3. Limbah Cair Dan Penanganannya

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  • Waste Water Treatment

    for Industrial Operations DIAN WIDYA NINGTYAS, STP.MP.

    2013

  • INTRODUCTION

  • TOPICS

    Terms and meanings

    Waste treatment technologies

    Typical process

    Typical procedure

  • Wastewater and Its Source

    Wastewater is used water that contains dissolved or suspended matter

    Kinds of wastewater: Spent water is water that has been used and can no longer

    serve the purpose for which it was used because of contamination

    Domestic wastewater is the wastewater produced by humans in their daily lives (gray water is the water produced by bathing, cooking, and washing dishes and clothes, gray water may be high in detergent pollutants)

    Sewage is the wastewater produced by residential and commercial sources, it is the water that is discharged into sanitary sewers or treated in septic systems (sanitary sewers are systems of pipes or conduits that carry off sewage)

  • Sources of Wastewater

    Homes and business

    Manufacturing wastewater Food plants

    Paper mills

    Steel mills

    Electric power plants

    Farm wastewater

    Stormwater (storm sewer is a system of pipes that carries run off from street, buildings, and other surface areas)

  • Composition

    Air (>95%)

    Patogen (bakteri, virus, parasit)

    Non-patogenic bacteria

    Partikel organik (feses, rambut, makanan, dll)

    Soluble organik material

    Partikel anorganik (pasir, metal, keramik)

    Soluble inorganik material

    Hewan (protozoa, serangga, ikan kecil, dll)

    Gas (H2S, CO2, metana)

    Emulsi (cat, cat rambut, mayonaise, dll)

    Racun (pestisida, herbisida, dll)

  • Effect of Waste Water

    media pembawa bakteri patogen penyebab berbagai penyakit (virus, vibrio cholera, Salmonella

    spp., Shigella, Brucella)

    bahan-bahan beracun, penyebab iritasi, dan bau (Teluk

    Minamata 1953ikan yg mgd. air raksa penyempitan ruang pandang, kelumpuhan, kulit terasa

    menebal dan bahkan dapat menyebabkan kematian)

  • Gangguan kehidupan biotik:

    dengan banyaknya zat pencemar yang ada di dalam air limbah

    kadar oksigen terlarut menurun.

    Consequence

  • Tujuan

    mengurangi BOD,

    partikel tercampur,

    membunuh mikroorganisme patogen

    menghilangkan bahan nutrisi, komponen beracun ,serta

    bahan yang tidak dapat didegradasikan (menurunkan

    konsentrasi)

  • What is wastewater treatment ?

    Waste water contains of :

    Organic matter, sludge, oil, bacteria (pathogenic), virus, salt,

    pesticide, metal, plastic, etc.

    This waste come from waste of household, industrial,

    hospital etc

    Purpose :

    To limit the danger substances in the wastewater that polute

    the environment

    To obtain the clean water so it use for dailylife

    physical treatment & chemical treatment

    WHAT ?

    HOW?

  • Parameters

    pH

    Suhu O2 terlarut (min 6 ppm), kec rx kimia.

    Warna, bau dan rasa

    Jumlah padatan

    Nilai BOD / COD

    Pencemaran m.o patogen

    Kand. minyak

    Kand. Logam berat

    Kand. Bahan radioaktif

  • 3 steps of waste water treatment

    PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

    PURPOSE:

    To Filter the

    solid waste

    PURPOSE :

    To Eliminate

    BOD

    PURPOSE :

    To get the clean

    water

    Methods:

    -Oxidation

    -Using activated

    sludge process

    Methods :

    - discard the

    poisonous organic

    compounds, hard

    metal, bacterias

    Methods:

    -Filtration

    -Sedimentation

  • Major Stages of Treatment

    Primary Treatment

    (Reduce Solids 50-60%, BOD 30-50%)

    Bar screens, Comminutor, Grit chamber (Settling tank)

    Secondary Treatment

    (Solids 85-95%, BOD 80-95%)

    Trickling filter, Activated sludge, Water treatment ponds

    Advanced Treatment

    (Solids ~100%, BOD ~99%)

    Land Application, Coagulation-sedimentation, Adsorption, Electrodialysis

  • Primary Treatment

    The primary treatment involves removing the

    large suspended matter. Primary treatment can

    remove 60% of the suspended matter. Removal

    happens because of, mainly, one process; settling

    tanks.

    The water is put into a tank, either cylindrical

    or rectangular at such a slow rate some particles

    settle down at the bottom. These particles are

    removed while the water at the top is being sent

    to secondary treatment.

  • Primary The water pump to the process

    tank

    There are barscreens In the process

    tank to filter the disposal

    Sedimentation

    tank

  • Secondary Treatment

    Secondary treatment removes the biological

    oxygen demand (BOD), which is an indirect

    measurement of the amount of organic matter in

    the water. Up to 85% of the BOD is removed in

    secondary treatment. Microorganisms do the

    main part of the BOD removal. After this there

    is only one process left, the tertiary treatment.

  • Secondary Addition aerob bacteria use

    activated sludge

    Aeration by pump

    Blower will blow the air to help the

    microbe flocculate the mass to a big

    flocc

    Flocculant mass will precipitate in the

    bottom of the tank, discard a part and the

    other will circulate to aeration tank

  • Activated sludge flow to

    the aeration tank

    The sludge

    disposal

  • Tertiary Treatment

    The water that goes to tertiary treatment may look clean

    but there are still minor pollutants such as: phosphorus,

    nitrogen, and heavy metals. These are removed by various

    chemical processes or specialized filters.

  • Tertiary

    Disinfectans with :

    - UV

    - Chlorine

    - Ozone

    The last step to discard the hard

    metal, organic compounds,

    poisonous disposal

    HIGH

    COST

    Natural,

    difficult handling

    need UV lamp

    Discard

    ammonia,

    phosphate, hard

    metal

  • The water produced

    Criteria:

    - Clean water

    - BOD

  • FLOW CHART

  • Teknik Pengolahan Limbah Cair

    1. pengolahan secara fisik

    2. pengolahan secara kimia

    3. pengolahan secara biologi

    Combination or individually applied

  • Physical Treatment

    Principle : remove substances by use of naturally occuring

    forces such as gravity, electrical attraction, physical barriers,

    and van der Waalls forces.

  • Physical Treatment

    pengadukan,

    penyortiran,

    pemisahan bahan padat dari limbah cair

    Penyaringan (screening) merupakan cara yang efisien dan murah untuk menyisihkan bahan tersuspensi yang berukuran besar.

    Pengendapan Bahan tersuspensi yang mudah mengendap

  • FLOTATION ?????

    Oils, greases skimmers

    Flotasi juga dapat digunakan sebagai cara penyisihan bahan-

    bahan tersuspensi (clarification) atau pemekatan lumpur

    endapan (sludge thickening) dengan memberikan aliran udara ke

    atas (air flotation).

  • COAGULATION:

    Formation of chemical flocs that adsorb, entrap, or bring

    suspended matter together

    Results from opposite charge

    Particles are destabilized and form visible pin floc

  • FLOCCULATION:

    Enlargement of pinfloc to speed separation

    Occurs via addition of long chain polymer

    Polymer actually grabs onto several pinflocs and pulls material

    together

  • CLARIFICATION:

    Removal of insoluble particles from a suspension

    For metal removal: Typically by sinking

    For BOD removal: Typically by floating

  • ADSORBTION

    Adsorbtion karbon aktif,

    untuk menyisihkan seny. aromatik (misalnya: fenol) & seny.

    organik terlarut lainnya

    Komponen organik akan teradsorbsi pada karbon aktif,

    kemudian dapat dipisahkan dengan menggumpalkan

    menggunakan bahan kimia tertentu.

  • Preliminary Treatment: Screens

    Bar Screens

    Bar Racks

  • Preliminary Treatment: grit removal

  • BIOLOGICAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT

    DEFINITION:

    a method of contact between microbes and substrate.

    Suitable temperature, pH, nutrients etc. are required for

    microbial growth. Such a growth results into the removal

    of substrate.

  • Biological Treatment

    A process whereby organic substances are used as

    food by bacteria and other microorganisms

    bacteria, fungi, cilliates, rotifers, etc.

    O2 is required bentuk yg larut ataupun anion

    spt sulfat dan nitrat

    Produk akhir : penurunan jumlah polutan organik,

    meningkatnya jumlah m.o, CO2, H2O, by-products

    5/30/2013

  • Organic Matter

    M.O O2 CO2 M.O H2O Oxidized Organic Material

    5/30/2013

  • Semua air buangan yang biodegradable dapat diolah

    secara biologi.

    Dalam bagian ini terjadi proses degradasi, penguraian,

    dan dekomposisi

    Sebagai pengolahan sekunder, pengolahan secara

    biologi dipandang sebagai pengolahan yang paling

    murah dan efisien.

    Pengolahan secara Biologi

  • Proses biologi dapat berlangsung secara aerobik

    (membutuhkan oksigen) maupun dengan cara anaerobik

    (tanpa membutuhkan oksigen).

    Pada sistem aerobik diperlukan aerator sebagai penyuplai

    udara/oksigen kedalam limbah cair.

  • Jika bakteri berasal dari limbah maka yang tumbuh

    bermacam-macam jenis bakteri dari mulai yang

    bersifat patogen maupun probiotik.

    Dalam kondisi semacam ini maka proses hanya dapat

    berlangsung secara aerobik karena diperlukan

    hembusan oksigen untuk melipatgandakan jumlah

    bakteri yang ada.

  • OBJECTIVE OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT :

    Coagulate and remove the non-settle able colloidal solids .

    Stabilize the organic matter.

    Reduce the organic matter.

    Remove the nutrients.

    In short, stabilize organic matter: convert organic matter to

    nonbiodegradable form so that it does not exert oxygen

    demand.

  • Activated Sludge - definition

    a continuous or semicontinuous(fill and draw) aerobic

    method incld carbonaceous oxidation and nitrification

    based on : aeration, with flocculating biological growth

    followed by separation of treated wastewater from this

    growth

    Separation settling, flotation, etc

  • Lumpur Aktif

    Memasukkan udara dan lumpur yg mengandung bakteri

    kedalam tangki

    Untuk meningkatkan kecepatan aktivitas bakteri

    Air limbah, udara, dan lumpur mengalami kontak selama

    beberapa jam dalam tangki aerasi bahan organik

    dipecah menjadi senyawa yang lebih sederhana

  • The Process

    Screening and Grit

    Units : to remove large

    objects and to reduce

    particle size

    Primary Settling Tanks :

    to remove particles from

    water sedimentation Particulates suspended size :

    10-1 to 10-7 mm

    ( > 10-4 : turbidity ; < 10-4 :

    color & taste)

    70% of the solids and 30% of

    the BOD can be removed

  • Aeration Tanks : provides 6 to 24

    hours retention

    The contents mixed liquor, and the solids are called mixed liquor

    suspended solids (MLSS), living and

    dead microbial cells

    microorganisms kept in suspension

    4 to 8 hr (by mechanical mixers and/or diffused air),

    M.o concentration maintained by the continuous return of the

    settled biological floc from a

    secondary settling tank to the

    aeration tank.

  • Final Settling Tanks : provide longer

    detention (2h) and lower overflow rates (30 to

    50 m3/m2.day)

    the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank

    still active and able to remove more BOD

    from the waste water maintains and

    increases the microorganism concentration in

    the aeration chamber

    key factor to increase BOD removal from the waste water

  • Microorganisms

    The microorganisms are mixed with the incoming organic as

    food

    M.o grow and mixed with air clump together (flocculate) settle in the secondary clarifier.

    The activated sludge is constantly growing

    a sludge handling system for treatment and disposal.

    The volume of sludge returned to the aeration basins is

    normally 40 to 60 percent of the wastewater flow; the rest is

    wasted.

    A fixed growth of microorganisms develops on synthetic media

    similar to trickling filters. By means of sludge recalculation, a

    population of suspended growth microbes is developed in

    addition to the fixed growth on the media.

  • Role of microbes

    -

    SINGLE

    BACTERIUM

    2.0m

    ORGANIC

    POLLUTANT

    AND NUTRIENTS

    (C,P,N,O,Fe,S)

    GROWTH - CELL DIVISION

    INCREASE IN BIOMASS

    (assimilation)

    CO2 evolved

    (dissimilation)

    O2

    consumption

    Controlled release of energy

    Slow Burning!

  • Types of microbes

    Depending on the energy and carbon source

    AUTOTROPHS: microbes requiring inorganic carbonaceous

    compounds.

    HETEROTROPHS: microbes requiring organic

    compounds .

    PHOTOTROPHS: microbes consuming light as energy source .

    CHEMOTROPHS: microbes obtaining energy from oxidation of

    org. or inorg. Compounds.

    ORGANOTROPHS: organic compounds as source of electron.

    LITHOTROPHS: inorganic compounds as source of electron.

    E.g. nitrifying bacteria is an example of chemolitho-autotrophs.

  • CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS

    PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC

    CHEMOAUTOTROPHIC

    AUTOTROPHIC HETEROTROPIC

    CHEMOHETEROTROPHIC

    PHOTOHETEROTROPHIC

    CO2

    Organic carbon

    INORGANIC ORGANIC

    OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION

  • Important organisms in w/w treatment

    Bacteria Fungi

    Nemotodes

  • Important organisms in w/w treatment

    Algae

  • Important organisms in w/w treatment

    Protozoa

    Rotifers, ciliates,

    crustaceans

    Stentor Celops

    Paramecium

  • Environmental conditions that affect microbial growth.

    1. pH

    2. Temp

    3. Nutrients

    4. Subs conc. & composition

    5. D.O.

    6. Contact / extent of mixing

  • Reaktor pengolahan secara biologi dapat dibedakan atas dua

    jenis, yaitu:

    1. Reaktor pertumbuhan tersuspensi (suspended growth

    reactor);

    2. Reaktor pertumbuhan lekat (attached growth reactor).

  • Suspended Growth

    Diverse populations of microbes

    Mikroba tersuspensi dalam limbah

    Jumlah mikroba dapat terkontrol dengan baik mudah

    diuji di lab

    Activated sludge, UASB

    5/30/2013

  • Attached Growth

    All microbes attached to the medium batu, plastik, dll

    The microbes able to access the organis matter in the

    waste water

    Trickling filter, RBC, Fluidized bed

    5/30/2013

  • Activated Sludge Process is the suspended-growth

    biological treatment process, based on providing intimate

    contact between the sewage and activated sludge.

    The Activated Sludge is the sludge obtained by settling

    sewage in presence of abundant O2 so as to enrich with

    aerobic micro organisms.

    ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

  • screens Grit

    chamber

    Primary

    Settling

    tank

    aeration chlorination

    Raw water

    Secondary

    Settling

    tank

    Effluent

    to disposal

    Reareation

    Activated Sludge

    Pump

    Activated

    Sludge return

    Sludge

    Thickener Sludge

    Digestion To Sludge Drying

    Flow Diagram of ASP

  • Sulfur, phosphate dan nitrogen dalam limbah cair

    merupakan nutrisi bagi bakteri/mikroba.

    Ketiga bahan ini hanya dimakan secukupnya oleh

    bakteri. Pada proses biologi maka ketiga bahan

    tersebut akan tersisa dalam limbah cair yang pada

    akhirnya menjadi lumpur (sludge).

    Jika proses ini terus berlangsung lama maka pada bak

    pengolahan limbah akan terjadi pendangkalan yang

    disebabkan oleh lumpur tersebut.

  • Sludge granule

    an aggregate of

    microorganisms forming

    during wastewater treatment

    in an environment with a

    constant upflow hydraulic

    regime

    1 g of granular sludge organic

    matter (dry weight) can

    catalyze the conversion of

    0.5 to 1 g of COD per day

    to methane

  • Granulation Process

    filamentous microorganisms become entangled in one

    another

    methanogens known as Methanosaete, filamentous microorganisms

  • Inside the granule

  • Type of Activated Sludge Processes

    Plug Flow : wastewater is routed through a series of

    channels constructed in the aeration basin

    Complete Mix - wastewater may be immediately mixed

    throughout the entire contents of the aeration basin (mixed

    with oxygen and bacteria).

    Contact Stabilization

    Extended Aeration

  • Advantages

    Diverse; can be used for one household up a huge plant

    Removes organics

    Oxidation and Nitrification achieved

    Biological nitrification without adding chemicals

    Biological Phosphorus removal

    Solids/ Liquids separation

    Stabilization of sludge

    Capable of removing ~ 97% of suspended solids

    The most widely used wastewater treatment process

  • Disadvantages

    Does not remove color from industrial wastes and may

    increase the color through formation of highly colored

    intermediates through oxidation

    Does not remove nutrients, tertiary treatment is necessary

    Problem of getting well settled sludge

    Recycle biomass keeps high biomass concentration in aeration

    tanks allowing it to be performed in technologically acceptable

    detention times

  • Di dalam reaktor pertumbuhan lekat, mikroorganisme

    tumbuh di atas media pendukung dengan membentuk

    lapisan film untuk melekatkan dirinya. Berbagai modifikasi

    telah banyak dikembangkan selama ini, antara lain:

    1. trickling filter dapat menghilangkan padatan

    tersuspensi dan BOD sampai 80-85%

    2. cakram biologi

    3. filter terendam

    4. reaktor fludisasi

    Seluruh modifikasi ini dapat menghasilkan efisiensi

    penurunan BOD sekitar 80%-90%.

  • Penyaring Trikel

    Terdiri dr lapisan batu dan kerikil dgn tinggi 90 cm-3 m

    Air limbah dialirkan secara perlahan melalui lapisan ini.

    Bakteri akan terkumpul & berkembang biak pd batu dan

    kerikil mengkonsumsi bahan organik yg terdapat

    dlm air limbah

  • Anaerobic digestion

    Anaerobic digestion is widely used to treat

    wastewater sludges and organic wastes because it

    provides volume and mass reduction of the input

    material.

    Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy source

    because the process produces a methane and carbon

    dioxide rich biogas suitable for energy production

    helping replace fossil fuels. Also, the nutrient-rich

    solids left after digestion can be used as fertiliser.

  • The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis

    of the input materials in order to break down

    insoluble organic polymers such as carbohydrates and

    make them available for other bacteria.

    Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and

    amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia,

    and organic acids.

    Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting

    organic acids into acetic acid, along with additional

    ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.

    Methanogens, finally are able to convert these

    products to methane and carbon dioxide.

  • The key process stages of anaerobic digestion

    There are four key biological and chemical stages of anaerobic digestion

    Hydrolysis

    Acidogenesis

    Acetogenesis

    Methanogenesis

    A simplified generic chemical equation for the overall processes outlined

    above is as follows:

    C6H12O6 3CO2 + 3CH4

  • Ditinjau dari segi lingkungan dimana berlangsung proses

    penguraian secara biologi, proses ini dapat dibedakan

    menjadi dua jenis:

    1. Proses aerob, yang berlangsung dengan hadirnya oksigen;

    2. Proses anaerob, yang berlangsung tanpa adanya oksigen.

    Apabila BOD air buangan tidak melebihi 400 mg/l, proses

    aerob masih dapat dianggap lebih ekonomis dari

    anaerob. Pada BOD lebih tinggi dari 4000 mg/l, proses

    anaerob menjadi lebih ekonomis.

  • Anaerobic systems

    Slow rate process required long times retention

    For waste of high organic strength --? COD > 2000 ppm

    Capable treating some substances cellulosic materials,

    aromatic compounds, chlorinated solvents

    5/30/2013

  • Conversion of Organic Pollutants to Biogas

    by Anaerobic Microorganisms

    5/30/2013

  • Kapan kita harus menggunakan

    proses aerobik atau anaerobik ?

    Proses aerobik hanya akan efektif diterapkan jika kadar COD

    (Chemical Oxygen Demand) inlet maksimal 2000 ppm (part

    per million)

    Sedangkan pada COD yang tinggi (diatas 2000 ppm) maka

    proses yang paling efektif dengan anaerobik.

    Pada umumnya COD dari hotel, apartemen dan gedung

    perkantoran sangat tinggi, bisa mencapai 20.000 ppm. Dalam

    kondisi seperti ini proses biologi tidak mungkin berlangsung

    satu tahap, mungkin dua atau tiga tahap atau lebih tergantung

    kemampuan bakteri yang ada dalam sistem.

  • Comparison of the COD balance during

    anaerobic and aerobic treatment

    5/30/2013

  • Apa akibat dari proses biologi yang tidak

    tepat pada pengolahan limbah cair ?

    Pengolahan secara biologi yang tidak tepat akan menyebabkan

    timbulnya bau busuk dan penggumpalan bahan berlemak. Jika

    tidak diatasi segera maka akan sangat mengganggu.

    Untuk menghindari proses pengolahan limbah yang tidak efektif

    dilakukan terlebih dahulu pre-treatment dengan tujuan agar

    tidak terjadi over load COD, diusahakan agar COD maksimal

    2000 ppm.

    Tujuan pre-treatment adalah agar beban COD lebih rendah dan

    limbah lebih homogen.

  • Properties :

    Chemical characteristics of the pollutants

    (react, or interact with,treatment chem.)

    Chemical characteristics of the products of reaction between

    pollutants and treatment chemicals

    (solubilities, volatilities, inability of product remain in water)

    Chemical Treatment

  • Six chemical processes :

    1. Reaction to produce an insoluble solid

    2. Reaction to produce an insoluble gas

    3. Reduction of surface charge to produce coagulation of a

    colloidal suspension

    4. Reaction to produce a biologically degradable substance

    from a nonbiodegradable subs.

    5. Reaction to destroy or deactivate a chelating agent

    6. Oxidation or reduction to produce a non objectionable subs.

  • 1. Reaction to produce an insoluble solid

    Removing metals alkaline precipitations,

    precipitation of the metal as the sulfide, precipitation

    as the phosphate, precipitation as the carbonate, or

    co-precipitation with another metal hydroxide, sulfide,

    phosphate, or carbonate.

    Solubilities, inexpensive sources, pH

  • Example :

    Compound : Pb

    Solubility in Water (mg/L):

    Pb(OH)2 : 2,1

    Pb(CO3 : 7,0 x 10-3

    Pb3(PO4)2 : 20 x 10-3

    PbS : 3,8 x 10-9

    5/30/2013

  • Chemical substances

    Chemical Application

    Lime Heavy metals, fluoride, phosporus

    Soda Ash Heavy metals

    Sodium sulfide Heavy metals

    Hydrogen sulfide Heavy metals

    Phosporic acid Heavy metals

    Fertilizer grade phosphate Heavy metals

    Ferric sulfate Arsenic, sulfide

    Ferric chloride Arsenic, sulfide

    Alum Arsenic, fluoride

    Sodium sulfate Barium

    5/30/2013

  • 5/30/2013

    Raw Waste

    pH adjust

    Oxidation or

    chelating agent

    destruct

    pH adjust or

    Chem addition

    Floc Sed Filt

    Sludge Dewater, Dry

    Conditioning

    Steps

    Return For Seed

    Schematic for Removal by forming

    an insoluble substances

  • 2. Reactions to Produce an Insoluble Gas

    If produce insoluble gas it will remove itself from solution as it is formed

    Ex :

    2 NO2- + Cl2 + 8 H

    + N2 + 4H2O + 2 Cl-

    Chlorine added in the form of chlorine gas or hypochlorite, or another chloride compound that

    dissolves in water

    5/30/2013

  • Chemical substances

    CHEMICAL

    SUBSTANCE

    TREATMENT

    TECHNOLOGY

    Chlorine gas or other

    chlorine compound

    (hypochlorite, or chlorine

    dioxide)

    (1). Breakpoint chlorination to

    remove ammonia

    (2). Alkaline chlorination of

    cyanide

    Sulfuric or hydrochloric

    acids (technical grade or

    waste acids)

    Removal of sulfide as hydrogen

    sulfide gas

    5/30/2013

  • TERMS AND MEANINGS

    Industrial Waste Water

    Before Treatment After Treatment

  • TUGAS :

    Jelaskan tentang Metode Pengolahan Limbah Cair

    secara BIOLOGI dengan ketentuan :

    1. NIM GENAP : Lagoons dan UASB (disertai dengan

    contoh aplikasinya)

    2. NIM GANJIL : Trickling Filter dan RBC (disertai dengan

    contoh aplikasinya)

    UASB : Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket

    RBC : Rotating Biological Contactors

  • TUGAS :

    Jelaskan tentang Metode Pengolahan Limbah Cair

    secara KIMIA dengan ketentuan :

    1. NIM GENAP : Metode 3 dan 4 (disertai dengan contoh

    aplikasinya)

    2. NIM GANJIL : Metode 5 dan 6 (disertai dengan contoh

    aplikasinya)

  • Six chemical processes :

    1. Reaction to produce an insoluble solid

    2. Reaction to produce an insoluble gas

    3. Reduction of surface charge to produce coagulation of a

    colloidal suspension

    4. Reaction to produce a biologically degradable substance

    from a nonbiodegradable subs.

    5. Reaction to destroy or deactivate a chelating agent

    6. Oxidation or reduction to produce a non objectionable subs.