured the whale financial side of the company andhelped me with planning. Funding the business through my

mortgage wasn’t sensible. Taking a business 10. an with thehouse as security was far mare tax efficient.’‘The Bank Manager also. introduced me to a good accountant.For me, this was the major cultural change, realizing that anaccountant need’s just be someone who. cranes in ‘and tats upthe figures at the end of the year. Now we monitor thesituation constantly and can plan accordingly.Today, with a £112 million turnover and growing and all John’sloans. cleared, ITSA Goal’s own factory produces goals andother soccer related equipment for schools, clubs and individu-als throughout the UK and Europe. No question about it,John has scored with this cracking idea.Reproduced courtesy of John Wilson, ITSA Goal and MidlandBank pica. How did John Wilson please his son? (2)b. Explain ‘the huge potential for a portable goal’. (2)c. Explain ‘John’s initial plan to sell the goals via sports shops

was dashed.’ (2)d. Why was John’s plan ‘dashed’? (2)e. How did John finance this project initially? (2)f. How did the Bank Manager help John? (4)g. What happened when John took on a good accountant? (6)h. What does Coca-Cola gain from the business? (4)i. What does John mean by a ‘win win win’ situation? (2)Explain the following phrases used in the passage:i. Cheaper, albeit inferior (2)ii. Other soccer related equipment (2) .Total: 30/marksRead the following passage, then answer the question whichfollow.

Aroma TherapyAromatherapy involves the use of essential oils from plants.These oils are very potent and to understand their benefits youneed to ‘know what they are, and how they work inaromatherapy.An essential oil is a delicate fluid which forms the fragrance of aplant or flower. It can be stored in the stem, leaves, roots orbark, depending on the plant. Although called oil, it doesn’tactually resemble one in texture; bout is a highly scented andextremely potent liquid.The powerful aroma of essential oils can affect the way we feel.Experts say the reason for this is that their aroma is ‘trans-ported’ from nerve cells in the nose to the part of the brain,which is concerned with emotion. Therefore, different oils areoften used to help relieve anxiety and stress, .and to alleviatedepression.It has been preyed that essential oils have a great ability to penetratethe skin. Once absorbed into the blood stream, different onesseem to have an ‘affinity’ with different organs in the body.Essential oils are regenerative as well. as antiseptic, and thereforehelp the skin to heal faster. Lavender, for instance, is excellent


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for treating acne, boils, burns and eczema, whereas tea tree oil isgood for spots, pimples and insect bites.You I1eed to smell pure undiluted essential oils to appreciatetheir potency and they should never be used neat. Eucalyptusand peppermint, for instance, can irritate the skin if appliedundiluted.Essential oils are beneficial in various ways, so it is important tochoose the right one. (Extract from Prima magazine, London)a. Explain the meanings of the following words, as used in the

passage:i. Potentii. Aromaiii. Alleviateiv. Neatb. Where do the oils used in aromatherapy come from?c. How does the aroma of these oils affect us?d. What would happen if eucalyptus was applied to the skin

neat?e. With which oil should insect bites be treated? -

4 AcupunctureAcupuncture - needle-therapy - hails from China. According totraditional Chinese medicine, good health depends on thebody’s ability to maintain a state of inner balance. In acupunc-ture the needles are used to restore balance and so cure illness.Bodily harmony, or health, is said to be the result of a balancingact between two opposing forces known as Yin and Yang. Yinrepresents soft, feminine qualities. Yang hard,. masculinequalities.Good health also relies on the smooth flow of the body’s life-force or vital energy known as Chi. Emotional upsets, poordiet, overwork and stress can disturb the even flow of Chi andlead to illness. The vital Chi circulates along a network ofinvisible channels called Meridians.Treatment involves stimulating various defined points alongthe Meridians by planting needles in them. This strengthensChi, and restores the equilibrium of Yin and Yang. Thesepoints are known as acupuncture points.Sometimes described as ‘acupuncture without the needles’,acupressure uses light fingertip pressure. In Shiatsu - theJapanese version- heavy pressure is involved too.(Extract from Prima magazine, London)a. Briefly explain the three forces on which the Chinese believe

good health relies.b. What are Meridians?c. Briefly explain how acupuncture works.d. How does acupressure differ from acupuncture?5 Read the following passage, then answer the questions thatfollow.

Minerals - Are You Getting Enough?The weather’s boiling, you’ve been running around, you’re in abirof a lather and suddenly an excruciating cramp hits you. Such‘heat cramps are caused by losing sodium when we perspire -

just one of the effects of not having enough of an essentialmineral in the system.Minerals are the poor relations of vitamins. Few of us knowjust which minerals we need (and which we should avoid), howmuch we need and which foods they are found in. It gets moreconfusing, because if you eat too much of one mineral, such asiron, it might cause you to absorb less of another such as zinc.Even worse, minerals such as lead can be positively bad for you.And excessive aluminum has been linked with Alzheimer’sdisease.So just what are these elusive substances? Minerals are metalswhich occur naturally in the soil and are absorbed into theplants and animals we eat. If we don’t get enough of theseminerals, we feel run down. At worst, this can cause mineraldeficiency illnesses such as anaemia.Many of us could be low in certain minerals - especially if we eatan unbalanced diet, or one high in refined food. Refining oftenmeans extracting the most wholesome part of the food. Whitebread, for example, contains less minerals than whole mealbread because the wheat germ and bran are removed.Although the cells in our body naturally contain minute amountof minerals, they are used up as our cells become worn out. Asthe body is not very good at storing minerals (apart from a littlecalcium, phosphorus, magnesium and iron), it is vital we haveenough in our daily diet.There is considerable controversy over whether or not we need totake supplements. If you continually eat on the run and youknow you’re not having a balanced diet, then a supplement canonly do you good. . But do you need a supplement if you’reeating a balanced diet of mineral rich liver, meat, fish, dairyproduce, wholegrain, fruits and vegetables?Traditional nutritionists say that a balanced diet will give you allthe nutrients you need. Others believe .that the use of pesti-cides which poison the soil, pollution and food processingmean that many of our foods no longer contain enoughminerals.Whatever the truth, taking a supplement will do you no harm -provided you take only the recommended dose. Taking a higherdosage can be positively harmful. Too much iron can preventyou absorbing zinc, and if you take excessive amounts ofmagnesium, you’ll get a bout of diarrhea!(Extract from Prima magazine, London)a. Explain the meaning of the following words, as used in the

passage:i. Excruciatingii. Deficiencyiii. Extractingiv. Minutev. Controversy

b. What causes heat cramps?c. Briefly explain what minerals are.d. Why do certain people not have enough minerals?e. Which minerals is the body good at storing?


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f. Would supplements of minerals be harmful to someonewho eats a balanced diet?

Reading ComprehensionPassages are taken from the humanities, social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences. The passages are of varied lengths, but generally of 75 to 150 lines. The number of questions pertaining to a particular passage could range from 3 to 5.Strategies :

Go through the passage once to get the general idea of the passage Don't try to memorize details but instead pay attention to the topic and the focus of the passage as you read. For questions asking you to give the passage a title, look at the first and last lines of the passage for clues.

SamplePassage:In his 1976 study of slavery in the US, Herbert Gutman, like Fogel, Engerman, And

Genovese, has rightly stressed the slaves‘ achievements. But unlike these historians......(rest of the passage) ........In sum, Gutman's study is significant because it offers a closely reasoned and original explanation of some of the slaves' achievements, one that correctly emphasizes the resources that slaves themselves possessed.

Which of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage, based on its content?

A. The influence of Herbert Gutmanon Historians of Slavery in the US B. Gutman's explanation of how slaves could maintain a cultural Heritage anddevelop a

communal consciousness C. Slavery in the US: New Controversy about an old subject D. The Black heritage of Folklore, Music, and Religious Expression: It's growing influence E. The Black family and extended kinship structure: How they were important for the freed

slave


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UNIT 4CHAPTER 10: COMPREHENSION


By the end of this lesson you will:

• Hone your skills in understanding the passage given for comprehension.

• Learn to answer correctly the questions given below the comprehension passage.

Student’s lets recall what we have studied in lesson 38. We willnow try to understand the passages below.Read this passage and then answer the questions, which follow.Use your own words as far as possible.

Profile of Anita RoddickI started The Body Shop in 1976 simply to create a livelihoodfor myself - and my two daughters, while my husband,Gordon, was trekking across the Americas. I had no training orexperience and my only business acumen was Gordon’s adviceto take sales of £300 a week. Nobody talks of entrepreneurshipas survival, but that’s exactly what it is and what nurturescreative thinking. Running that first shop taught me businesswas not financial science; it’s about trading - buying and selling.It’s about creating a product or service so good that people willpay for it. Now 22 years on, The Body Shop is a multi-localbusiness with 1650 stores in 47 countries, trading in 24languages across 12 time zones. AndI haven’t a clue how we got here!It wasn’t only economic necessity that inspired the birth of TheBody Shop. Women, when they want to earn a livelihood,usually earn it through what they are interested in or what theyare knowledgeable about. I had a wealth of experience to draw on. Itraveled, and I spent time in farming and fishing communitieswith pre-industrial peoples. My travels exposed me to bodyrituals of women from all over the world. Also the frugalitythat ‘my mother exercised during the war years made mequestion retail conventions. Why waste a container when youcan refill it. And why buy more of something than you can use?We behaved as she did in the Second World War - we re-usedeverything, we refilled everything and we recycled allowed could.The foundation of The Body Shop’s environmental activismwas born out of ideas like these.I am aware that success is more than a good idealities timingtoo. The Body Shop arrived just as Europe was going.’ green’.The Body Shop has always been recognizable by its greencolour, the only colour that we could find to cover the damp,mouldy walls of my first shop. I opened a second shop withinsix months, by which time Gordon was back in England. Hecame up with the idea for ‘self-financing’ more new stores,which sparked the growth of the franchise network throughwhich The Body Shop spread across the world. The companywent public in 1984.Since then I have been given a whole host of awards, some Iunderstand, some I don’t, and a couple I think I deserve.

The Body Shop and I have always been closely identified in thepublic mind, undoubtedly because it is impossible to separate-thecompany values from my own personal values and issues that I carepassionately about: social responsiveness, respect for humanrights,- the environment and animal protection. But I mustpoint out that The Body Shop is not a one-woman show - it isa global operation with-thousands of people working towardscommon goals, engaged in their own livelihood, and franchi-sees running their own businesses.The Body Shop is always on my mind, in one way or another.Whether ii be in a state of delight or frustration. The relation-ship I have with The Body Shop is one where I sometimescan’t tell the difference between stress and enthusiasm.Reproduced courtesy of The Body Shop International PLCa. Why did Anita Roddick start The Body Shop? (2)b. What did she learn from her first shop? (4)c. Anita Roddick says ‘I had a wealth of experiences to draw

on. Summarise these experiences. (6)d. Give two reasons to suggest why ‘green’ is important to The

Body. Shop. (6)e. What does Anita Roddick mean when she says ‘It is

impossible toseparate the company values from my own personal values.’Try toexplain these values in your own” words. (8)

f. How would you sum up how Anita Roddick feels aboutThe BodyShop? (4)Total: 30 marksRead this passage carefully and then answer the questionswhich follow. Use your own words as far as possible.

Reproduced courtesy of British Teleco1Jlmunications pic fromBT’s Annual Review and Summary Financial Statement 1998

The Community OpportunityCompanies do not exist above and beyond the societies inwhich they operate; they are part of those societies. They are‘citizen companies’, with all the rights and responsibilities thatcitizenship brings. BT is determined to make an imaginativeand ejective impact in all the communities in which we conductour business. Some 90°/0 of members believe that companieshave at least some ‘responsibility to the community. We areproud to accept that responsibility.BT is committed to helping people in need and at risk toimprove their quality of life through our Community Partner-ship Program. With a budget of around £15 million a year forworking with community causes, this program is the largest ofits kind in the UK. But it is not just about good citizenship. We


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also believe it is good business. Seventy per cent of the generalpublic say that the _contribution a company makes to thecommunity could affect their buying decisions.This is why we are careful that all our involvement is reputationenhancing. After all, a good reputation means that governmentswill want us in their countries, customers will want to buy fromus, shareholders will want to invest in us, skilled people will wantto ‘join us, and our employees will be proud to work for us.Our community partnership activities throughout the UK arethemed around access and communication. We place particularemphasis on education and training, the improvement ofcommunication skills, support for people with disabilities, andthe involvement of BT people.In the last year we have put in place a programme to enablecharities and voluntary groups to make more effective use ofcommunications technology. As part of this, we are collaboratingwith the charity One World On Line to offer training and supportfor small charities to help them run their own Internet sites.But it’s not just about encouraging people to talk and listen. BTis bringing the benefits of the new technology it is developingto the people who need it most. For example, BT and theAnchor Trust are developing remote health monitoring to helpolder people continue to live independently.More than 80 million people in the UK have some form ofhearing loss, and BT is helping to address their communica-tions needs. All our public payphones are fitted with inductivecouplers to help hearing aid users and we have ,been workingwith the Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID) toimprove deaf people’s access to arts venues around the country.Type talk, the national telephone relay service run by the RNIDwith finds from BT, enables 20,000 deaf or speech-impairedcustomers to communicate via a text phone. BT will also be oneof the corporate sponsors of the millennium celebrations, notjust at the Millennium Dome in Greenwich but throughout thecountry. We want to make a contribution that will toucheveryone’s lives in the year 2000, so we will be launching ‘Mill-e-Mail’ - a free electronic mail address service, which means thatno-one need ever be out of touch.A comprehensive set of reports is also being published thatdescribe BT’s social, environmental and technological interac-tions with society.‘Through these reports, we aim to stimulate a wider debate intohow BT can contribute to an improved quality of life for all.a. What does the writer mean by ‘citizen companies’? (4)b. Why does the company believe that it is ‘good business’? (4)c. Explain ‘we are careful that all our involvement is reputation-

enhancing’. (4)d. Describe BT’s work with charities and voluntary

organisations. (8)e. How is BT helping to celebrate the millennium? (4)f. Explain the following phrases as used in the passage:

i To improve their quality of life (2)ii. Touch everyone’s lives (2)iii. Stimulate a wider debate (2)

Total: 30 marksRead this passage carefully and then answer the questions whichfollow. Use your own words as far as possible.

Wake Upto Pollution‘Don’t choke Britain’ is about persuading people to forget thecar and wake up to better ways to get around. This localauthority-led initiative aims’ to raise public awareness about thedamage t_ our environment and health caused by increasedtraffic congestion and pollution.Embracing many local initiatives throughout June, the Don’tChoke Britain Campaign urges people out of their cars andonto bikes, buses, trains and pavements.Midland Mainline has a raft of travel options which comple-ment the vision of a less car-orientated future. Its latest offer isDoor-to-Door, where two, three or four people can catch an off-peak train to London and back from as little as £39 for thegroup. A pre-booked taxi to and from the station_ is includedin the price.‘Until people are offered a cheaper and more convenient alterna-tive, such as Door-to-Door, they will continue to take the car -whether it’s air: the way to London or just to the station,’ saysMidland Mailing’s -Product Manager, Chris Lyons.Perhaps the most ambitious scheme is the proposed develop-ment of an East Midlands Parkway Railway Station, close to theM 1 motorway. As Chris Lyons says, ‘Midland Mainline arelooking hard at taking more responsibility for our customers’ realjourney from their from door to their final destination, not justthe journey from station to. station. For example to make gettingto airports easier, we are looking to develop competitively pricedtickets that combine rail transport on Midland Mainline withother modes of transport. Combining the various travel optionsin one straightforward offer will make traveling to the airport bypublic transport much more attractive.’Clearly,co-ordinated public transport is the way forward if acleaner” greener Britain is to be achieved. Midland Mainline’sservices take asizeable chunk of traffic off the Ml and that’s good news forthe environment. But is it realistic to think that hardened car userscan be coaxed away from their steering wheels?‘No-one says it’s going to be easy,’ says Chris Lyons. ‘But if theproducts are right and backed up with a reliable, good qualityservice, their it’s possible.Using the car has its own problems, not least of which is trafficjams, incessant road works and the prospect of heavyweightmeasures to curb driving such as motorway tolls, reduced accessto town centres and higher taxation.Constant improvements to Midland Mainline’s services such asgreater frequency, new products and better customer service aredefinitely persuading more and more people to use the train.

Reproduced courtesy of MidlandMainlinea. What does the writer mean by ‘Don’t Choke Britain’? What

is the purpose of the ‘Don’t Choke Britain’ campaign? (4)


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b. Explain the sentence ‘Midland Mainline has a raft of traveloptions, which complement the vision of, a less car-orientated future.’ (2)

c. Describe the Door-to-Door scheme. (4)d. How can the planners make it easier for people to get to

airports? (4)e. What are the problems facing car users? (6)f. Explain the following phrases:

i. Embracing many local initiatives (2)ii. Perhaps the most ambitious scheme (2)iii. Our customers’ real journey (2)iv. Coordinated public transport (2)v. Hardened car users (2)

Total: 30 marks9. The Personal Assistant to the Far East Division’s Chairman

is to give the opening address at a secretarial seminar, and shehas submitted a draft of her speech to you. Read it carefullyand answer the questions which follow.

In the days of illiterate kings and barons, when most dealingswere conducted verbally through intermediaries, the job of‘secretary’ conjured up a icture of someone employed by the richand powerful as a private .ear, intent upon the concealment ofdirty linen. However, take heart. By the late Middle Ages theword ‘secretary’ had gained in status, referring to one whoseoffice it was to write for another, especially one who wasemployed to conduct correspondence, to keep records.So the written word became the chief medium of communica-tion, and when the Victorians launched the newest ‘profession’in the widest sense of the word; commerce - with all itsattendant record-keeping, and invented the Penny Post, thebusiness letter as we know it was bornFrom that point the phenomenon has been developed to ahigh degree; indeed, doubtless far too many such letters arewritten now, causing literally tons of paperwork to be pro-duced, processed and stored every working day. Hence secretarieshave really come into their own and not just as transcribers ofletters. For as busy decision-makers in all spheres, be they MPs,surgeons, barristers, bankers, civil servants or business execu-tives, cannot write all their letters out by hand, equally theycannot make every single telephone call, book all their ownappointments or keep track of all their file copies. So they needsomeone to bail them’ out. Someone who will give a reliableand sensible back-up service, will hold the strings, acting as abase or nerve-centre in the hectic flow of events, and can betrusted to handle all information passing before them in anadult and serious fashion. In other words, guess who?A ‘secretary’ can now signify anything from a thigh-booted, nailpolishing dolly who sits behind a typewriter thinking about herboyfriend and waiting for 5 pm, to the high-flying and terrifyingparagon who can speak five languages_ take shorthand at 3 00wpm while piloting a VC10 and run a press reception for 1000before breakfast. At its most accurate the word denotes thosewho occupy the area between these two - that small army ofquiet and efficient persons whose job it is to deal with their

employer’s day in manner both discreet and reliable. Thesepeople are the present answer to a solid, lasting and notinconsiderable demand and it would be hard to see how theycould be superseded. Until some bright spark invents a machinethat can think as well as take messages, compose and produceindividual letters, keep a vague employer to his schedule,remember everything from the year dot and make drinkablecoffee, secretaries are the best alternative.So far so good. A job to be done and a female workforce whocan do it. But why can we do it? I think for the very reason thatwe are female. Because there will always be a large sphere ofwork for which I believe women are temperamentally bettersuited than men. Really effective secretarial work demandsimagination; putting yourself in another person’s place andthinking for them. And women have on the whole always’ beenbetter equipped to do this. A recent movement has initiatedheated debate about the comparative roles of the sexes, in thewake of which have come opportunities hitherto unheard offor women to prove themselves ‘equal to a man’s world. Andsome are clearly more than equal, revealing formidable ability,drive’ and stamina in many important areas. Certainly theseprominent women will continue to focus attention on changingattitudes to their sex, but they will not after the fundamentalnature of the ordinary, timeless female capacities and strengths.The debate will go on, but it will not change the fact thatwomen by and large have more patience, attention to detail,self-control and imagination - that is, the qualities that make,inter alia, a good secretary.You might say ‘anyone who has mastered all this and still hassome energy left deserves to go places - upwards’. As I havesaid before there certainly are women in very senior, stimulatingand deeply rewarding jobs who started out as secretaries andwho made the transition with resounding success. But for therest of us, the question must be asked ‘where are we going?’For the status quo is showing signs of exciting development.The much-heralded silicon chip technology is clearly’ here to stayand is surely removing all the drudgery which has been builtinto secretarial work -the filing, the checking, the tediousgarnering; of information. But because such technology cannotmake decisions, the thinking part of the secretary’s job - theadministration, the coordination, the arranging and confirming,the liaison with people - must be thrown into relief, expandedand endowed with a new status. Result - streamlined version ofan old classic: that position which is often at the very centre ofpower, carries a sizeable amount of responsibility, calls for theexercise of the highest level of expertise and represents reallycaring work, putting to good use the feminine capacity for beinga buffer state, a partner and full supporting cast. Surely there isquite a good job to be made of all that?Well, here we are. We have been taught to take shorthand (andsometimes we can even read it back!) and to type. The samebroad aims and much the same problems concern us all. Howto create order out of chaos” how to raise or foster the publicimage of the company, how to bring the best out of the peopleand the crises. And how about when we don’t really understandthe technicalities of the work we are dealing with - or no-one


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ever thinks we need encouragement - or is there just too muchwork?Well, you can take a deep breath and get cracking - with the aidof a philosophical acceptance of what you probably can’tchange, some firm priorities held well in view, a degree of skill,and a few well-tried life’ saver tips - which is what this two-dayseminar is all about. I hope you enjoy it and I wish you luck!(Adapted from Super Secretary by Sally Denholm-Young,published by SettlePress,. London)a. Explain the meaning of the following, as used in the

passage:i. Supersededii. Inter aliaiii. Status quo iv) liaison (4 marks)

b. To what phenomenon is the writer referring when she says’.the phenomenon has been developed to a high degree’?(4 marks)

c. The writer refers to a ‘secretary’ in one context as ‘... aterrifying paragon who can speak five languages, takeshorthand at 300 wpm while piloting a VC10 and run a pressreception for 1000 before breakfast...’ Explain what you thinkher meaning is, in your own words, simply and clearly.(6 marks).

d. Why does “the writer believe the secretarial workforce ismade up mainly of women? (6 marks)

e. To what ‘transition’ is the writer referring when she Says ‘...who have made the transition with resounding success’? (4marks)

f. What effects is new technology having on the role of thesecretary now? (6 marks)

(Total: 30 marks)

Helpful Testing HintsMore than 50% of the time, the main idea of a passage is statedin the first sentence of the paragraph. Sometimes the main ideaor topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph and, onoccasion, anywhere in the paragraph. They may not be stated atall, but simply implied. Make a habit of reading the openingand closing statement of each paragraph. The most effectiveway to answer the main idea question is to ask yourself whatthe whole passage is about, not just a portion of it. Theanswers that cover specific details are either too narrow or toobroad. The correct answer is usually a restatement of what issaid in the whole passage; therefore, the options that have thesame words from the reading are almost always incorrect.

Main Idea QuestionsWhat is the main purpose of the passage?What does the passage mainly discuss?With what topic is the passage mainly concerned?Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss?* Pay attention to signal words and phrases. They help youunderstand the relationship between the ideas within aparagraph(s).

Cause-and-effect words — as a result, thereforeTime words — meanwhile, beforeContrast words — in contrast, converselyAddition words — also, in additionEmphasis words — more important, remember• Watch for questions that test your knowledge of the

relationships between the topic and the supporting ideas.Understand definitions, recognize examples, understandexplanations, find similar or unlike characteristics of twothings or whatever, learn what produces a result and what itseffects are.

• Go over the passages with familiar subjects. Then read thepassages whose topics are less familiar.

Description of the types of questions tested in the compre-hension passages• Main idea questions test your understanding of the whole

passage rather the individual parts.• Specific detail questions are based on the supports presented

in the reading. Scan the passage to spot the key words for thespecific details. Some specific detail questions are negative andare singled by the words NOT, EXCEPT, MOST ,andLEAST. If you cannot find the correct answer for negativespecific details, eliminate the choices given in the reading andchoose the choice that remains as the correct response.

• Inference questions ask you to draw a logical conclusionfrom what you read in the passage. The answers to thesetypes of questions are not explicitly stated.

• Language expression questions include pronouns andvocabulary questions.

• Pronoun questions ask you to spot the correct antecedent ornoun to which the pronoun refers to. To locate the correctanswer to these types of questions,concentrate on thesentence(s) before and a few sentences after the pronounappears.

• Vocabulary questions ask you the meaning of a word orphrase within the context of the passage.

• Questions about the organization of the passage, theauthor’s point of view, analogy, or the following paragraphare not as common as the other types.

Sample Passage1. The sugar maple is a hard maple tree. It can grow as tall as

100 feet and as wide as2. 4 feet. The sugar maple is commercially valued for its sap,

which is used in the3. Making of maple syrup. Two northeastern states, Vermont

and New York,4. Rank as major producers of maple syrup. In Canada,

Quebec’s annual syrup5. Production surpasses 2.5 million gallons. To make pure

maple syrup, holes are6. Made in the trunk of the tree at the end of the winter or in

early spring. The water-


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7. Like sap seeps through the holes and runs through a plasticspout that is put into

8. The hole. Afterward, the collected sap is transferred intotubes that are hooked up

9. To a tank kept in the sugar house. Then the sap goesthrough the boiling process.

10. Boiling enhances the flavor as well as adding color to thesap. Once the sugar

11. Content of the sap is about 65-66%, the sap is ready to bestrained and marketed.

12. The maple syrup found in the supermarkets, however, isusually not pure and

13. Has other additives. The color of pure maple may rangefrom golden honey to

14. Light brown. Between 35 to 50 gallons of sap are needed toproduce 1 gallon of

15. Maple syrup. Also popular for strength and finish of itswood, the sugar maple tree

16. Has been put to use in furniture, interior woodwork,flooring, and crates.

1. What is the main purpose of the passage?A. To examine the economic viability of a treeB. To list a number of the major producers of maple syrupC. To provide information on how maple syrup is madeD. To emphasize the use of the maple lumber in furniture and

other productsThis is a general inference question. Most of the passageexplains the technique used for making maple syrup. The bestanswer is (C). The choice (A) is inaccurate. The choices (B) and(D) are both specific details but not the main idea of thepassage.2. For which of the following words does the author provide a

definition?A. The sugar maple (line 1)B. A tank (line 9)C. Additives (line 13)D. Furniture (line 16)This specific detail question tests your understanding of adefinition. Only the sugar maple (line 1) is defined. The choices(B), (C), and (D), even though mentioned in the passage, arenot defined.3. According to the passage, which of the following periods is

ideal for sapping?A. Late January through AprilB. May to late JulyC. August to early OctoberD. Early November to late DecemberThis is a specific detail question. Based on the information inthe passage, sapping takes place at the end of the winter and inearly spring. Therefore, (A) is the best answer.

4. Where in the passage does the author first mentions theconsistency of the sap?

A. Lines 6-8B. Line 9C. Lines 10-11D. Lines 14-15This specific detail question directs you to the exact line and asksfor the first occurrence of the word. These types of questionsare relatively easy to locate. The correct response is (A). Payattention that numbers are always in ascending order.5. All of the following is true about boiling EXCEPTA. It enhances the color.B. It improves the flavor.C. It increases the sugar content.D. It reduces the shelf life of the syrup.This specific detail question is negative. In order to answer itcorrectly, eliminate all the choices A, B, and C that are used in theparagraph; therefore, (D) is the correct choice.6. What can be inferred about the production of maple syrup?A. It is rather simple, but time-consuming.B. It is labor intensive.C. Its processing demands complicated equipment.D. The higher the volume, the less predictable the quality is.This question tests your inference ability. The answer to thequestion is not directly stated in the passage. (A) is the bestanswer. The production technique is quite straightforward, butit takes time. The producers have to depend on the natural flowof the sap.7. In line 11, the phrase “to be strained” could best be replaced

byA. To be triedB. To be purifiedC. To be filteredD. To be solidifiedThis is a language expression question. The question is basedon the closest synonym for the phrase “to be strained.” Eventhough all the choices are grammatically sound, (C) is the mostlogical choice according to the context.8. In lines 13-14, what is the author’s purpose in mentioning

“golden honey to light brown”?A. To provide a visual descriptionB. To make the reading more technicalC. To illustrate the difference in qualityD. To persuade the reader to buy the productThis inference question asks the author’s purpose. The passageis non-technical; therefore, the choice (B) is inaccurate. Thechoice (C ) is incorrect because the difference in quality is not aconcern of the passage. The choice (D) is incorrect consideringthe author is not persuading the reader to buy any specificproduct. Therefore, the best choice is (A).9. The word “its” in line 15 refers to


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A. SapB. Maple syrupC. ColorD. The sugar maple treeThis is a language expression question as well. This type ofquestion always gives you the line number, so it is easy to locate.The correct answer is based on the antecedent, the noun towhich the pronoun refers. Reading the sentence, we notice that“its” is a possessive pronoun which refers to the noun phrase,the sugar maple tree; therefore, (D) is the correct choice.10.The relationship between the wood and the maple tree is

similar to the relationship betweenA. A vase and a bouquet of flowersB. A painter and a canvasC. A novel and a writerD. An inlet and a seaThis analogy question tests your understanding of the relation-ship between the ideas. These types of questions needattention. The analogy here is the relationship between a partand a whole. The choice (A) shows the relationship between cutflowers and a vase. The choice (B) shows the relationshipbetween the performer and the tool. (C) is incorrect because itindicates the relationship between a creator (writer) and thework created (novel). (D) is the correct choice. The relationshipbetween an inlet (a part) and a sea (a whole) is similar to therelationship between the wood (a part) and the maple tree (awhole).11. Which of the following would best describe the

organization of the passage?A. A persuasive argument in favor of the maple syrup industry

is advanced.B. A comparison and contrast between pure and commercial

maple syrup is made.C. A cause and effect analysis of the maple syrup production is

presented.D. A step-by-step explanation of how maple syrup is made is

given.This question tests your understanding of how the authororganizes the information in the passage. Most of the passageexplains a step-by-step process of how maple syrup is made;thus, the correct choice is (D). The author does not attempt toconvince the reader; consequently, the choice (A) is not true. Thepassage neither expresses the causes of the maple syrupproduction nor lists the similarities between pure and commer-cial maple syrup; therefore, the choices (B) and (C) are incorrect.12. The following paragraph will probably discussA. Ways to eradicate diseases attacking maple treesB. Other uses of the sugar maple treeC. Marketing plans for import distributionD. The diversity of the ecosystemThis is an inference question. Based on the conclusion we candraw from the passage, the correct choice is (B). Since the sugarmaple tree’s popularity for strength and finish of its wood is

mentioned at the end of the passage, it makes sense to knowsomething about its other uses. The choices (A), (C), and (D)can not be inferred from the passage. The new test of TOEFL starting July 1995 will have:• At least two or three vocabulary or phrase questions. These

questions are based on the meaning of the vocabulary or thephrase within the context of the passage. Sometimes thesequestions test your understanding of the meaning of acomplicated sentence or an important comment or ideaexpressed in a paragraph.

• More pronoun and antecedent questions.• More detailed questions about the methods of development

in the passage. These questions test your understanding ofdefinitions and explanations presented for a term or a wordin the passage. Sometimes the specific lines on which thedefinitions and explanations appear are mentioned.

Effective Ways to Improve YourVocabulary

• If you do not know the meaning of a given word, the prefixand suffix information can help you unlock its meaning.Study the common prefix list to increase your knowledge ofa word. To illustrate, “nourished” means having propernourishment. “Malnourished “ means impropernourishment. The prefix “mal” means bad or improper. Inaddition, learning common suffixes can be an extremelyhelpful tool for the acquisition of new words. For instance,suffixes can help you with the understanding of differentparts of speech: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. If youadd the suffix “ment” to the verb develop, the new worddevelopment is a noun. Further, if you decide to add thesuffix “al” to the noun development, the new worddevelopmental is an adjective.

• The best way to increase your vocabulary is to study 15-20new words a day. Write the new word and its pronunciationon the front of a three by five inch index card; on the back,write the definition of the word and the sentence in whichyou saw the word. Keep reviewing your index card pile andadding new vocabulary. Before long, you will have a richassortment of words.

How to Tackle the Vocabulary• Be careful with word choice that has the prefix clue, which can

be a distractor rather than the correct response. The prefix“ex” means “out,” but the word “extension “ is not asynonym for “exterior.”

The exterior of modern churches lacks typical Gothic architec-tural features.A. AppearanceB. OutsideC. ExtensionD. FacadeThe correct choice is (B).• Do not study unusual or technical words related to specific

fields of study such as chemistry, biology, geology, and


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physics. The vocabulary in the Reading Comprehensionsection includes only general words that have synonyms.Definitions of minerals, animals, planets, chemicals, plants,etc. are not tested. Other types of words labeled as Slang,Informal, Nonstandard, Rare, Vulgar, Poetic, and Archaic arenot tested.

Helpful Testing Hints• Use context clue to guess the meaning of the words or

phrases tested in the reading comprehension passages.• From the four answer choices given, choose the word or the

phrase that is closest in meaning, or is a synonym, to thevocabulary or the phrase. Some of the choices might havesimilar meanings, but only one will be the most appropriatemeaning within the context.

• The vocabulary items vary in degree of difficulty. While somemay be easy, others may be semi-difficult or difficult. Studyall three types of vocabulary.

• Nouns and adjectives as well as verbs and adverbs are testedin the vocabulary section. The ratio varies from test to test.Some vocabulary items are two-or three-word phrasal (forexample, get into , look over , count on ).

• The words tested on TOEFL are similar to those used incollege-level textbooks.

• If you do not know the meaning of a word or a phrase, readthe entire sentence because the sentence may provideadditional clues. The sentences used before or after thesentence in which the word or phrase appears often supplyclues to the meaning of the word or phrase. The followingexample shows this point.

Although mint hybrids are infertile, true mints can be propa-gated from seeds.A. ReproducedB. SelectedC. PlantedD. DerivedPay attention to the context clue and construction of thissentence. The information in the dependent clause is in contrastwith the information in the independent clause. The wordinfertile means barren, something that can not reproduce,while the word propagate means reproduce; therefore, thecorrect response is (A).• DO NOT be tricked into choosing the correct answer on the

basis of its grammatical form. All the possible answers havethe same grammatical form. For instance, if the vocabulary isa phrasal, all the answers will be phrasal, but the correctanswer does not necessarily have the same preposition. Lookat the example.

Coral, a gemstone, is related to living plants.A. Compatible withB. Partial toC. Accompanied byD. Associated with

The correct response is (D). Even though (B) has the samepreposition, it is not the correct answer. Associated with is theappropriate synonym for related to.• If you do not know the answer, guess. You will not lose any

points for guessing.


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UNIT 5CHAPTER 11: EMERGING TRENDS

LESSON 40:TECHNIQUES OF CROSS CULTURAL

COMMUNICATION

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to describe the majorbarriers to cross-cultural communication and how to overcome them. Toreach this goal, you should be able to:

• Explain why communication clearly across cultures is important tobusiness.

• Define culture and explain its effects on cross-cultural communication.

• Describe cultural differences in body positions and movements and usethis knowledge effectively in communication.

• Explain the language equivalency problem as a cause of miscommuni-cation.

Technological advances in communication, travel, and transpor-tation have made busi-ness increasingly global. This trend isexpected to continue in the foreseeable future. Thus, the chancesare good that you will have to communicate with people fromother cultures.Both large and small businesses want you to be able tocommunicate clearly with those from other cultures for severalreasons. A primary reason is that businesses sell their productsand, services both domestically and internationally. Being ableto com-municate with others helps you be more successful inunderstanding customers’ needs, communicating how yourcompany can meet these needs, and winning their business.Another reason is that in addition to being a more effectiveworker, you will be more efficient both within and outside yourcompany. You will be able to work harmoniously with thosefrom other cultures, creating a more comfortable and productiveworkplace. Furthermore, with cultural barrier broken down, youwill be able to hire good people despite their differences. Also,you will avoid problems stemming solely from misinterpreta-tions. A final reason is that your attention to communicatingclearly with those from other cultures will enrich your businessand personal life. -In preparing to communicate with people from other cultures,you might welt begin by reviewing the instructions given in thisbook: Most of them fit-all people. But many do not especiallythose involving massage writing. To determine which donot,”you must study the differences among cultures, “for culturaldifferences are at the root of the exceptions. “In addition, youmust look at the special problems that our language presents tothose who use it as a second language. It is around these twoproblem areas that this review” of cross-cultural communica-tion is organized.

Problems of Cultural Differences A study of the role of culture in international communicationproperly begins with two qualifying statement First, culture isoften improperly assumed to be the cause of miscommunica-tion. Often it is confused with the other human elementsinvolved. We must remember that communication between

people of different cultures involves the same problems ofhuman behavior that are involved when people of the sameculture Communicate. In either case, people can be belligerent,arrogant, prejudiced, insensi-tive, or biased. The miscommuni-cation these types of behavior cause is not a product of culture. Second, one must take care not to over generalize the practiceswithin a culture. We say this even though some of the state-ments we make in the following paragraphs are overgeneralized. But we have little choice. In covering the subject, itis necessary to make generalizations such as “Latin Americansdo this” or “Arabs do that” in order to emphasize a point. Butthe truth of the matter is that in all cultures, subcultures arepresent; and what may be the practice in one segment of aculture may be unheard of by other segments. Within a culturetownspeople differ from country dwellers, the rich differ fromthe poor, and the educated differ from the uneducated. Clearly,the subject of culture is highly complex and should not bereduced to simple generalizations.Culture has been defined in many ways. The classic definitionmost useful in this discussion is one derived from anthropol-ogy: Culture is “a way of life of a group of people . . . thestereotyped patterns of learning behavior, which are handeddown from one generation to the next through means oflanguage and imitation.” Similarly, a modern definition is thatculture is “the shared ways in which groups of people under-stand and interpret the world”.While we can all talk on wireless phones and drink Coca-Cola atMcDonald’s, these activities can be interpreted very differently indifferent cultures. A Coke at McDonald’s in America and aconversation on a wireless phone in Israel may be com-monoccurrences, but in Moscow a trip to McDonald’s is a statussymbol, as is a wire-less phone. In other words, people living indifferent countries have developed not only different ways tointerpret events. They have different habits, different values, anddifferent ways of relating to one another.These differences ate a major source of problems when peopleof different cultures try to communicate. Unfortunately, peopletend to view the ways of their culture as normal and the ways toother cultures as bad, wrong, peculiar, or such. Specifically, theseproblems are related to two kinds of cultural differences: (1)differences in body positions and movements and (2) differ-ences in views and practices concerning vari-ous factors ofhuman relationships (time, space, intimacy, and so on).

Body Positions and MovementsOne might think that the positions and movements of thebody are much the same for all people. But such is not the case.These positions and movements differ by cul-ture, and thedifferences can affect communication. For example, in ourculture most people sit when they wish to remain in one place -for some time, but in much of the world people squat. Because


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we do not squat, we tend to view squatting as primitive. Thisview obviously affects our communication with people who,squat, for what we see when we communicate is a part of themessage. But how correct is this view? Actually, squatting is avery normal body position. Our children squat quite natu-rallyuntil their elders teach them to sit. Who is to say that sitting ismore advanced or better?For another example, people from our culture who visit certainAsian countries are likely to view the fast, short steps taken bythe inhabitants as peculiar or funny and to view our longerstrides as nominal. And when people from our culture, see theinhabi-tants of these countries bow on meeting and leaving,each other, they are likely to interpret the bowing as a sign ofsubservience or weakness.Similarly, people from ourculture see standing up as theappropriate thing to do oncertain occasions (as whensomeone enters the room),whereas people from someother cultures do not.As you know, movements ofcertain body parts (especiallythe hands) are a vital form ofhuman communication. Some of these movements have nodefinite meaning even within a culture. But some have clearmeanings, and these meanings may differ by culture. To us anup and down movement of the head means yes and a side-to-side movement of the head means no. These movements maymean nothing at all or some-thing quite different to peoplefrom cultures in which thrusting the head forward, rais-ing theeyebrows, jerking the head to one side, or lifting the chin areused to convey similar meanings.In addition, the two-fingered “victory” sign is as clear to us asany of our hand ges-tures. To an Australian, whose culture isnot vastly different from ours, the sign has a most vulgarmeaning. The “OK” sign is terribly rude and insulting in suchdiverse places as Russia, Germany, and Brazil. In Japan, a similarsign represents money. If a busi-nessperson completing acontract gave this sign, the Japanese might think they needed togive more money, perhaps even a bribe. Even the widely used“thumbs up” sign for “things are going well” could get youinto trouble in countries from Nigeria to Australia. In ourculture a side-by-side hand movement can ‘be interpreted tomean “hello.” The same movement can be interpreted to mean“go away” or “no” in India. And so it is with many of ourother body movements. They differ widely, even withincultures.The meanings that movements of our eyes convey also vary byculture. In North America, we are taught not to look over theheads of our audience but to maintain eye contact in givingformal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to lookat others but not to stare. In Indonesia, cooking directly atpeople, especially those in higher positions and older, isconsidered to be disrespectful. On the other hand, our practicesof eye contact are less rigorous than those of the British andGermans. Un-less one understands these cultural differences,

how one uses eye movement can be in-terpreted as beingimpolite on the one hand or being shy on the other.Touching and particularly handshaking differences are importantto understand in cross-cultural communication. This is madedifficult by other cultures adopting West-ern greetings. How-ever, some cultures, like the Chinese, do not like muchtouching. They will give a handshake you might perceive asweak. Other cultures that like touch-ing will give you greetingsranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. If youcan avoid judging others from different cultures on theirgreeting based on your standards for others like you, you canseize the opportunity to access the cultural style of another.Here are some types of handshakes by culture.

In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations.But in some other cultures (notably African cultures), a smile isregarded as a sign of weakness in’ cer-tain situations. (Such as‘bargaining). Receiving a gift or toughing with the left hand is aserious breach of etiquette among Muslims, for they view theleft hand as unclean. We attach no such meaning to the lefthand. And so it is with other body movement searching theeyebrows, positioning the fingers, raising the arms, and manymore. All cultures use body movements in communicating, butin different ways.

Views and Practices Concerning Factorsof Human RelationshipProbably causing even more miscommunication than differ-ences in body positions and movements are the differentattitudes of different cultures toward various factors of humanrelationships. For illustrative purposes, we will review sevenmajor factors: time, space, odors, frankness, and intimacy ofrelationships, values, and expression of emotions.Time. In our culture, people tend to regard time as somethingthat must be planned for the most efficient use. They strive tomeet deadlines, to be punctual, to conduct business quickly, andto work on a schedule.In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East andsome parts of Asia), people view time in a more relaxed way.They see planning as unwise and unneces-sary. Being late to ameeting, a social function, or such is of little consequence tothem. In fact, some of them hold the view that importantpeople should be late to, show that they are busy. In businessnegotiations, the people in these cultures move at a deliber-atelyslow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting to the mainissue. It is easy to see how such different views of time cancause people from different cultures to have serious miscom-munication problems.

Culture Americans Germans French British Hispanics Latin Americans Middle Easterners Asians

Handshakes Firm Brusque, firm, repeated upon arrival and departure Light, quick, not offered to superiors, repeated upon arrival and departure Soft Moderate grasp, repeated frequently Firm, long-lasting Gentle, repeated 'frequently' Gentle; for some, shaking hands is unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an exception to this is the Korean, who generally has a firm handshake)


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Space. People from different cultures often vary in theirattitudes toward space. Even people from the same culture mayhave different space preferences. North Americans tend to preferabout two feet or so of distance between them-selves and thosewith whom they speak. But in some cultures (some Arabianand South American cultures), people stand closer to each other;not following this practice is considered impolite and badetiquette. For another example, North American view personalspace as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus,they stand in line and wait their turn. People from some othercultures view space as belonging to all. Thus, they jostle, forspace when boarding trains, standing at ticket counters,shopping in stores, and such. In encounters between peoplewhose cultures have such different, attitudes toward space,actions are likely to be misinterpreted.Odors. People from different ‘cultures may have deferentattitudes toward body odors. To illustrate, Americans workhard to neutralize body odors or cover them up and view thosewith body odors as dirty and unsanitary. On the other hand, insome Asian cultures people view body odors not as somethingto be hidden but as something that friends should experience.Some of the people from these cultures believe that it is an actof friendship to “breathe the breath” of the person ‘withwhom they converse and to feel their presence by smelling.Clearly, encounters between people with such widely differingattitudes could lead to serious miscommunication.Frankness. North Americans tend to be relatively frank orexplicit in their relation-ships with others, quickly getting to thepoint and perhaps being blunt and sharp doing, so. Asianstend to be far more reticent or implicit and sometimes go togreat lengths to save face or not to offend. Americans belong toa high-context culture, a Cul-ture that explicitly shares allrelevant background information in our communication.Asians, on the other hand, belong to a low-context culture,extracting limit background information and thus communicat-ing more implicitly. Thus, Asians may Appear evasive,roundabout, and indecisive to North Americans; and, NorthAmericans may appear harsh, impolite, and aggressive toAsians. Telephone customs may be an exception, especiallyamong the Chinese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptlyafter their purpose has been accomplished. North Americans,on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and clearlyprepare the listener for the end of the call.Intimacy of Relationships. In many cultures, strict socialclasses exist, and class status determines how intimately peopleare addressed and treated in communication. For this reason, aperson from such a culture might quiz a person from anotherculture to determine that persons class status. Questionsconcerning occupation, income, title, and such might be asked.People from cultures that stress human equality are apt to takeoffense at such questioning about the notion of class status.This difference in at-titude toward class status also is illustratedby differences in the familiarity of address. Some Americans arequick to establish a first-name basis. This practice is offensive topeople from some other cultures, notably the English and theGermans, who expect such intimate address only from long-standing acquaintances.

Similarly, how people view superior-subordinate-relations canvary by culture. The dominant view in Latin America, forexample, is a strong boss with weak subordinates doing as theboss directs. In sharp contrast is the somewhat democratic workarrange-ment of the Japanese in which much of the decision-making is by consensus. Most in our culture view as appropriatean order between these extremes. These widely differ-ingpractices have led to major communication problems in jointbusiness ventures in-volving ‘people from these cultures.The role of women varies widely by culture. In North America,we continue to move toward a generally recognized goal ofequality. In many Islamic cultures, the role of women is quitedifferent. To many in our culture, the practices of the people ofthese other cultures suggest severe restriction of human rights.In the view of the peo-ple of these cultures, their practices are inaccord with their religious convictions. They see us as being theones out of step.Values. Also differing by culture is our values-how we evaluatethe critical mat-ters in life. Americans, for example, have beenindoctrinated with the Protestant work ethic. It is the belief thatif one puts hard work ahead of pleasure, success will follow.The product of this thinking is an emphasis on planning,working efficiently, and max-imizing production. Of course,not all of us subscribe to this ethic, but it is a strong force in thethinking of many in our culture. The prevailing view in someother cul-tures is quite different. In. some, the major concern isfor spiritual and human well being. The view of work is relaxed,and productivity is, at best, a secondary concern.Views about the relationships of employers and employees alsomay differ by cul-ture. North American workers expect tochange companies in their career a number of times; and theyexpect companies to fire them from time to time. Employeesexpect to move freely from job to job, and they expect employ-ers to hire and fire as their needs change. Expectations are quitedifferent in some other cultures. In Japan, for example,employment tends to be for a lifetime. The workplace is viewedmuch like a family, with loyalty expected from employees andemployer. Such differences have caused misunderstandings inAmerican-Japanese joint ventures.How employees view authority is yet another question thatcultures view differ-ently. We North Americans generally acceptauthority, yet we fiercely maintain the rights of tl1e individual.In many Third World cultures, workers accept a subservient rolepassively. Autocratic rule is expected—even wanted.Expression of Emotions. From culture to culture, differencesin social behavior de-velop. To illustrate, in some Asian culturespublic displays of affection are strongly frowned upon-in fact,considered crude and offensive. Westerners, on the other hand,accept at least a moderate display of affection., To Westerners,laughter is a sponta-neous display of pleasure, but in somecultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can be a controlledbehavior-to be used in certain social situations. Even suchemotional displays as sorrow are influenced by culture. In someMiddle Eastern cultures, sorrow is expressed with loud,seemingly uncontrolled wailing. In similar situations, West-erners typically respond with subdued and controlled emotions.


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We all have observed the emotion and animation people of theMediterranean\cul-tures display as they communicate. And wehave seen the more subdued communica-tion of others-notably northern Europeans. The first group tends to see thesecond as disinterested and lacking in friendliness. The secondsees the first as excitable, emo-tional, and perhaps evenunstable.Many more such practices exist. Some cultures combinebusiness and social plea sure; others do not. Some expect toengage in aggressive bargaining in business transactions; othersprefer. Straightforward dealings. -Some talk loudly and. withemotion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner.Some communicate with emphasis on economy of expression;others communicate with an abundance of verbiage.The comparisons could-go on and on for there are countlessdifferences-in cultures. But it is not necessary to review them all.What is important is that we recognize their existence, that welook for them, and that we understand them. We should guardagainst ethnocentrism, the use of cultural practices as standardsfor determining mean-ing in cross-cultural communication.

Effects on Business CommunicationTechniquesThe foregoing examples illustrate only a few of the numerousdifferences that exist among cultures. Books have been writtenon the subject. Our objective here is only to establish the pointthat the differences among cultures affect communicationbetween people of different cultures.The communication techniques presented in this book shouldbe modified to fit the culture involved. Keep in mind that thisbook was written for our culture. Much of what we say doesnot apply to other cultures. Especially is this the case with ourcov-erage of the basic message situations-those concerningdirectness and indirectness. People in Asian cultures, forexample, generally favor a somewhat indirect approach formessages we would treat directly. They begin with an identifica-tion of context- that is, a description of the situation themessage concerns. They use what appears to us as exaggeratedpoliteness and slowness in moving the message. In fact, someof our direct messages would be regarded as rude by people inthese cultures.?Our persuasive appeals may be rejected in India, where views ofan older, more highly developed morality lead to thinkingdifferent from ours.8 Even the British, whose culture we thinkof as resembling our own, have message practices that differfrom ours. They especially differ in the treatment of negativesituations. They prefer an approach that we would regard asblunt and calloused. They would regard our goodwill strategiesas insincere and evasive.And so it is with the many other cultures of the world. Ourpractices just do not fit into them. What to do about thisproblem? You have no choice but to become a stu-dent ofculture. You must learn the cultures of those with whom youcommunicate. Don’t expect them to understand your culture,although many of them do. With your recipient’s culture inmind, you then modify your communication accordingly.

Problems of LanguageThe people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Becausefew of us can learn more than one or two other languages well,problems of miscommunication are bound to occur ininternational communication.

Lack of Language EquivalencyUnfortunately, wide differences among languages make preciselyequivalent transla-tions difficult. One reason for such differencesis that languages are based on the con-cepts, experiences, views,and such of the cultures that developed them. And differentcultures have different concepts, experiences, views, and such.For el-ample, we think of a florist as someone who sellsflowers and related items in a store. In some cultures, however,street vendors, mainly women and children, sell flowers.Obviously, our florist does not have a precise equivalent in/thelanguage of such cultures.Similarly, our supermarket has no equivalent in some languages.The French have no word to distinguish between house andhome, mind and brain, and man and gentleman. The Spa.T1ishhave no word to distinguish between a chairman and a president,while Italians have no word for wishful thinking: And Russianshave no words for efficiency, chal-lenge and having fun. However,Italians have nearly 500 words {or types of pasta. And so it iswith words for many other objects, actions, concepts, and such(for example, roundup, interview, strike, tough, monopoly,domestic feminine, responsible, aloof).Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is thegrammatical and syntactic differences among languages. Somelanguages (Urdu, for example) have no gerunds, and some haveno adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages deal with verbmood, voice, and tense in the same way. The obvious result isthat even the best trans-lators often cannot find literal equiva-lents between languages.Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem ofmultiple word meanings. Like English, other languages havemore than one meaning for many words. Think, for example,of our numerous meanings for the simple word run (to movefast, Jo compete for office, a score in baseball, a break in astocking, a fading of colors, and many more). Or consider themultiple meanings of such words as fast, cat, trip, gross, ring,and make. The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000words to define what. Unless one knows a language well, it isdifficult to, know which of the meanings is intended.Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used ina way their dic-tionary translations and grammatical structuresdo not explain. Those within the cul-ture understand theseexpressions; those outside may not. For example, we might say,“Business couldn’t be better,” meaning business is very good.One from another culture might understand the sentence tomean, “Business is bad” (impossible to im-prove). Or wemight say, “We could never be too nice to our customers,”meaning try as we may, we couldn’t be overly nice. To one fromanother culture, the sentence might mean “We cannot be nice toour customers.”Similarly, like-meaning words can be used in different ways indifferent cultures. One example is the simple word yes, a word


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that has an equivalent in all languages. “The Chinese yes, like theJapanese yes, can often be understood by Americans and Britishas their English yes. But the Chinese yes often means ‘I amlistening.’ Or it may be understood in English as the oppositeof yes. For example, when an American says to a Chinesecounterpart, ‘I see you don’t agree with this clause,’ the Chinesewill usu-ally reply, ‘Yes’ meaning a polite agreement with thenegative question: ‘Yes, you are right. I do not agree with theclause.Overcoming such language problems is difficult. The best way,of course, is to know more than one language well, but thecompetence required is beyond the reach of most of us. Thus,your best course is first to be aware that translation ‘problemsexist and then to ask questions-to probe-to determine what theother person understands.For very important oral messages, documents, or such, youmight consider using a procedure called back translating. Thisprocedure involves using two translators, one with first-language skills in one of the languages involved and one withfirst-language skills in the other “language. The first translatortranslates the message into his or her language, and the secondtranslator then translates the message back into the original. Ifthe translations are good, the second translation matches theoriginal.

Difficulties in Using EnglishFortunately for us, English is the primary language of interna-tional business. This is - not to say that other languages are notused in international business, for they are. When businessexecutives from different countries have a common language,what-ever it may be, they are likely to use it. For example, anexecutive from Iraq and an executive from Saudi Arabia wouldcommunicate with each other in Arabic, for Ara-bic is theircommon language. For the same reason, an executive fromVenezuela would use Spanish in dealing with an executive fromMexico. However, when execu-tives have no common language,they are likely to use English. The members of the EuropeanFree Trade Association conduct all their business in Englisheven though not one of them is a native English speaker. in thewords of one international authority, “English has emerged asthe lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way thatGreek did in the ancient world of the West and China did in theEast.Although we can take comfort from knowing that ours is theprimary language of international business, we must keep inmind that it is not the primary language of many of the whouse it. Since many of these users have had to learn English as asecond language, they are likely to use it less fluently than weand to experience prob-lems in understanding us. Some oftheir more troublesome problems are reviewed in the followingpages.Two-Word Verbs. One of the most difficult problems tononnative speakers of Eng-lish involves the use of two-wordverbs. By two-word verbs we mean a wording con-sisting of (1) averb and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb,produces a meaning that the verb alone does not have. Forexample, take the verb break and the word up. When combined,they have a meaning quite different from the meanings the

words have alone. And look how the meaning changes whenthe same verb is com-bined with other words: break away, breakout, break in, break down. Dictionaries are of little help tononnative who are seeking the meanings of these wordcombinations.There are many two-word verbs-so many, in fact, that a specialdictionary of them has been compiled. Following are a, few ofthem arranged by the more common words that combine withthe verbs:

Verb Plus “Away" . give away keep away Lay away pass away put away

throw away

Verb Plus “Back" cut back

feed back keep back play back read back take back turn back win back

verb plus “down “

calm down die down

hand down keep down let down lie down

mark down pin down play down put down run down shut down sit down

wear down

verb plus “out” clean out clear out

crowd out cut out die out dry out

even out figure out

fill out find out give out hold out hold out lose out pull out rule out

Verb Plus “ln" cash in cave in lose in dig in give in run in take in

throw in

Verb Plus “Off” break off brush off buy off

check off clear off cool off finish off

let off mark off payoff run off send off show off shut off

sound off start off take off write off

verb Plus “out”

blow out

verb plus “up” blow up build up call up

cover up dig up end up fill up get up

hang up hold up keep up look up mix up pick up save up

shake up


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verb plus “out” pull out rule out tire out wear out work out

verb plus “over” check over

do over hold over pass over put over run over stop over take over talk over

think over win over

verb plus “up” save up shake up shut up slow up split up wrap up

verb Plus Miscellaneous words

bring about catch on

get across pass on

put across put forth roll over set forth

Of course, nonnative studying English learn some of theseword combinations, for they are part of the English language.But many of them are not covered in language textbooks orlisted in dictionaries. It is apparent that we should use theseword com-binations sparingly when communicating- withnonnative speakers of English. When-ever possible, we shouldsubstitute for them words that appear in standard dictionaries.Following are some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:

Two-Word Verbs give up speed up, hurry up go on, keep on put off take off come down go in, come in, get in Two-Word Verbs go out, come out, get out blow up think up figure out take out, take away remove return

Suggested Substitutes surrender accelerate continue defer depart, remove descend enter Suggested Substitutes exit, leave explode imagine solve go back, get back, be back

Additional problems result from the fact that some two-wordverbs have noun and adjective forms. These also tend toconfuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such nounsare breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, hookup, show-off, and sit-in.Exam-ples of such adjectives are going away (a going-away gift),cover-up (cover-up tac-tjcs), cleanup (cleanup work), and turning-o f f (turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjectivesof this kind are commonly used and appear in standard diction-aries (words such as hookup, feedback, breakthrough, lookout, andtakeover). In writ-ing to nonnative readers, you will need to usesparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries.

Culturally Derived Words. Words derived from our culturealso present problems. The most apparent are the slangexpressions that continually come into and go out of use.Some slang expressions catch on and find a place in ourdictionaries (brunch, hobo, blurb, bogus). But most are with usfor a little while and then are gone. Exam-ples of such short-lived slang expressions are the “twenty-three skiddoo” ‘and “ohyou kid” of the 1920s and the ritzy, scram, natch, lousy, soused,, in the groove, and tops of following decades. More recentones that are probably destined for the same fate include nerd,wimp, earth pig, pig out, couch potato, squid, airhead, and cool.Perhaps you are not aware of just how much slap we use.Most slang words are not in dictionaries or on the word liststhat non-English-speaking people study to learn English. Theobvious conclusion is that you should not use slang in cross-cultural communication.Similar to and in fact overlapping slang are the words andexpressions that we de-rive from our various activities-sports,social affairs; work, and the like. Sports es-pecially have contrib-uted such words, many of which are so widely used that theyare part of our everyday vocabulary. From football we havekickoff, goal-line stand, and over the top. Baseball has given usout in left field, strike out, touch base, off base, right off thebat, a steal, squeeze play, balk, and go to bat for. From boxingwe have knockout, down for the count, below the belt, answerthe bell, and on the ropes. From other: sports and from sportsin general we have jock,’ ace, par, stymie, from scratch, ballparkfigure, and get the ball rolling.Similar to these words and expressions are words and expres-sions developed within our culture (colloquialisms). Some ofthese have similar meanings in other cultures, but most aredifficult for non-natives to understand. Following are someexamplesHead for home in the grooveHave an itching palm nuts (crazy)Grasp at straws grand(thousand0Flat footed circle the wagonsOn the beam shoot from the hipOut to pasture tuckered outSitting duck gumptionCrying In his beer tote (carry)In orbit in a rutA honey pump primingA flop make heads or tails of itDope (crazy) tearjerkerHood (gangster) countdownUp the creek without a paddle shortcutA fish out of water educated guessA chicken with its head cut offIf you are like most of us, many of these words and expres-sions are apart of your vocabulary. You use them in youreveryday communicating, which is all right. They are colorful,and they can communicate clearly to those who understand


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them. Normative English speakers are not likely to understandthem, however, so you will need, to eliminate such words andexpressions in communicating with them. You will need to usewords that are clearly defined in the dictionaries that thesepeople are likely to use in translating your message. Followingare some examples:

Not This We were caught flat-footed. He frequently shoots from the' hip. We would be up the creek without a paddle. They couldn’t make heads or tails-of the report. The sales campaign was a flop. 'I'll touch base with you on this problem august. Take, an educated guess op this question. Your sales report put us in orbit We’ will wind down manufacturing operations in November Your prediction was right on the beam.

But This We were surprised. He -frequently acts before he thinks. We would be in a helpless situation. They couldn't understand the report. The sales campaign was a failure. I'll talk with you about this problem in August. Answer this section to the, best of your knowledge Your sales report pleased us very much. We will end manufacturing operations-in November. Your prediction was correct

A General Suggestion ForCommunicating Acr’os’s CulturesIn addition to the specific suggestions for improving yourcommunication in English with nonnative English speakers,you should follow one general suggestion: write or talk simplyand dearly. Talk slowly-and enunciate each word. Rememberthat because most nonnative speakers learned English inschool, they are acquainted mainly with primary dictionarymeanings and are not likely to understand slang words orshades of difference in the meanings we give words. They willunderstand you better if you avoid these pitfalls. In .the wordsof two highly regarded scholars in the field you should “educateyourself in the use of Simplified English.You also will communicate better if you carefully word yourquestions. Be she your questions are not double questions.Avoid “Do you want to go to dinner now or wait until after therush hour is over?” Also avoid the yes/no question that somecul-tures may have difficulty answering directly. Use more open-ended questions such as “When would you like to go todinner?’” Also, avoid negative questions such “Aren’t you goingto dinner?” In some cultures a yes response confirms whetherthe questioner is correct; in other cultures the response isdirected toward the question being asked.Finally, try to check and clarify your communication throughcontinuous confirmation. Summarizing in writing also is agood idea, and today’s technology enables parties to do this onthe spot. It allows you to be certain you have conveyed yourmessage and received theirs accurately. Even in Britain, a culturesimilar to ours, similar words can have vastly different mean-ings. For example, we use a billion to mean 1,000,000,000whereas the British use it to mean 1,000,0000,000,000. Continu-ally checking for meaning and using written summaries can helpensure the accuracy of the communication process.

Summary By Chpater Objectives1. Businesses are becoming increasingly global in their

operations.• Being able to communicate across cultures is necessary

in these operations.

• Specifically, it helps in gaining additional business, in hiringgood people, and generally in understanding and satisfyingthe needs

2. Culture may be defined as “the way of life of a group ofpeople.”

• Cultures differ.• People tend to view the

practices of their culture asright and those of therecultures as peculiar orwrong.

3. Variations in how peopleof different cultures usebody positions and bodymovements is a cause ofmiscommunication.

• How people walk, gesturesmile, and such variesfrom culture to culture.

• When people from different cultures attempt tocommunicate, each may not understand the other’s bodymovements.

4. People in different cultures differ in their ways of relating topeople.

• Specifically, they differ in their practices and thinkingconcerning time, space, odors, frankness, relationships,values, and social behavior.

• We should not use our culture’s practices as standards fordetermining meaning

• Instead, we should try to understand the other culture.5. Language equivalency problems are another major cause of

miscommunication in cross – cultural communication.• About 3,000 languages are used on earth.• They differ greatly in grammer and syntax.• Like English, most have words with multiple meanings.• As a result, equivalency in translation is difficult.6. Overcoming the language equivalency problems involves

hard and tedious work.• The best advice is to master the language of the nonnative

English speakers with whom you communicate.• Also, you should be aware of the problems caused by

language differences.• Ask questions carefully to make sure you are understood.• For important communications, consider back translation –

the technique of the second to translate back to the original.• Check the accuracy of the communication with written

summaries.

UNIT 5 CHAPTER 11: EMERGING TRENDS LESSON 41: INTERVIEW TIPS

Upon completion of this lesson you will:

• Have more self-confidence in facing interviews.

• Learn the prerequisites in preparing for an interview.

• Stop worrying about Interviews.

Student’s this lesson will equip you to come home with a job in hand after an interview. In interviews what you have learnt so far is secondary, what matters is how prepared are you for the interview and finally the job. It is not possible to guarantee questions in any interview, but you should consider asking yourself the following questions so that you will be fully prepared during the interview. You are best placed to know your own shortcomings and where you might fall below the expected standard, so it is important to anticipate and practice the answers. Focus on your strengths and what skills you can bring to a position. The interview is a prime opportunity for you to sell yourself to the interviewer. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: The questions most typically asked at interviews have been grouped into the following topic areas (but are seldom as structured during the interview process). The questions below are focused towards a European market; please note that the style and types of questions do vary from one country to another. This list is not exhaustive but should provide food for thought. You should prepare for questions about: your background, your aspirations, the potential employer and the position, your personality and your interests. Potential Employer

• Why did you apply to us? • Where did you hear about the position?

• What do you know about our organization? • Do you know anyone who works for us? • What interests you about the position? • What do you think we have to offer you as a company?

Career Ambitions • What are your long/short term goals? • Tell me about your career aspirations. • What are you looking for in a career? • Do you have plans to gain further qualifications? • Where do you see yourself in 2/5 years time? • Describe your ideal employer.

Skills and Requirements

• Why should we hire you? - Give me three reasons. • What have you got to offer the company? - What skills will you bring? • How do you work best? - Leading a group, in a team or alone? • Are you prepared to travel? • Are you looking for a position with training? • What has been your main career achievement to date? • What was the most difficult problem in your current/previous position - how did

you find the solution ? You say you have x skills…how did you demonstrate these in your previous position ?

Personality

• Describe yourself - strengths/weaknesses? • How would your friends describe you? • What motivates you? • What are your strengths/weaknesses? • How do you spend your spare time?

Problem/Sticky Questions

• What salary or benefits are you looking for ? (We can give you advice regarding how to deal with this question prior to your interview).

• Why are you changing your career? • Explain the gap in your work history. • Given your career plans, how long do you expect to stay with our organization? • Can we contact your current employer for references ? (this question is usually

only asked after an offer letter has been sent - nevertheless be prepared).

Questions to ask the Interviewer

• Why is the position available? • What skills are needed to succeed? • What are the initial priorities of the position? • How does the position fit into the organisational structure? • How much scope (autonomy, flexibility, career growth, responsibilities) is there

within this position ? • What is the company’s managerial style/culture ?

Questions typically asked of Graduates.

• Why did you chose your particular degree/discipline ? • Why did you chose your college/university ? • What did you most/least like about your course ? • What was your strongest/weakest subject ? • Tell me about your project work ? • How are your studies related to this position/vacancy ? • Tell me about your career aspirations ? • Describe your ideal employer ? • Do you plan to gain further qualifications ? • How do you spend you spare time ? • How would your tutor describe you ? • Besides your degree, what else do you feel you gained from college/university ? • Were you active in any societies ? • What positions of responsibility do you hold/have you held ?

PRIOR TO THE INTERVIEW Prepare - Prepare for Interview Questions, have a few to ask the interviewer, dress well. Identify - Who are you meeting? their titles, relationship to job. Research - Find out what the job entails. A good agency will always provide you with a detailed job specification. Make sure you have all the information. Plan Ahead - Get a location map, contact telephone numbers, have money, mobile phone if possible, allow yourself a good 30-60 minutes of additional time to arrive, etc. Check Out - Company brochures or website. Most companies today have a Web Site and they expect you to have researched their company. If going for a marketing/sales/finance position - research company products and the company potential (e.g. Annual review report, etc.) DURING THE INTERVIEW

• Smile and make eye contact. • Relax and be friendly. • Be positive and enthusiastic. • Think about your body language.

• Don’t discuss salary until you’re offered the job.

REMEMBER 7-10% is what you say 20-30% is how you say it 60-80% is your image, your body language and the overall impression you create. Confirming your acceptance When you are offered an interview, write back immediately, thanking the person and confirming the date, time and place. Arrive at least ten minutes before your appointment. If you are going to be late, telephone and apologize. Be courteous to the gatekeeper and receptionist, as they may be asked for their opinion of you. Researching the facts Get as much information as possible about your prospective employer. Telephone and ask for any brochures or literature and collect them if necessary. On the evening before the interview re-read this information. Write down at least four points about the organization and its products or services and memorize them. This knowledge will greatly increase your self-confidence at interview. The interviewer’s assessment of you Professional interviewers will try to obtain an objective assessment of candidates, by considering the following points:

...Past experience and achievements.

...Special abilities and aptitudes

...Interests and leisure activities

...Disposition and personal characteristics

...Physical appearance and bearing

...General intelligence How you are rated, particularly on the first three depends on how well you have prepared yourself Five key points for the interview Select five points from your background, education or experience, which are relevant, or which show initiative. Write these down, memorize them and make sure you talk about them at interview. An example could be:

...Fluency in a foreign language.

...Experience of part-time jobs.

...A relevant research project.

...Collection of money for charity.

...Membership of a local club. Tricky questions You maybe asked about your major personal strengths. Select something, which is

relevant, such as: getting on well with other people, always completing a job properly, etc. If asked about your weak points, choose one that still shows you in a positive light, e.g. ‘I take on too much work’. Just before the interview, you may be asked to take a series of tests. Prepare yourself by working through a book of these tests now. If you take a personality test, give honest answers, not ones that you think will improve your score. In any test, work quickly but without rushing – quality is more important than quantity! Giving value for money You have to convince an employer that you are worth employing and that you have the capacity for hard work and a readiness for accepting change or further training. Your general attitude to life is one of the most important aspects on which your future employer will assess you.


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LESSON 42:CASE STUDY

Business Communication

ActivityBelow are extracts from two cases that have occurred during thepast year that highlight the importance of communication. Thekey events of the cases have been highlighted. Your task is todiscuss each event in terms of the following:• What communication processes were adopted in each case

(there may be more than one)?• What message/information was the sender trying to send

out?• How successful was that person/body in communicating

that message?• What barriers to successful communication did the

information experience?• Advise the sender on an alternative approach that may have

had different results.

Learning Objectives• To understand the variety of methods and media that

can be used to communicate information• To understand the process of communication• To understand the nature of barriers to successful

communication

Event 1

The Rio Rumpus!The outline of the event: Rio Ferdinand, the England andManchester United defender, is due for a random, routine drugtest but ‘forgets’ because he is moving house, he turns up backat the training ground but the testers have gone home. Twodays later on 25th September he gives a test, which provesnegative. Discussions then take place between his club,Manchester United and the Football Association, that he willnot be selected from the England Squad to go to Turkey for thecrucial European Championship qualifying match on October11th. Delays to the announcement of the squad by themanager, Sven Goran Eriksson, fuel speculation and byMonday October 6th information is released through a pressconference by Manchester United pointing out that Ferdinandhas been left out of the squad.The rest of the England team are furious, they feel his confi-dentiality has been compromised and that Ferdinand is beingbranded as ‘guilty’ without any charge being made against him;Ferdinand is due to attend a hearing on Monday 13th. Theplayers register their discontent and mention boycotting thegame as a possible option. The press gets hold of this andthere are big divisions over the stance of the FA and the players.The FA and the players eventually announce that agreement hasbeen reached and the match goes ahead.

Event 2:

Accident Insurance GroupBackground. The Accident Insurance Group was a companyspecializing in the pursuit of compensation claims for victimsof accidents either at work or elsewhere. The company pursuedclaims for compensation on behalf of victims and takes a sliceof the compensation award if successful. Following a fall in thesuccess rates for personal injury claims and the withdrawal of akey financial backer, the company ceased trading in late May2003. Approximately 2500 staff lost their jobs. Rumors aboutthe future of the company began to circulate amongst staffwhen some received text messages advising them to look attheir bank accounts because there were problems paying salaries;later text messages advised them that their salary had not beenpaid. There were then stories of the company actually notifyingstaff of dismissal by text message. The Chairman of thecompany, Mark Langford, claimed the decision to tell workersthey had been made redundant through text message was nothis and blamed the administrators, PriceWaterhouseCoopers.

Communication: The Role of ICT

In business, communication can be:• between individuals• between individuals and

organisations• within a business• between a business and an

external organisation


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Communication

Communication takes place within networks. These are some of the types of network:

• chain• circle • wheel• all-channel

Communication• A chain networke.g formal contact

Communication• A circle networke.g. between people

at same level

Communication• A wheel networke.g. sales teams report to head

office


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Communication• An all-channel networke.g. brainstorming

Communication

Communication in the business world is very different today compared to twenty years ago, because of:

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Examples of ICT Use

• Mobile telephones• Video and tele-conferencing• Lap-top computers• E-mail• Multi-media communications

Examples of ICT Use

• Mobile telephones• Video and tele-conferencing• Lap-top computers• E-mail• Multi-media communications


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Communication FailureNo matter what medium of communication is used, it can fail if:

• jargon is used inappropriately• badly written messages are transmitted• the message goes to the wrong receiver• information overload takes place• the communication channel breaks

down

Communication Failure

In the UK firms wanting to move into e-commerce can be:

• prevented due to slow connection speeds

• affected by lack of broadband services

Go to the Activity for more on this.


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LESSON 43: RECENT TRENDS

By the end of this lesson you will have more understanding on :

• Commitment to Core Business Principles Beyond Caveat Emptor

• Towards Corporate Governance

• The Rights of Customers

• Changing Trends in Business Communication

• Data Warehousing

• Customer Relationship Management

Values in Business

Communication and Customer Relations--The EthicalDimensionWhat we have discussed hitherto in all the earlier chaptersessentially relates to the content and substance of and approachto communication and customer relations. We have seen theneed for good words and nice gestures in communicating withpeople in business and dealing with customers. These are, nodoubt, essential. They are indeed a pre-requisite for ensuringeffective communication and meaningful and enduringcustomer relationships. Yet, in today’s context, businesses haveto do much more than the good word and nice phrases bit.There is an imperative need to go beyond the substance;beyond the words, and look at the spirit in which communica-tion is ef-fected and customer relations are sustained. Thisrelates to the ethical dimension or the values concerningcommunication and customer relations that every businessshould consciously build up and nurture.The market place can be described as a battle ground andmarketing as “ a civilized form of warfare in which most battlesare won with words, ideas and disciplined think-ing”, Inbeating competition, businesses often do not have much choicebut to use flashy words and hard-hitting ideas to penetratemarkets and win over and retain cus-tomers. In as much asbottom lines are crucial for sustaining market share, the profitmotive governs the rules the businesses follow in pursuingcommunication and cus-tomer relations. Business decisions aretaken more by applying the head than the heart. Be that as itmay, it is to be well understood that businesses that reallyendure are those that show commitment to values, businesseswhere the ethic dimension co-exists with the pecuniary objec-tives. The spirit behind the words counts for a lot. Progressivebusiness organizations make it a point to articulate values andlay empha-sis on the ethical aspects of business in general. Apre-requisite for ensuring effective communication and mean-ingful and enduring customer relationships. Yet, in today’scontext, businesses have to do much more than the good wordand nice phrases bit. There is an imperative need to go beyondthe substance beyond the words, and look at the spirit in whichcommunication is ef-fected and customer relations are sus-tained. This relates to the ethical dimension or the values

concerning communication and customer relations that everybusiness should consciously build up and nurture. .The market place can be described as a battle ground andmarketing as “ a civilized form of warfare in which most battlesare won with words, ideas and disciplined think-ing”, In beatingcompetition, businesses often do not have much choice but touse flashy words and hard-hitting ideas to penetrate markets andwin over and retain cus-tomers. In as such as bottom lines arecrucial for sustaining market share, the profit motive governs therules businesses follow in pursuing communication and cus-tomer relations. Business decisions are taken more by applyingthe head than the heart. Be that as it may, it is to be well under-stood that businesses that really endure are those that showcommitment to values; businesses where the ethical dimensionco-exist with the pecuniary objectives. The spirit behind thewords counts for a lot. Progressive business organizations makeit a point to articulate values and lay empha-sis on the ethicalaspects of business in general.

Business Organizations are PerpetualEntitiesThe ethical dimension of busi-ness assumes significance whenwe realize that business organisati6ns, particularly in thecorporate world are seen as perpetual entities. They exist tofulfill a specific need of people in the community. They willcontinue to thrive and survive as long as they strive to meet thatspecific need or a set, of needs in a manner that is acceptable tothe customers or service seekers. For this, they must earn andsustain customers ‘trust and confidence on an on-going basis.They are very much unlike the fly-by-night type of businesses,which operate with a shortsighted profit-at-any-cost motive.

Commitment to Core Business PrinciplesIn order to earn and retain custom-ers’ trust and confidence,progressive organizations are value-driven and they affirm theircommitment to core business principles. In their communica-tion and customer relations they are governed by such principlesto which they are committed. When it comes to advertisementor the vision document or the ‘mission statement, words anddeeds clearly reflect the value system which operates in thatbusiness organization. This set of core principles may takemany forms, for example:• An Organization may decide not to advertise in any

politically affiliated newspaper or journal.• An organization may decide not to make any adverse

comments, implicitly about its competitors and theirproducts.

• An organization may decide not to pass on to the customerany loss arising out of mistakes committed by theiremployees.


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Such principles can be many and varied and to proceed legallyagainst any government department for realizing its dues, evenif it means delay or loss.

Beyond Caveat EmptorValue driven business organizations transcend the ‘CaveatEmptor’ or the ‘buyer beware’ attitude. The attempt is not tooutwit the customer and make a fast buck. The attitude is notone of carrying to any customer inimical information in fineprint at some corner hoping that it would miss his attention.Enlightened business managers do realize that ‘you missed thefine print, say you suffer’ days are over. Good customers arehard to come by and should be given fair treatment. The senseof fair play, it is realized, is an important value that shouldpermeate communication and customer relations.

Business Legal ComplianceBusinesses have learnt hard way that their relationship with thecustomer extends beyond the legal aspect. Legal requirementshave to be met, particularly when they are favoring the cus-tomer. Taking recourse to legal remedies and carrying onrunning legal battles against the customers is far from desirable,even when the legal grounds favor the business. A business canwin the court case but lose the customer, and even the goodwillof a section of existing and potential customers.

Customers are Not Adversaries All these arguments bring out the message that customers arenot to be treated as adversaries. They are partners withoutwhose sup-port no business can hope to survive. Amongpartners there cannot be a win-lose relationship. It has to be awin-win relationship. Beyond legal compliance, beyond thejargon, there should be a sincere effort to make the relationshipmutually beneficial.

Move Towards Corporate GovernanceValues relating to communication and customer relations arealso to be seen in the larger context of business organizationsmoving towards corporate governance. The term corporategovernance has a wide connotation. It supports a business ethicthat shuns short cuts and unethical practices. It brings out theaccountability of management to shareholders. In its broadersense, corporate governance is said to encompass the entirerange of formal and informal interactions of the corporatesector with the society at large. Corporate governance strives toensure fairness, honesty and transparency of a businessorganization in rela-tion to its dealings with various stakehold-ers viz., shareholders, creditors, the state and employees. Thewidely referred prescriptions of the Cadbury Code in the UnitedKingdom deal with the role and responsibilities of the Boardof Directors and its sub-committees. Among others, the codelays down that the Board report should contain a coherentnarrative, supported by the figures of the company’s perfor-mance and pros-pects and that the Board has an obligation topresent a balanced and understandable assessment of thecompany’s position. These aspects of corporate governance areparticularly relevant in the context of ensuring good and propercommunication and customer relations.

Cardinal Principles of CommunicationThe three cardinal principles of communication for any, goodbusiness organization isa. Adequacyb. Transparencyc. Consistency.Adequacy implies that all relevant information is made availableby the business and its management to its employees, custom-ers, investors or shareholders as the case may be to facilitate afair assessment of the state of affairs.Transparency relates to the degree of openness in the sense thatno attempt is made to cover up or hoodwink the shareholders.Consistency in a sense reflects the core principles, statementsand performance-related claims, which the company stands byover a period of time. It means that there is no attempt tocontradict the, statements and claims made by senior manage-ment functionaries and that they speak on the same wavelength.

The Rights of CustomersIn the context of ensuring effective communication andmeaningful customer relations, business organizations will haveto take cognizance of customer expectations and their rights asthey perceive them. Essentially, these relate to the right ofinformation, the right of choice and the right of accountability.Right of information This right concerns the customer’s needto have all relevant information on the product and thecompany before he is in a position to decide on the transactionor relationship. The prices and rates, the terms and conditions,the incen-tives and discounts, the warranties and after-salesarrangements should all be made available. In the servicessector, the right of information is gaining acceptance not only inthe financial services and public utilities, but also in medical andsuch other professional services. The right of information indifferent areas would mean the fol-lowing:• A doctor giving his patient details about his ailment, the type

of medication and treatment he proposes to follow and mayeven involve encouraging the patient to seek a secondopinion, if need be

• For Airlines services it means giving reasons for the delay inthe flight depar-ture, the probable time of departure and theefforts being made to cut down the delay and not leaving thepassengers in the dark

• For a bank or a financial institution it means giving to theborrower the full picture of the rates and charges involved,and not keeping him or her in the dark about any hiddencosts

• For a mutual fund agent or salesman it means keeping theprospective inves-tor duly informed about the implicationsof investing in mutual funds-that the returns may vary andeven the principal amount may get eroded depend-ing uponmarket related factors

The right of information would also cover the availability ofand easy access to product and company literature.


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Right of ChoiceThe second important expectation from the customer wouldrelate-to the right of choice. Customers generally expect to have-adequate choice of identical or more or less similar products orservices. In fact the trend in market today is to offer abundantchoice and even tailor-made products or services rather than aone-size-fits--all kind of approach.To cite examples, for an airline passenger the right of choicewould involve different menus to choose from; for a bankborrower, it may mean various options for foreclosure; for amutual fund investor, it may involve the facility of shiftingfrom one scheme to the other without much of a load factor.

Right of AccountabilityToday’s businesses have to be far more accountable to theircustomers than the businesses in the past. Through transpar-ency, the customers and others get to know what is happeningin the company and when things do not happen as they shouldbe happening customers often make their voices heard. Theyresent if the costs of any inefficiency within the company arepassed on to them. They expect the employees to turn out aday’s fair work and resent gossiping or idling. Similarly, custom-ers expect the business managements to penalize theirem-ployees for any mistakes they may commit, which result inlosses, and not pass them on to the customers.To conclude, business organizations are laying particularemphasis on the ethi-cal part of business too. Even as theycommit themselves to the core business prin-ciples, they alsoarticulate the values, which govern their actions. People formingpart of the business should make conscious efforts to reflectsuch concerns through communication and customer relations,so that enduring and endearing relation-ships are built up andsustained across all sections.

Business Communication and CustomerRelations In The New Millennium

Newtrends In Business CommunicationThe contours of business communication are changing at arapid pace. Telecommunications and computers are driving thischange across the world. Numerous technol-ogy-induceddevelopments towards the end of the last century have broughtabout new dimensions to the range, speed, methods andmodalities of personal and business communication. Internet,Laptops, mobiles, modems and computer based messagingsystems have started impacting every sphere of activity includingbusiness communi-cation and customer relations.Businesses are undergoing a metamorphosis. Old ways ofdoing things are yielding place to the new and more sophisti-cated ones. As John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene ob-serve, intheir book Megatrends 2000, “In telecommunications we aremoving to a single world-wide information network, just aseconomically we are becoming one global market place”. Thanksto globalization - and cross-border flow of ideas and resources,developments in one place are rapidly reaching the other partsof the world. The technology revolution has started impactingthe rural areas as well.

Business Velocity

Bill Gates makes the following observations in his recent book, ‘Businessat the speed of thought’.

Business is going to change more in the next ten years than in the last

Fifty years.

If 1980s were about quality and 1990s were about re-engineering,2000s will be about velocity.

The information access will alter the lifestyles of consumers and theirexpectations of business.

Very soon people around the world will be living the web lifestyle.

For business communicators, all these developments bring innew opportunities and responsibilities. Messages have to bebrief, swift and focused. Transmission leakages can be broughtdown substantially. There is much greater choice of channelsand instruments. It has become necessary to keep abreast ofsuch developments, appreciate their advantages and use themfor improving the effectiveness of businesscommunication and customer relations. Given below are somenew concepts of• Significance to the business communicator• Teleconferencing• Video conferencing• E-mail• E-Commerce• E-Business• Communication Networking Systems• Data Warehousing

TeleconferencingAs the name suggests, is a conference or discus-sion that takesplace over telephone. Telephone instruments with speakerfacility en-able speaking and hearing without the handset ormouthpiece. In the process, it is possible for more than oneperson to speak from one end and discuss with more than oneperson at the other end. This way, the advantage is that peoplefrom one group or section can speak to another and havediscussions, without physically meeting at a particular place. It isgaining popularity in modem business places and organiza-tions, especially for small group interactions.

Video Conferencing Video conferencing goes a step ahead of teleconferencing,whereby apart from the audio messages, the video pictures arealso available. It is possible to look at the person speaking. It isof a particular relevance when the chief of the state or the CEOof the company or any expert wants to communicate withpeople spread across regions. A typical example of this is thelive telecast of budgets and election results, and the analysis thatfollows, wherein opinions and comments are sought. It is alsopossible that if an expert speaker cannot be physically present toaddress the meeting, a live telecast of his message or address canbe brought to the assembly of people in a meeting or seminar.This facility, however, is available in select places institutes and iscomparatively quite expensive.


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E-mailStands for Electronic Mail. It is a computer based messagingsystem that transports electronic messages from one computersystem to another through a communication network. In alarge organization like a bank, e-mail connectivity is establishedacross numerous locations, such as branches, regional offices,controlling offices, service units and training centers. Each _-mail location is identified by unique e-mail identification.Messages and data, which are otherwise transferred throughcourier, speedpost and floppies, can instead be transferredthrough e-mail. Data trans-mission through e-mail is bothinstantaneous and cost effective.

Speaking With Figures

As technology makes rapid in-roads into Indian homes, E-communicationis all set for an exponential growth in the next 4-5 years. Here aresome projec-tions on the penetration of personal computers, use of Internetand growth of E-Commerce:

PC penetration is projected to increase from 1.10 million in 1999 to7.52million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of 47% (IDC).

Internet users are projected to go up from 2.113 million in 2000 to22.5million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of95% during 1999-2003 (IDC).

E-commerce is projected to increase from Rs 400 crore to Rs 24000crore by 2005 (ICRA) and Rs 27900 crore by 2004 (IDC) withparticular reference to B to C (Business to Customer).

E-commerceE-commerce relates to business or shopping done through theelectronic Internet. In other words it is paperless commerce. Thetransaction between the buyer and the seller is direct and there isno middleman involved. There are essentially four types of e-commerce-• Business to Business (B to B)• Business to Customer (B to C)• Customer to Business (C to B)• Customer to Customer (C to C)

E-businessE-business is an all-encompassing term that includes e-commerce as well. E-business is the final stage of development,the earlier one being E-support of E-commerce. In the wordsof IBM, “e-business is what happens when you combine thebroad reach of the Internet with the vast resources of tradi-tional information technology systems”. E-business is holdingout tremendous possibilities, and is transforming and redefin-ing businesses and commerce by doing away with restraints ofgeography, distance and time.

Communication Networking SystemsCommunication networking systems provid-ing on-line accessare revolutionizing the world of business in general, and banksand financial institutions in particular. Communicationbackbone, it is worth noting, can be either through terrestriallines or through the satellite links. Terrestrial lines include thedial up lines, leased lines and microwave. As compared to themodes of communi-cation based on terrestrial links, satellitebased communication is far more reliable and efficient, with an

up time of around 99%. Reserve Bank of India has set up asatellite based Very Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) communi-cation network across the country for the benefit of banks andfinancial institutions. The future holds out enormous inter-bank and intra-bank VSAT based applications in the financialsector, resulting in speedier, secure and cost-effective modes ofcommunication.

Data WarehousingInformation is, the key to business success. Relevant andreliable information on markets, customers, competitors andemployees often provides the much-needed competitive edge.Data Warehousing and Data-mining constitute the foundationsfor building a robust and comprehensive managementinformation system that covers not only decision-makingsupport systems but also market information and clientinformation. Data Warehousing, as the name suggests, is acentral repository of all critical data which helps the organizationto take decisions based on authentic andup-to-date information. Building a Data-Warehouse however isa stupendous task. The type of data to be collected, the sourcesto be tapped, the frequency of updating and such otherdecisions have to” be taken after a careful assessment of time,efforts, process and costs involved. By its very nature, it is a verylong-drawn process, but when it is done well, the benefits tothe business would be enormous.

The New Universal Language

Nowadays everything - voices on telephones, pictures on screens, evenmanagement decisions - can be converted into ones and zeros and thenstored or transmitted. Indeed, if there is such a thing as a universallanguage, it is not English but binary.

John Micklethwait.& Adrian Wooldridge

Given all these developments, customer relations are to beunderstood in a new perspective. The primacy of the customerhas come to stay. Today the customer inter-actions take placenot only face to face and over the telephone, but also through e-mail and Internet. Companies are creating their own websitesand portals. Whatever be the mode of interaction, customersexpect quick and efficient response. Customer Rela-tionshipManagement (CRM} calls for co-coordinating multiple channelsof communi-cation with the customer-face to face, call centerand the web. There is a need to provide flexible responses andsingle-window service to all high value customers. Onlybusinesses, which promote client information and resource,update for continu-ous and highly responsive development, upgradation and delivery of products and services can hope tothrive in today’s networked market.

Let Us Sum UpThe advent of new technology has added new dimensions tothe range, speed, methods and modalities of personal andbusiness communication. Internet, laptop, mobiles and PCshave started impacting business communication and customerrelations, in urban and even rural areas.Today, there is a much greater choice of channels and instru-ments. Tele-conferencing, Video Conferencing, E-mail,E-commerce and communica-tion Networking Systems have


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brought about greater speed and -efficiency to the process ofcommunication. -Data Mining and Date Warehousing have facilitated build up ofa robust and comprehensive management information systemincluding a client in-formation system, which can be used torelate more meaningfully with clients and other public.The primacy of the customer has come to stay. Customerinteractions now take place not only face-to-face and throughtelephone, but also through e-mail and Internet. CustomerRelationship Management (CRM) calls for managing-all thesemultiple channels to create a win-win situation for both theorganisation and the customer.

I Review Questions1. What is the impact of technology on communication? List

out some new concepts of significance to the businesscommunicator.

2. Write short notes on: (a) Teleconferencing (b) E-mail (c) E-commerce.

3. What are communication networking.” systems? What hasbeen their progress in the financial services sector in India?

4. What does Data Warehousing mean? How can it be used forbuilding up an efficient customer information system?

5. Discuss how your organization should cope with thechallenges of business com-munication and customerrelations in the new millennium.

Definitionsn “The long-term success of the

organization and improved value for its shareholders lies to a very great extent in the company’s ability to develop and sustain genuine relationships with its customer.” -James G. Barnes

Four ToolsnComplaint Resolution

n Feedback

nGuarantees

nCorrective Action


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Complaint Resolution

n Three types of complaints: Regulatory, Employee,

Customern Compensationn Contritionn Ease of Resolution

Feedbackn Customer Data

n Customer Behavior

n Data-gathering

n Analyzing Data

Guaranteesn Customer Rights

n Guarantee Design:– Unconditional– Meaningful– Communicable– Painless to invoke

Barnes’ 4 R’s

RecoveryCustomer Referrals

Customer Relationships

CustomerRetention


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Customer Retentionn A low-cost way to increase revenue.

Retention is cheaper than acquisition.

nMust be voluntary.

nMust lead to long-term relationships.

Relationshipsn Attempting to know the

customer. n Commitment and

Communication n “Clients should call you

only once. After that, you should proactively call them.” –Richard Buckingham

Referralsn Powerful tool that results from customer

satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

n “Referral clients are already sold, before they even call you.” –Richard Buckingham

Recoveryn Empower employees so that they may

deal with mistakes as they occur.


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Technologyn Internet communication as

a means of enhancing customer relationships.

n Ease of use of the technology important.

Brainstormn A customer enters a

restaurant and receives bad service, bad food, and overall dissatisfaction. Use Foster’s tools or Barnes’ 4 R’s to resolve the problem.

Documents

18635830 Lesson 1 Introduction to Business Communication