2008 Mayers Osteobiography of a High-Status

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Osteobiography of a High-status

Burial from the Lower Ro VerdeValley of Oaxaca, Mexico

A. T. MAYESa

* AND S. B. BARBERb

a Department of Anthropology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive,

San Diego, CA 92182-4443, USAb Department of Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Howard Philips Hall 309, 4000

Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816-1361, USA

ABSTRACT This paper presents the osteobiography of an individual from an early complex society whowas clearly of special social status but was not classified a ruling elite. Our case derives froma unique burial found at the small site of Yugu e, located in the lower Ro Verde valley on thePacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico. Burial 14-Individual 16 (B14-I16) dates to the late TerminalFormative Period (CE 100250), an era of regional political centralization and concomitantsocial inequality. B14-I16 was interred with several valuable grave offerings. A plaster-backed pyrite mirror was found below his mandible, and his left hand held an elaboratelyincised flute made from a deer femur. The flute is the only object of its kind known for all ofTerminal Formative Mesoamerica. Drawing on the physicality of inequality, we employosteobiography to assess the social hierarchy. Although B14-I16 was clearly an individualof unusual status in the context of Yugue, he was not immune from the biological assaults thataffected people of less distinguished social position at this time. Like his contemporaries of allsocial statuses, he suffered ill health in the years during which he was weaned. However, alonger weaning period and access to additional resources may have positioned him to endurelater illness better than others in this population. Passing the critical transition period at age6 , a time when many children died in this burial site, his adolescent health was better than

that of others in this population. Although B14-I16 did have adult responsibilities, he didntengage in the kinds of physical labour that marked the skeletons of others. The placement ofBurial B14-I16 in the middle tiers of the lower Ro Verde valleys ancient social hierarchyprovides insight into issues of inequality and status on an individual scale. Copyright 2008John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: osteobiography; bioarchaeology; Oaxaca; Mexico; dentition; hypoplasias;

pathology; status

Introduction

Inequality in ancient societies is a topic mosteasily examined at its extremes: the elaborate andoften monumental tombs of rulers and nobles areeasily identified when contrasted with the modest

burials of commoners. Those who inhabited thediffuse middle area of ancient social hierarchies,

however, are far more difficult to identify andstudy. In the Western hemisphere, where manyPrecolumbian stratified societies were either non-or minimally-literate, detailed analysis of inequal-ity and hierarchy relies largely on extrapolationfrom early European accounts, or the handful ofcases where sufficient indigenous writing exists inorder to step beyond a simple elite/non-elitedichotomy. Despite these limitations, scholars

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 573588 (2008)Published online 19 September 2008 in Wiley InterScience(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1011

* Correspondence to: Department of Anthropology, San DiegoState University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-

4443, USA.e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright# 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 4 October 2007Revised 30 May 2008

Accepted 13 June 2008


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have been able to demonstrate the complex andmultifaceted character of Precolumbian socialhierarchies for later groups such as the Aztec,Inka, Postclassic Mixtec, and Classic PeriodMaya. However, the nature of inequality andhierarchy in earlier complex societies remains less

well understood. The middle ground of socialhierarchies in early cases is particularly challen-ging to examine, given the limits of archae-ological and osteological evidence and the lack ofwritten records or appropriate ethnographic andhistorical analogies.

To better understand the nuances of hierarchyin ancient societies where writing is limited orabsent, many lines of evidence must be employedto provide a detailed picture of inequality as alived experience. This paper presents theosteobiography of a single individual from anearly complex society who was clearly of specialsocial status but was not a member of the rulingelite. Following current anthropological thought,osteobiography is the close examination of anindividuals life and death as evidenced by humanskeletal remains: a life history as revealed throughthe analysis of osteological evidence. With itsfocus on individual lives, osteobiography makes itpossible to determine how social and environ-mental differences impinged on human healthand affected everyday life at a very small scale.

Such fine-grained information is invaluable forconsidering middle-ground social strata becausepeople inhabiting these positions in ancienthierarchies have received considerably lessattention from scholars. Concentrating on speci-fic individuals, and comparing these individuals tothe wider contemporary population, makes itpossible to interpret how status may have affectedhealth and lived experience for people who wereneither ruling elites nor commoners.

Osteoarchaeology is a particularly effectivemeans of examining status and social hierarchies

because both are strongly implicated in individualand population health. A number of recent studieshave focused on biocultural relationships, includ-ing the relationship between social status, diseaseprocesses, and ones ability to recover fromenvironmental pressures, cultural or otherwise(Walker, 1986; Goodman et al., 1988; Cucina &Iscan, 1997; Pechenkina & Delgado, 2006). Somehave even used pathology and burial type to make

determinations of ascribed or inherited status(Hodges, 1987; Cucina & Iscan, 1997). Compe-tition for resources and a persons access to, andcontrol of, those resources may enable someindividuals either to avoid biological assaults or toovercome them, where others might succumb.

Additionally, the daily life of individuals or entiresegments of society are affected by positionwithin a social hierarchy. As Pechenkina &Delgado (2006: 218) observed, disparities inthe amount of physical labor performed andcontrasts in daily routine among individuals ofunequal status likewise contribute to systematichealth differences within a stratified community.Thus, inequality engenders osteologically obser-vable differences in individuals health andphysical condition.

Drawing on the physicality of inequality, weemploy osteobiography to assess the social hiera-rchy of an early complex society in PrecolumbianMesoamerica. A single burial was read from aforensic perspective and then interpreted using thesite and the burial context as evidence for theindividuals status in life and death. Scientificdetermination of the individuals sex, age andhealth, when resituated with contemporary burialsand archaeological evidence, demonstrate that theremains represent a life of particular significancewithin one ancient community. Our case derives

from a unique burial found at the small site ofYugue, located in the lower Ro Verde Valley onthe Pacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico (Figure 1)(Barber, 2005). Burial 14-Individual 16 (B14-I16)dates to the late Terminal Formative Period (CE100250), which was an era of regional politicalcentralisation and concomitant social inequalityin coastal Oaxaca (Barber, 2005; Joyce, 2006,2008). Because Individual 16 was buried in acommunity cemetery at a small site, thisindividual was probably not a member of theregional ruling elite who would have lived at the

lower Verde Valleys much larger ancient politicalcapital, Ro Viejo. Indeed, when compared withcontemporary tombs and interments from otherparts of Oaxaca and Mesoamerica, the Yugueburial is relatively modest (cf. Caso, 1932; Caso &Bernal, 1952; Miller, 1995; Winter, 1995). B14-I16 thus provides an ideal case for considering theeveryday experience of social hierarchy for thosepeople who were neither rulers nor commoners.

Copyright# 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 573588 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/oa

574 A. T. Mayes and S. B. Barber


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Archaeological context

Yugue is a 9.75 hectare site located on thefloodplain of the Ro Verde. The core of the site isa 10 m high monumental platform, first construc-ted around 150 BCE, that supported domestic andceremonial architecture (Joyce, 1999; Barber,

2005). Yugue was occupied continuously fromthe late Middle Formative Period (700400 BCE)until the late Terminal Formative Period, afterwhich time it was abandoned for nearly a millen-nium. During the Terminal Formative Period (150BCECE 250), Yugue was a small site within aregional polity that was politically centred

Figure 1. Map of the lower Ro Verde Valley, Mexico, with the study location.


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Skeletal Analysis of a Unique Burial in Mexico 575


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around the 250 ha site of Ro Viejo (Joyce, 2003,2006).

The summit of the Yugue platform supporteda public ceremonial space that, in its finaliteration, consisted of an elevated area of nearly1500 m2 created by the placement of massive

earth and stone retaining walls (Barber, 2005).This area was used for community burialsthroughout the Terminal Formative Period; nofewer than 53 individuals have been documentedfor this area of the site, while no burials havebeen recovered elsewhere (Joyce, 1999; Barber,2005). B14-I16, the focus of this study, was partof a temporally and spatially distinct cemeterydating to the late Terminal Formative Period.

The cemetery contained at least 44 individuals,densely packed into an area of less than 7 m2

(Figure 2). Only three individuals were fullyarticulated; the rest had been disturbed by theplacement of later burials, and some may havebeen secondary burials. Individuals ages within

the cemetery ranged from neonate to elderlyadult. In general, adults were buried in anextended position, placed on their right sidewith their head to the west. Juveniles wereplaced perpendicular to the adults, lying on theirleft side with their head to the south. There weresome exceptions to this pattern, particularlyamong individuals that had been severelydisturbed by subsequent interments.

Figure 2. Map of the skeletal material found in the Yugue cemetery.


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Materials and methods

Recovery and analysis of human skeletonsfrom Yugue

Preservation of human remains from the late

Terminal Formative cemetery was consistentlypoor due to both cultural and natural factors. Thesites ancient inhabitants intensively used andreused the same small area for interment, whichresulted in the disarticulation of some skeletons,the partial destruction and removal of others, andthe commingling of individuals in all instances. Inaddition, the surrounding matrix had a high claycontent that created a layer of cementum on thebones, which proved extremely difficult to removewithout damaging their surfaces. The upper layersof the cemetery were close to the modern groundsurface, exposing the bones to seasonal wetting anddrying. The combination of seasonal moisturechanges, clay-based soils, compaction from nearly2000 years of human activity, and the practice ofinterring individuals on their sides resulted insevere plastic distortion of crania and pelvises. Thecranium of Individual 16, for instance, was distortedmedio-laterally through these natural processesfrom its full size to a width of approximately 57 cm. To maintain the integrity of badly crackedbones and to protect bone surfaces from rapid

desiccation, most were removed from the ground inblocks of earth, or pedestals, to be fully excavatedin the field laboratory.

The taphonomy created particular challengesfor the study of Individual 16. The clay-basedcementum could only be removed through atime-consuming application of acetone over smallareas. Although all bones present were brushedwith acetone and water to some extent, onlywhole elements and those portions of selectedelements deemed essential for analysis received acomplete cleaning. Such elements included: the

skull and dentition in their entirety, the pelvicgirdle, long bones, and joint surfaces. Thisprocess was necessary in order to observe thedegree of suture and epiphyses closure, dentalenamel, and any bony changes. When possible,reconstruction of fragmentary elements tookplace to aid in description and analysis.

Following standard methodology, ageing ofthis individual was carried out through obser-

vation of developmental changes affecting sutureclosure, dental development, and diaphysis andepiphyseal union (White, 1991; Buikstra &Ubelaker, 1994; Ubelaker, 1999). Due to tapho-nomic processes, techniques such as observationof changes in the symphyseal faces of the pubic

symphysis or of the auricular surfaces of the rightand left innominates were not viable. The sex ofthis individual was determined visually usingcranial and innominate morphology, as well asoverall body size (White, 1991; Buikstra &Ubelaker, 1994; Bass, 1995). Ageing and sexingtechniques for Individual 16 will be explained ingreater detail in the Results section. Anthropo-metric measurements were limited for thisindividual, again due to its fragmentary condition.Pathological analysis of the dentition was carriedout both through standard scoring of size andplacement of caries, dental attrition, and physicalmeasurements of linear enamel hypoplasias. Bonychanges to the crania and post-crania wererecorded using the guidelines defined by Buikstra& Ubelaker (1994). All pathological changesidentified during analysis were recorded.

Archaeological assessment of social status

The initial interpretation of Individual 16 as a

person of special status was derived from fielddocumentation of archaeological context andlaboratory observation of associated artefacts.Individual 16 not only differed from others in thelate Terminal Formative cemetery, but also fromother individuals buried elsewhere at the site andacross the valley. Following the general pattern ofthe cemetery, Individual 16 was interred as anadult: on his right side with his head to the west(Figure 3). Special care was taken to keep thisindividuals remains intact for some time after hisdeath. His was one of the three fully-articulated

skeletons in the cemetery despite the sub-sequent interment of six individuals above historso and lower limbs (Barber, 2005). Individual16 was also unusual because he was interred withseveral valuable grave offerings. A plaster-backedpyrite mirror was found just below his mandible,and in his left hand he held an elaborately incisedflute made from a deer femur (Figure 4). The fluteand pectoral interred with Individual 16 are


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among the most elaborate and valuable objectsever recovered from an archaeological context inthe lower Ro Verde Valley. Neither pyrite northe limestone necessary for plaster occur natu-rally in the lower Verde, indicating that the rawmaterials for this object were imported, possiblyfrom the sierra to the north. The flute, mean-while, is the only object of its kind known for all

of Terminal Formative Mesoamerica (Barber,2007).

Taken together, the treatment of this individ-ual both during and after his interment indicatesthat he was of higher status than the otherindividuals in the cemetery. The grave goods

included with this interment are the mostelaborate currently known for the PrecolumbianPeriod in the region. He was buried with two veryunusual and valuable items, one of which wasproduced with imported raw materials. Further-more, mirrors were symbols of leadership andelite status across Mesoamerica throughout thePrecolumbian era (Schele & Miller, 1986; Taube,2002; Miller & Martin, 2004). In addition, thecraftsmanship of the flute is remarkable: both theincising and the production of a musicalinstrument would have required specialisedknowledge. Beyond the artefacts themselves,the fact that Individual 16 was left intact suggeststhat Yugues ancient residents took particular careof his remains long after his death. The placementof six later burials resulted in the disturbance ofother individuals in the tightly-packed cemetery,but Individual 16 was left completely intact.Indeed, his was the most complete skeleton in theentire burial sample from Yugue.

Comparison with contemporary intermentselsewhere in Oaxaca indicate that Individual 16

was most likely a local or intermediate elite (seeElson & Covey, 2006), who was neither a rulernor a commoner. While B14-I16 currently isamong the most elaborate known for the lowerVerde region, there are no contemporary burialsor tombs from Ro Viejo, the major politicalcentre closest to Yugue. Terminal FormativePeriod high-status interments from the Valley ofOaxaca include several tombs that were far moreelaborate than the burial of Individual 16. Tomb77, from an outlying barrio of the site of MonteAlban, contained a massive anthropomorphic

urn, dozens of ceramic vessels, carved shellornaments, and an incised animal bone (Caso,1935). The interiors of some Terminal Formativetombs from the Valley of Oaxaca were alsopainted with polychrome frescoes (Acosta, 1965),evidence that considerable resources wereinvested in the burial of high-status individualsat this time. Tombs were also in use in theMixteca Alta region of Oaxaca. Although the few

Figure 3. Close-up view of Burial 14-Individual 16.


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stone tombs known were looted in antiquity, onebeneath a residence at the site of Huamelulpannonetheless contained two skeletons and ninevessels (Gaxiola Gonzalez, 1984). Comparedwith contemporary interments at major politicalcentres elsewhere in Oaxaca, the burial ofIndividual 16 does not appear to have been aselaborate. This individual was not interred in atomb, an architectural feature that requiresconsiderable labour investment and was widelyemployed in Terminal Formative Mesoamericafor rulers and individuals of very high status.

Furthermore, the grave goods associated with thisindividual, while valuable, were relatively few innumber.

Results

Age and sex

Based on cranial and postcranial morphology,Individual 16 was male aged 1517 years at thetime of his death. Compared with other recon-

structable crania from the Yugue collection,Individual 16s skull is more robust, with largemastoid processes extending well below theauditory meatus, prominent supraorbital marginsand glabella, and a strong square mentaleminence. The skull is large with marked rugosityon the muscle attachment sites. The temporal andsquamosal lines are well developed. Despite thelarge amount of post mortem damage to the inno-

minates, features were identified and describedwith partial reconstruction of the left side. Theleft innominate is robust with a long ischium. Theacetabulum is large (White, 1991), measuring49.78 mm in width, and is directed laterally.While the pubic bones are missing, the remainingfeatures, including overall size and placement ofthe acetabulum, and the shape of the greatersciatic notch, indicate a male.

Three regions of the skeleton were used to agethis individual: the skull, the dentition, and thepostcrania. All observable cranial sutures were

open ectocranially, both on the vault and thelateral portions. Taphonomic process actuallyworked in our favour for ageing this individualusing dentition. As is common in archaeologicalspecimens, the dentition had the greatestpreservation. However, the alveolar bone wascrushed in a way that allowed observation of thetooth roots, particularly of the molars, while stillholding the dentition in situ. The dentition hasonly slight blunt wear. The first and secondmolars, maxillary and mandibular, are fullyerupted. The first molars have root complete

with apex two-thirds closed. The second molarsare root apex complete. The third molars areerupting with root complete. The dentitionalone places this individual between 15.116.3years of age at death (Moorees et al., 1963a,b;Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994). Also present is apartially fused iliac crest (Figure 5). The initialfusion begins around age 14 and continues untilcessation by the age of 23 (Bass, 1995). The

Figure 4. Flute interred with Individual16. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


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ischial tuberosity is partially fused (ages 1620),

as well as the right femoral head (ages 1419)(Scheuer & Black, 2000). The right calcaneusappears unfused. According to Scheuer & Black(2000: 463) the calcaneus epiphysis fuses aroundpuberty (1216) and is not obliterated until theage of 1820 in males. The fact that the epiphysisis not obliterated clearly places this individualunder the age of 18. A fragment of a posteriorlumbar spine is only partially fused. Scheuer &Black (2000) note that the spinous processescommence fusion after puberty and up to the ageof 24; Bass (1995) places it at less than 18 years of

age. Taking all elements together, the age rangecan be narrowed to place this individual between15 and 17 years of age at death.

Pathological analysis

Observations of disease processes provide evi-dence for an individuals daily life and environ-ment. These can include: natural degenerative

phenomena, occupational stress, trauma, nutri-

tion, and systemic health. In cases where bonepreservation is poor, occurrence rates of dentalpathologies can be particularly valuable. Pathol-ogies such as caries, abscesses, hypoplasias,alveolar resorption and dental attrition can helpto determine aspects of diet, and may also serve asa gauge of overall health (Goodman & Martin,2002). Previous research has shown that occur-rence rates for these conditions will vary amongpopulations based on differences in subsistenceeconomy, as well as that of local flora and fauna(Larsen, 1995). Occupational stress and cultural

traditions can also be observed in the dentition(Ubelaker, 1969; Schulz, 1977; Molnar, 2008).Wear patterns outside of the normal plane ofwear, rapid attrition rates, polishing, and inter-proximal and occlusal grooves, can all be assessedfor different forms of occupational stress.

Dental analysis of Individual 16 found nodental disease present. Dental attrition is mini-mal, as would be expected for a younger

Figure 5. The partially fused iliac crest of Individual 16. (Photo: Angela Berg Collins). This figure is available in colouronline at www.interscience. wiley.com/journal/oa.


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individual, and follows a normal plane of wear.

There are no carious lesions on the tooth crownsor roots; the alveolar bone is healthy with noalveolar resorption, and no calculus build-up,unlike others in the population. The onlyindication of biological stress for this individualis in the form of linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH)(Figure 6).

Enamel hypoplasias are defects in the enameltooth crown induced by systemic stress duringtooth formation. A permanent record of healthdisturbances both in utero and during childhood,enamel defects are caused by disease (such as

scurvy, rickets or measles), infections, fevers,gastrointestinal disorders (such as chronic diar-rhoea), malnutrition, premature birth, anaemia,and, in some instances, from inherited factors ortrauma. Dental hypoplasias formed on deciduousdentitionin utero are also an indirect indicator ofthe mothers health status (Goodman & Armela-gos, 1988; Goodman & Rose, 1990: 59110;Blakeyet al., 1994; Hillson, 1996; Cucina & Iscan,

1997; Rankin-Hill, 1997; Wright, 2006). Deter-

mination as to when such disruptions in enamelformation took place are carried out by measuringfrom the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ), to theocclusal/superior border of the linear enamelhypoplasias. These measurements, taken in mmusing needle-nosed callipers, are then used in aregression formula that calculates the age of onsetfor the said period of stress (Goodman & Rose,1990).

Enamel hypoplasias are observable for B14-I16in all dental fields except the third molars.Regression analysis (Goodman & Rose, 1990) of

all the dentition exhibits episodes of biologicalstress ranging from 2 to 6.5 years of age, with apeak clustering of hypoplasias between the agesof 3 to 4 years indicating more serious episodesat these times. While there is a total of 60 linearenamel hypoplasias among all the dentitionpresent, the greatest number in the population,this is most likely due to the fact that B14-I16 isthe most complete burial. A count of the total

Figure 6. Teeth from Individual 16 showing linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). (Photo: Angela Berg Collins). This figure isavailable in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


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number of episodes of stress on a single tooth,maxillary second incisor (I2), is five. With anadditional period of stress evident in the secondmolars after the development of the incisors, thisindividual suffered six episodes of biologicalstress recorded in the enamel crowns. This

number is the highest in the collection, againprobably due to the fact that B14-I16 constitutesthe most complete set of remains. On a final note,it should be pointed out that the early-stage andlate-stage hypoplastic bands are narrow andshallow, indicating that despite physiologicaldifferences between dentition the early and lateepisodes of stress were not as severe, and wouldhave had less of a negative affect on thisindividual. The developmental disruptions ofgreater severity appear between 34 years of ageas determined by the greater width and depth ofthe hypoplastic bands (Cucina & Iscan, 1997). Itwould seem that, despite early stress duringdevelopment due to weaning and periodic

adjustments to an adult diet, this individual wasotherwise relatively healthy.

Allowing for severepost mortemprocesses, thereis no evidence of trauma. This individual hasrobust muscle attachments areas, indicative of amale and consistent with his age (Weiss, 2007).

However, repetitive overuse normally suggestiveof heavy labour or occupational stress (Hawkey &Merbs, 1995; Robb, 1998) is not evident. The

joint surfaces available for observation are the leftclavicle, the left glenoid fossa, the left and rightproximal and distal radius, the left proximal ulna,the left and right acetabulum, the right and leftproximal femur, and the right proximal and distaltibia. All of the joint surfaces appear normal andhealthy with no sign of premature joint degener-ation (Figure 7). Neither the dentition nor the restof the skeletal elements reflect any degree ofoccupational stress, degenerative disease, orpathological changes, other than the develop-mental stress reflected in the dentition.

Figure 7. Example of a healthy joint surface from Individual 16, with some change due to taphonomic processes.(Photo: Angela Berg Collins). This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/oa.


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Summary

Based on osteological analysis, Individual 16 wasan adolescent male who did not suffer any strongbiological demands during development. Causeof death is unknown. There were no disease

processes in place at the time of death severeenough to affect the bone, nor was there anyvisible trauma. Like many individuals in thispopulation, there are dental indicators of stress atweaning. However, Individual 16 differed frommany other individuals in this population in thathe successfully survived and rebounded fromthese stresses, giving no later indicators of illness.Degenerative changes of both bones and teethcan begin at an early age if an individual iscarrying out repetitive tasks (Mayes, 2001; Weiss,2007). Because no such bony changes have takenplace on the skeleton of this young man, wepresume that he was not required to performdemanding, recurrent physical activity.

Discussion

Taken together, osteological and archaeologicalevidence provide significant insight not only intothis individuals lived experience as a local elite atYugue, but also larger social processes in the

Terminal Formative lower Rio Verde valley. Througha fortuitous combination of archaeological con-text and osteological data, it is possible to assessculturally embedded notions of adulthood throughthis burial. Reaching full biological developmentand being considered an adult from a culturalperspective are definitively different processes,although often considered as one and the same inmodern Western society. Age, sex, grave goodsand burial context demonstrate that Individual 16had assumed the responsibilities of adulthood byat least late adolescence. From a physiological

perspective, Individual 16 was not a fully deve-loped adult when he died. His burial position,however, marked him as an adult. Individual 16sadult status, in itself, is not surprising: the culturaldesignation of adulthood would undoubtedlyhave come at an earlier age almost 2000 yearsago, when life expectancy was much shorter(Larsen, 1997). Indeed, from a biological pers-pective Individual 16 would have been at or near

his prime reproductive years. However, his burialfurniture demonstrates that this individual had aspecific set of adult responsibilities. As one of ushas discussed elsewhere (Barber, 2005), themirror and flute interred with Individual 16 bothhad potent ritual associations in Mesoamerica.

Mirrors were consistently associated with elites,and particularly rulers or decision-makers, in thePrecolumbian era. The iconography of the flute,furthermore, reveals strong associations betweenthe instrument and important natural forces suchas wind and rain (Barber, 2007). Since Individual16 was in possession of this object in death, itseems probable that he was responsible forplaying the flute in life and thus for invokingthese natural forces on behalf of Yuguesinhabitants.

Dental indicators support the notion thatIndividual 16 may have inherited his responsi-bilities. Like others in the Terminal Formativecemetery, Individual 16 suffered from earlybiological stress as visible through linear enamelhypoplasias. All individuals in this population(n 13) with utilisable dentition demonstratedstress at the age of weaning. The mean age ofonset often reveals a pattern of overall populationhealth and the commencement of what may beperiodic stress, making it useful for intra- andinter-population comparisons (Goodman & Rose,

1990; Cucina & Iscan, 1997). At Yugue, the meanage of onset for hypoplasias was 2.71 years of age(Melmed, 2006). That of Individual 16 wasslightly higher, with an individual mean of 4.3and initial onset of approximately 2 years of age.The difference may indicate that the duration ofthe weaning process lasted longer for thisindividual a factor that could weigh heavilyin favour of a person facing biological challengesyet to be overcome. It may also suggest that thisindividual was in a position of having greateraccessibility to available resources, thereby

influencing an earlier age of inclusion of foodsources into the nutrient intake.Weaning an infant from breast milk to the

available dietary regime is a process, not a singleevent. The first enamel hypoplasias may be theresult of the onset of weaning, followed by peaksin hypoplasia occurrence upon completion of theprocess. Post-weaning disturbances may be linkedto seasonal variation of diet during the early


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years. These seasonal variations can reflect distur-bances that also affect adults in a population.Childhood diseases and high fevers can alsocreate periods of cessation in enamel development(Blakey et al., 1994; Hillson, 1996). Weaning notonly directly affects ingestion of nutrients but also

exposes individuals to new environmental insultsdirectly through the food itself, increasing thepotential for exposure to such things as parasites,bacteria and viruses (Kent, 1986; Reinhard,1988). Methods of food preparation and proces-sing may also play a role in exposure. Herring et al.(1998) found an indirect correlation betweenduration of weaning period and infant mortality.Skeletal and chemical analyses supported byhistorical documentation revealed a correlationbetween receiving nutrition from sustenanceother than breast milk, and age of infantmortality. Likely weaned over a longer period,Individual 16 may have been better protectedfrom some biological assaults than were otherindividuals in this population. It could behypothesised that a lengthier delay in weaningindicates a lack of environmental or culturalfactors that would encourage direct nutritionaldisengagement between mother and child.

Individual 16s special status may also bereflected in the fact that, once he was weaned, hesuffered fewer biological assaults than others in

this population. Two out of four adults whosethird molars were present had a single hypoplas-tic band. Hypoplastic lines were absent fromIndividual 16s third maxillary and mandibularmolars, indicating that severe incidences ofbiological stress did not take place during laterdental development for this individual. However,a biological disturbance did cause linear enamelhypoplasias on the second molars at approxi-mately 6 years of age. This final physiologicaldisturbance, which Individual 16 overcame,coincides with a distinct age marker in this

population. Following a normal demographicdistribution, the highest number of individualsfalls into the age categories of infant (22%) andmiddle and older adults (22.8%). Forty-one percent of this collection (n13/32) were under theage of 7 years at death. Of this, 54% (n 7) areinfants (02), and 46% (n6) are aged 26.8years of age at death. Out of this latter group, halfranged between 5.5 and 6.8 years of age at death.

This mortality pattern indicates a critical devel-opmental point in the Terminal Formative Yuguepopulation. It was a demarcation line that, whensuccessfully crossed, meant that an individual hada greater chance of surviving to adulthood.Individual 16 did recover from this final assault

with no indication of later childhood disease atleast to the degree to which it can be recorded inbone. From the standpoint of skeletal anatomythis individual appears not to have suffered fromany long-term biological assaults. Based on hisdental health, Individual 16 was generallyhealthier than most individuals interred in theTerminal Formative Period cemetery: he enjoyeda prolonged weaning period, he survived the 6th

and 7th years of his life, and he did not suffer anyserious diseases in his later childhood and earlyadolescence.

Although Individual 16 had adult responsibil-ities, he was not engaged in repetitive, physicallydemanding tasks. Observations as to the degreeof prominence of muscle attachment regions onbone are made and used in assessment of both sex(Owsley, personal communication) and mechan-ical activities (Hawkey & Merbs, 1995; Churchill& Morris, 1998; Robb, 1998; Wilczak, 1998;Weiss, 2007). While recent authors have offeredalternative methodologies for assessing thedegree of variation between and among popu-

lations in terms of tendon insertion points, all stillagree that there is a pattern to be found. Theskeletal morphology of Individual 16 reflects aperson of greater muscle mass, and thus a male.However, there is no evidence of repetitivemovement to the point of overuse, as would beseen in an individual with occupational stress(Robb, 1998). Degenerative joint disease (DJD) isa reaction of the joints to biomechanical stressand affects the joint surfaces and the circumfer-entially associated areas (Larsen, 1997; Ortner,2003). While one would expect to see some

degeneration exhibited on an older individual,research shows that there is much variationbetween populations, and that such degenerativechanges are not uncommon in older juveniles andyoung adults in pre-industrialised societies (Larsen,1997). Although we did not observe degenerativechanges for Individual 16, such changes wererecorded in other adults in the Yugue cemetery(Table 1). Eleven individuals were considered


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feasible for observation. Despite severe tapho-nomic processes to all the skeletal material, 45%(n 5) exhibited arthritic conditions (Melmed,2006). Two of these were young adults (1825),and three fell into the middle adult category(2535), together indicating that there wereother young adults in this cemetery with bonychanges suggestive of repetitive overuse of joints,and therefore differences in behaviour (Table 2).

A final indication of Individual 16s health canbe derived from observation of porotic hyper-ostosis in the Yugue skeletal collection. Porotichyperostosis is the expansion of diploe throughthe external skull vault. It may be symptomatic ofseveral different diseases and health conditions,but is most often associated with anaemia(Walker, 1986; Stuart-Macadam, 1992; Ortner,2003). Iron deficiency anaemia may itself be asecondary indicator of even more severe health

problems (Stuart-Macadam, 1992). Of the Yuguesample, 18% (n2) had identifiable porotichyperostosis. Given the degree of post mortemdestruction to many of the skulls, this number

may be higher, but we are unable to confirm this.Nevertheless, Individual 16 was not among thisgroup, reinforcing his positive health status.

In carrying out skeletal analysis, we often focuson pathological change and disease. However,the absence of pathology and other disease

processes is an important commentary on thehealth and lifestyle of a person. While Individual16 did combat a series of childhood illnesses, herecovered with no further assaults severe enoughto be recorded in the dentition or other skeletalanatomy. As has been suggested in other studies(i.e. Pechenkina & Delgado, 2006), we surmisethat this individual had access to resources suchas surplus food to supplement potential seasonalvariations in subsistence. An extended weaningperiod may also have supported a successfulrecovery. Additionally, this young adult male didnot exhibit any degenerative changes indicativeof repetitive actions on the joint surfaces. His agemay have acted as a buffer from any of the bonychanges that are often recorded with overusefrom occupational stress. However, an exagger-ation of muscle insertion points on the bone,which reflects the muscle mass it supports, wouldalso be expected if he were engaged in heavyphysical labour, and is not present with thisindividual.

Conclusion

Osteobiography enables consideration of largersocial phenomena as they were experienced by asingle individual. Placed as he was in the middletiers of the lower Ro Verde Valleys ancientsocial hierarchy, Individual 16 provides consider-able insight into the realities of inequality andstatus at an individual scale. Although Individual16 was clearly a person of unusual status in thecontext of Yugue, he was not immune from the

biological assaults that affected people of lessdistinguished social position at this time. Like hiscontemporaries of all social statuses, he sufferedill health in the years during which he wasweaned. However, a longer weaning period andaccess to additional resources may have posi-tioned him to endure later illness better thanothers in this population. Passing the criticaltransition period at age 6, a time when many

Table 2. Age and sex of cemetery population

Burials % n

Age categoriesInfant 01 17.1% 4Child 14 8.6% 3Pre-adolescent 412 11.4% 4

Adolescent 1218 2.9% 1Young adult 1825 2.9% 1Middle adult 2535 11.4% 4Old adult 3550 11.4% 4

Indeterminate adult 18 34.2% 12SexFemale 25.7%Male 5.7%Indeterminate 68.6%

Adapted from Melmed (2006).

Table 1. Skeletal pathology

Degree of skeletal pathology(dental not included)

Slight 27.3% (n3)Significant 18.2% (n2)

None 54.5% (n6)

Adapted from Melmed (2006).


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children died, his health as an older juvenile andadolescent was better than that of others in thispopulation. And although B14-I16 did have adultresponsibilities, he was not engaged in the kindsof physical labour that marked the skeletons ofothers in the cemetery.

Future studies

We still have many questions still to be answeredabout the people of Yugue. What were therelationships between individuals interred withinthe mounds? Additionally, what were therelationships between the population at Yugueand other populations in the lower Ro VerdeValley, as well as the Valley of Oaxaca? Futurestudies to be carried out on the skeletal material,

such as DNA analysis, may reveal a directrelationship of this individual, B14-I16, to othersinterred in the cemetery. Additional bone chem-istry studies, such as isotope and strontium analysis,may provide further evidence of growth anddevelopment of this individual, as well as otherindividuals in this population. Further researchmay yield information regarding relationships ofthese individuals in the cemetery under study toindividuals at an alternative location, such as thehighlands of Oaxaca, and may provide evidenceof population immigration patterns to Yugue.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Instituto Nacional deAntropologa e Historia for sanctioning the exca-vations and the skeletal analysis on which thispaper is based. We are particularly indebted to:the President and members of the Consejo deArqueologa; the directors of the Centro INAH-Oaxaca, including Eduardo Lopez Calzada,Ernesto Gonzalez Licon, and Doctor Sergio

Lopez Alonso. We would also like to thankAngela Berg Collins for photographic archivingof the human skeletal remains. Funding forarchaeological field research in the lower RoVerde Valley was provided by grants from thefollowing organisations: National ScienceFoundation (BCS-0202624), Foundation for theAdvancement of Mesoamerican Studies(#02060), the Association of Women in Science,

the Womens Forum Foundation of Colorado,Sigma Xi, Colorado Archaeological Society,and the University of Colorado. Funding forthe osteological field research was provided bygrants from the College of Arts and Letters, and aResearch, Scholarship, and Creative Activity

Grant (RSCA), San Diego State University.

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