Working with Symbols Psychodrama as a tool in Education Training materials-Module 6

Leonardo Da Vinci project – Transfer of Innovation

INDEX

1. Module description ...................................................................................... 3

1.1. Objectives ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2. Competences ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3. Organisation of the materials and the workshop ................................... 3

2. Introduction to theory................................................................................... 4

2.1. The Freudian concept of symbol ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2. From the unconscious of the individual to the collective archetype Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3. Tacit and explicit knowledge ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4. Psychodrama and symbols ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5. Intermediary objects .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.6. The value of the symbol in group learningError! Bookmark not defined.

3. Introduction to exercises ............................................................................. 5

3.1. Considerations for the educator ......................................................... 24

3.2. Risks in applying the techniques and considerations .......................... 24

3.3. Exercises ........................................................................................... 25

PUPPETS ................................................................................................. 26

CARDS AND POSTCARDS ...................................................................... 27

MASKS ..................................................................................................... 30

PAINTING – DRAWING ............................................................................ 32

SCULPTURES .......................................................................................... 33

ACTING ROLES ....................................................................................... 35

ACTING OBJECTS ................................................................................... 37

IMAGINATIVE EXERCISES ...................................................................... 39

EXERCISES WITH MUSIC AND MOVEMENT ......................................... 41

4. Evaluation ................................................................................................. 43

5. Bibliography .............................................................................................. 44

Books in English ............................................................................................... 44

Books in Spanish ............................................................................................. 44

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1. Module description

Working with Symbols is the sixth module of the course Psychodrama as a Tool in Education. As with all the modules that make up this course, it may be studied independently. However, it is recommended that the information presented here be integrated with knowledge of the other Psychodramatic techniques and actions. It is aimed at all teachers of adult, vocational or life-long training who are interested in learning the symbolic process, from the Psychodramatic perspective, and its application in the classroom. This knowledge can be very useful when identifying obstacles to learning, contending with diverse groups of students, and improving communication, empathy and, consequently, the learning environment.

1.1. Aims

The adult educator will learn the value of symbolism in Psychodrama as applied to adult education.

The educator will learn how to make basic use of symbols, in the classroom, under the perspective of Psychodrama.

1.2. Learning outcomes

On completion of the module, the teacher will be able to:

Explain the importance of the use of symbology in education practice. Suggest diverse symbols and identify their possible function. Choose exercises that are appropriate to the objectives set out. Understand the importance of protecting and maintaining the integrity of both the

group and the individual. Integrate the use of symbols with active Psychodramatic techniques. Appreciate the importance of sharing in Psychodrama. Develop a simple Psychodramatic exercise, orientated towards adult education, in

which symbols for a real life classroom situation are used.

1.3. Organisation of the materials and the workshop

The collection of materials in this manual is orientated towards helping the educator apply simple symbolic exercises in the classroom. However, the content presented here can also be used to organise a training workshop, led by a Psychodramatist, for adult educators themselves. Such a workshop will allow educators to gain a more in-depth understanding of how symbols are used in Psychodramatic practice. Where possible, the workshop will last for eight hours and be run as a single-day session. If this is not possible, it will be run over two, preferably consecutive, days. It is best if the group has at least eight members and no more than sixteen.

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This module is divided into two main sections; an introduction to theory and an introduction to practice. Further sections complete the information that educators will need in order to achieve the objectives set out.

The introduction to theory comprises 6 sections through which the history of the symbol is retraced. The processes of symbolisation are discussed, as are the main concepts of the most important authors; from Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis and discoverer of the connections between symbolic language and the unconscious, to J. L. Moreno, the founder of Psychodrama. This first block will last one hour of the workshop.

The section that is concerned with practice corresponds to the exercise examples. The exercise examples are classified according to the work materials used, and the main purpose of each group of exercises is explained in the corresponding section. In addition, there is a general introduction and a section containing points that the educator should bear in mind. Even more importantly, there is also a section on the risks involved when applying these techniques and on the responsibility that comes with their use.

In the section dealing with evaluation, the instructor will be able to assess the impact the exercise has in the classroom. The bibliography lists the books and articles that have provided the information used to prepare this module. They make up a very useful guide for anyone who would like to extend their knowledge and study symbolism in Psychodrama in greater depth.

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1. Introduction to the theory

Everything is a symbol in Psychodrama, but its importance rests more in the acting out of the symbol than in the genesis of the concept. The symbols par excellence are myths that are recorded in archetypes — more primitive and universal types of expression — but words, letters, objects, gestures, and behaviour may also be symbolic. Each corporal expression is loaded with meaning that is exhibited in the action.

Jacob Levy Moreno (1889-1974) believed that Psychodrama illustrated the symbols of the action, the integration and the resolution. That is to say, in a Psychodramatic action, the personal or group change effected through symbols will depend on “the intensity of the connection between the word, the symbol, the behaviour and the action”.

If the study of symbols can be applied to a situation that is recorded in the Psychodramatic action, the symbol will shed light on any latent phenomena within the group. These latent phenomena often place limits on the education process. The aim of this module, therefore, is to understand the symbolic function through Psychodrama, in order to work on both explicit and implicit information that is present in the adult education process.

Although this course focuses on the adult vocational training classroom, the management of information is important in any learning process. The course attempts to help the educator with awareness, and the connections between the visible and the invisible and their consequences, such as obstacles to learning, leadership, motivation or communication.

Learning through symbolic dramatization strengthens the education process because it allows implicit knowledge to surface by encouraging multidisciplinary skills such as communication, leadership, trust and teamwork. Working with symbols can also be an excellent tool for assimilating concepts, and for strengthening and reinforcing the explicit learning of contents.

Psychodrama in general, and symbols in particular, can help us to both appreciate and evaluate the expectations, limitations and beliefs of the group with regard to specific information, specific training or an educational process.

On the other hand, depending on the adult educator's expertise and their own vision and experience of life, Psychodrama and symbols can be a powerful tool for dealing with situations that may limit the capacity to learn in the classroom. Through the use of symbols, scenarios that provoke fear can be represented in such a way that the group helps the vocational training students to examine their fears and facilitate the learning.

In line to understand deeply the symbolic process, even when in Psychodrama the importance lies in action, in this module will be reviewed the next essential complex, mostly because its theoretical importance in order to apply a symbolic expression in the classroom:

Symbos in Freud’s theory, difference without symbol and sign.

Jung and the possibility of collective symbols and meanings. Klein and the importance of playing to develop talent through a symbolic process. Implicit and explicit knowledge. A Pichon-Rivière introduction Intermediary objects: what can act like a symbol? Psychodrama, symbols and learning in group

1.1. What is a symbol?

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), was an Austrian psychiatrist and the first to study the symbol deeply. According to him, working with symbols involves inquiring directly into the unconscious of the class. Therefore, it is understandable that this module is particularly advanced in PaTiE, and must be applied in the classroom with caution.

Symbols are linked to meaning, dreams and the unconscious, in such a way that they provide us with implicit information that conceptual thought does not encompass. This link may sometimes be related to emotional, motivational or unconscious processes. The symbol and the symbolization process are complex concepts that can be defined simply as an operation of substitution in which a symbol may have a different meaning for each individual, group or society.

Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychoanalytic method, based on the existence of the unconscious that the doctor discovered through his work with hypnosis. Freud felt the need to study repressed memories by means of “free association”, a rule by which patients have to speak about whatever occurs to them without any kind of moral restriction. He called this method psychoanalysis, and he assumed that, thanks to him, patients made connections to those gaps in memory that originate in the unconscious and remain latent. The therapist had an intervening role of building an outline around these lapses in memory.

In this sense, symbols that appear in dreams were, to Freud, an important source of knowledge about the desires of the unconscious. This is so because of the nature of the symbol.

Symbolization involves a process in which a thing represents something different to an individual. However, it is not concerned with the substitution of one object for another, in such a way that, for example, a flame is understood to represent fire. What takes place in the symbolic process is not a substitution, but an operation that involves the capacity of an absent object to be represented by means of the symbol that signifies it, and the participation of an individual who is able to distinguish between the symbol and the symbolized.

In order to better understand what is involved when talking about symbols, it is helpful to bear in mind the difference between sign and symbol.

The sign is a communicative unit that transmits representative contents with a precise meaning, and it is formed by a duality between signifier and meaning, the sign and the thing described. Continuing with the previous example, a flame signifies fire. The noun “fire” itself forms part of a system of signs that shape a language, and it indicates the specific meaning of fire.

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The symbol, in contrast, does not indicate a precise meaning but evokes abstract ideas, values and feelings. While the sign is unique to language, the symbol is an iconographic or mimetic type of inscription of what it attempts to represent. It reveals itself through practices other than speech, such as dreams and games and, sometimes, behaviour. In this way, we could consider imaginative play as true symbolization, since the latter increases the capacity to fantasize and organize the psychic space. At the same time, however, the symbol is a signifier and it allows separate elements, whose meaningful connection has been lost, to be connected by creating a link between subject and object, between psychic and material reality, and between the past and the present.

As understood by the Freudian model in clinical practice, analysis assumes a dual relation between the analyst and the person being analyzed that only can work when a third entity is represented in the scene. That is to say, the analytical situation assumes its true form when both the symbol and the symbolized act in the scene, allowing a process of symbolization to develop – an action that has its opening and closing processes.

Freud emphasizes an essentially individual symbolism that resists cultural influence in a social dimension. In fact, the individual symbolism attests to the adventure of symbolization within the same treatment; it is assumed that a closed and repetitive form of symbolization provides a way in which the symbolic process can open up and avoid repetition, by introducing a new system of exchange between the symbol and the symbolized. Symbols link different emotions.

Describing the symbol as signifier makes it clear that, although its nature may be removed from language, it may be expressed through speech and revealed linguistically. However, in symbols, the unconscious is filtered through consciousness, that is to say, it is a real – externalized – manifestation of the unconscious when awake.

In dreams, the unconscious is not restricted to the structures of conscious perception. The dream has a syntax all of its own, its own language, and the language of wakefulness and its signs become obsolete.

In the Freudian theory of the symbol, the symbol involves an opening up of the individuality of each person, a form of expression that is beyond socially acquired grammar.

What links the symbol and the symbolized is not the same as what links signifier and meaning, and that is exactly where the difference between symbol and sign lies. In the case of the sign, the link between significance and meaning is arbitrary, and is chosen and agreed upon by the individuals who use the sign, but it is not necessary.

*For example, the word 'fire' (signifier) can mean that compendium of flames, smoke and heat (meaning) to which a name is given, but it could also be described by a different sign. According to Freud, the symbol, on the other hand, is linked to what it represents in a way that could be described as appropriate and that is not at all arbitrary. This is because of the iconic mimesis of the symbol with that which is being symbolized.

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Thus, the symbol seems to free the individual from the word, from what has been agreed by men, from what pertains to language and its grammar. In Psychodrama, and this is one of the main Moreno novelties in the symbolic work, the goal is not to understand or analyze a particular process of symbolization, but to act the symbol. This way of working with symbols can be very helpful in the classroom, especially in conflict solving or to work with heterogeneous classes.

The study of symbolization processes can be extremely complicated. Nonetheless, in order to be able to intervene effectively, adult educators only need to recognize and be aware of the symbols that can appear in both the classroom and drama scene.

1.2. The class and the collective unconscious

The rule of “free association” in Freud is based on his idea that human beings are imbued with subjective drives that are directed from the individual to social reality, linking him or her with the people round about. This theory of free association was the one that attracted Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist, to Freudian theories. However, Jung ended by distancing himself from psychoanalysis because it concerns the working of the unconscious. Freud´s idea of unconscious is always individual. Jung concluded from his investigations on ancient myths that not only individual unconscious occurred, but also a collective unconscious. Human beings enjoy as members of a species a type of mental schema that we are all born with and that we all share.

Jung named these contents 'archetypes' because they constitute paradigms, thought systems and words that make it easier for the members of a society to understand the cultural values they share, rituals and all forms of communication.

That is to say, as opposed to the individual unconscious of Freud, motivated by the libidinal drive of each particular individual and based on their repressed desires, Jung instead proposes a universal drive and, therefore, a universal, symbolic and collective unconscious that nullifies, to a great extent, the singularity of each person.

Freud heavily criticized this aspect of Jung's theory, and considered that no individual is completely forced to accept any universal archetype, however much they may be shaped by all the emotions experienced in a lifetime of relationships.

The importance of the use of symbols, for understanding the unconscious, the latent, the emotional and the non-rational, is developed in the Psychodramatic action in a dual way. On the one hand, each person may work individually on a symbol while explaining it to the group – who may in turn reveal their own unconscious – or it may be that signs of the collective unconscious are glimpsed, creating a powerful space for change for the class.

As Jung explains in his seminal work, Man and his symbols, although all cultures resort to a symbolic expression in order to represent concepts that they cannot define or understand completely - such as divinity - it should also be remembered that man produces symbols unconsciously and spontaneously in the form of dreams. These dreams may be certain events that the individual has not been aware of and that have

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been absorbed subliminally. Nonetheless, the individual may become aware of these events, not only through dreams, but by means of a process of deep thought or intuition through which an understanding can be gained. They emerge from the unconscious as a kind of delayed reflection.

To sum up, the Psychodramatic action can encourage this understanding by transferring information from the unconscious to the conscious through symbolic work, at both an individual and a classroom level. In the classroom certain processes allow the group to share common cultural values allowing that way communication between individuals. In case of groups with different cultures, is also created –or can be–, a common space for sharing and communicating through the symbols.

1.3. Playing with symbols, a source of talent

Along with Freud, the Austrian psychoanalyst Melanie Klein (1882-1960) was another pioneer in the use of the symbol that would later be applied to Psychodrama. Her languages and theories on the symbol belong to an advanced level of therapeutic clinical practice, one that the educator will not require when applying Psychodramatic exercises in the classroom. Nonetheless, it is essential to learn her theoretical basis in order to illustrate the power of the symbol in the individual and in the class as a whole.

The Austrian psychoanalyst Klein also worked on the unconscious, and did so by means of free association. However, the nature of the symbolic material with which she carried out these practices was different to Freud's, a difference that may have come about because she carried out her work with children.

For Klein, the symbol is no longer that unconscious manifestation which is revealed in dreams, but a malleable and indispensable element. Symbolism for her is the bridge between the representations fantasized by the individual and the real objects. The ego develops its perception of the world by creating symbols. So, in 1946, she coined the term projective identification, an essential factor that allows experiences, initially inaccessible, to be thought and verbalized.

Kleinian symbolism sees play as the symbolic expression of underlying and unconscious conflicts, desires and fantasies. Symbolism no longer corresponds to the unconscious and involuntary oneiric manifestations, but to the capacity to connect or associate equivalent fields of experience in terms that allow drives to be discharged. Psychodrama opens the possibility for the unconscious to be activated and spoken by playing.

In games, especially those of an athletic nature, libidinal impulses are released in ways that are less repressive and closer to sublimation, which allows the individual to connect inhibitions. It does so by making sublimation possible with the displacement of one of these inhibitions, in a way that is more in tune with the preferences of the individual's own ego.

The symbol, by means of substitution, displaces the inhibition and makes it possible for the repressed emotion to disappear. This operation is based on the capacity to establish activities that provide the individual with some sort of satisfaction to which they may symbolically link libidinal fantasies. In order to achieve this, it is

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necessary to consider the aptitude demonstrated by the individual. If it is not excessively hindered, the symbolic operation to expel the repression may be a source of talent.

When an individual comes across an activity that meets with widespread approval by society, and they find within that activity a substitute channel for discharging unsatisfied libido, sublimation takes place. The process of symbol formation plays an essential role in sublimation and, therefore, in the talent, as it allows the association between the activity and libidinal desires to be established.

The talent –or more specifically, its development– is a key concept in the theory of Klein that occurs precisely as a result of sublimation. This is because the individual's fixation for discharging libidinal drives impels them to cultivate the activity that facilitates this development. And, says Klein, this development of a specific activity is what we call talent. This alternative is always more constructive than others that have repressed or less suitable channels, because these generate fixations that usually result in symptoms. And sublimation is only achieved by means of the symbolic capacity that links the inhibition with the chosen activity.

Klein believes that the formation of symbols is a process that affects the psyche. It creates an exterior in which the interior can make a safe base for drives that will create the individual's reality.

In her work Infantile Analysis, Doctor Klein places great importance on the role of symbolism in intellectual development, since it equates intellectual inhibitions with the inhibition of the symbolic function. The symbolization process is considered as a dynamic process of substitution of objects that are driven by angst and sadism. These aspects are very much related to the intrapsychic world of each individual. Nonetheless, the educator has to be, if not expert in them, then at least aware of these theories related to the processes of symbolization. Both the individual and the class are connected with deep aspects of their identity and functioning by the processes involved in the symbolization process, perhaps of an unconscious nature.

According to Klein, the game as a therapeutic activity that works with the logic of free association, allows both guilt – for example – to be detected, and the symbolic relation, that causes this guilt, to be established. Symbolism makes it easier for the person to transcribe their affective and emotional history and in Moreno’s Psychodrama, this will be ‘acting a role’. Through the role, the person projects him/herself giving the opportunity to communicate freely. Therefore, Psychodrama opens the possibility for the unconscious to be activated and spoken by playing, and playing with symbols may be a source of talent.

1.4. Implicit and explicit knowledge: reading the class

Enrique Pichon-Rivière (1907-1977), a psychiatric doctor who introduced psychoanalysis to Argentina, followed this line proposed by Klein. This Swiss-Argentine doctor understood that the anxiety of the individual is motivated by their needs that, in turn generate fantasies. The fact that an individual perceives a fantasy as something that can be accomplished, in order to satisfy a need, generates a type of anxiety. The

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articulation between the conflict of needs and certain defense mechanisms is resolved in one way or another by provoking a specific behaviour on the part of the individual. This behaviour is the observable, the explicit, and trying to understand the conflict that causes it is useful for attempting its understanding, that is to say, to shed light on the implicit.

In addition, someone's Psychodramatic performance is always within the group context of the class, in such a way that issues such as bonding, commitment, group anxiety, limitations, etc. can be worked on.

The psychoanalytic theory of Pichon-Rivière follows a dialectic method that revolves around the central concept of ECRO (Conceptual, Referential and Operational Schema), used in the field of social psychology. He believed that this schema, when operating as a scientific model based on observed natural events, could help to understand those visible events and bring out the non-visible from within them.

Among other things, his theory feeds from the symbolic interactionism of the philosopher, sociologist and psychologist George Mead (1863-1931), who bases his understanding of society on communication, seeing the latter as a production of meaning within a specific symbolic universe. That is to say, the symbols, whether archetypes or individual, are delimited by the symbolic system of the different societies in which they are created. This concept of Pichon-Rivière adds to the contribution made by psychoanalysis with regard to the study of the latent in the everyday life of individuals.

He was also influenced by the surrealist current and he emphasizes the concept of the obvious as the explicit; what goes on in everyday life, what appears so ordinary to us that we do not see it and that, when it corresponds to a learning of a specific social form that contains imported values, is accepted as the natural. The essential Rivierian proposition lies in questioning the obvious in order to distance oneself from it and gain a more objective understanding of reality.

It is understood, therefore, that symbols, as communicative expressions that convey the latent values of every society, are explicit forms that contain implicit knowledge; a latent memory. Pichon-Rivière understands that the explicit is the manifest and that the implicit is the latent. Between one term and another, this psychoanalyst establishes a dialectic spiral.

The dialectic method is a scientific study method of reality. It assumes that all elements are connected – that everything affects everything else, while all reality is transformed and is in continuous change. Three phases of reality are therefore set out and the latter is examined so that its development, change and connections may be understood.

To start, the thesis or first idea is followed by the antithesis or the opposite idea to the first. Then, the synthesis or combination of both ideas gives rise to a third. The latter, in turn, is the thesis that opens a new process of transformation of reality and of connections.

Pichon-Rivière follows this method of analysis in order to set out that the link between the implicit and the explicit of an individual or a society is structured in a way that is not

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linear but spiral, and that in each turn the concept of multiple causality underlies or, in Freudian terms, overdetermination. According to Freud, overdetermination or multiple determination, describes the fact that a formation of the unconscious (a symptom, a dream, a symbol) refers to a plurality of determining factors, and that there are several causes that may explain this formation, never a single one.

Along the same lines, multiple causality understands that, just as behaviour may be expressed in different ways, it also owes itself to various causes. These causes concern the history of that person, the context and the here and now. At the same time, within the same historical and current framework – within the same class – individuals may develop more than one fantasy, desire or need that will cause everything to come together and move towards a specific behaviour, one more meaningful than the others; a condensation that holds the contents of different desires. In a dream, and in a symbol, different aspects may converge that are completely unrelated to each other but that find the channel of the symbolic through which to express themselves.

When applying the behavioural theory of Pichon-Rivière to the group field, we can understand two dialectic games that are articulated: the individual-group and the implicit-explicit. To that end, Pichon-Rivière refers to a little-known English psychoanalyst, H. Ezriel, according to whom the manifest content of group discussions may encompass any topic that is a manifest content - that is, explicit. This content quickly develops an underlying, implicit problem: a common, unconscious group tension that determines the behaviour of the group.

This group tension is the common denominator of the individual, unconscious fantasies that are dominant in all group members at that moment. In this way, each group member takes on a particular role within the group, one that matches the specific manner in which they defend themselves from the unconscious fears that are wakened by the group problem. It is here that the restorative and transformational power of Psychodrama and exercises in the classroom are vindicated; when it comes to devoting energy to resolving the class's problem.

It should be pointed out that, when talking of group fantasy, Ezriel himself admits that it does not exist as such. The group is not an entity that has a fantasy, rather each individual has a fantasy and the other group members enter into what is known as resonance. This resonance that occurs in the conversations and actions of the group produces a contagion of fantasies between the group members, based on one fantasy that is more powerful and that ties with the fantasies of the others.

This English psychoanalyst understood that the manifest behaviour of individuals within a group has characteristics that represent an attempt to resolve a conscious tension emerging from the connections with unconscious objects of the fantasy. Thus, each group member projects the objects of unconscious fantasy onto several other group members, with whom he or she is on terms, according to those projections. The latter become clear during the process of allocating and assuming roles.

Communication in a society – also in a class – is a production of meaning within a specific symbolic universe. Through symbols we can study the latent in the everyday life on individuals, also in a classroom. The obvious is the explicit, what goes on in

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everyday life, the ordinary to us, but that contains imported values accepted as the natural. In consequence, by attending and using symbols, educators can take distance from the explicit and read in the class, having a better comprehension of reality. The unconscious refers to a plurality of determining factors, and that there are several causes that may explain this formation, never a single one. Therefore, reading the classroom through symbols helps to understand that whatever happens explicitly has different underlying causes.

1.5. Psychodrama and symbols

According to Moreno, we can represent three types of scene: Real, Imaginary and Symbolic. When someone thinks about dramatizing a real life situation, their proposal is the result of a chain of events that start off as the perception of what is real for that person. They have mobilized a series of unconscious contents that lead to the manifest proposal. This represents a coming together of the observable and the latent contents, forming a symbolization process.

Man has been described by various authors as the animal that creates symbols. Through symbols, human beings can transcend the here and now, but the inverse journey is also possible, according to which man integrates remote symbols into the most immediate here and now.

Three phases in the evolution of human beings can therefore be considered:

The here and now of the animal. The animal that creates symbols and transcends the here and now. The integrated, symbolizing creativity in the specific here and now. This new

human being, who integrates symbols in the here and now, is what is described as “cosmic man”, as realistic as the animal and as symbolic as homo sapiens; a synthesis of both.

Moreno understood this concept of the cosmic early in his childhood, when he would play role games by following his religious beliefs or using other types of situation. In fact, Moreno's favourite childhood game was the one that was about representing God. For Moreno, this role was the warming-up process for his future mission: to have the cosmic personality that would associate his name with that of God, thereby transforming himself into the father.

The transcendental symbol of the divinity is registered in the here and now of the father, the here and now of the father is reflected in the divine symbol, and both converge in Moreno, who is at once his own God and his own father. Moreno was playing a role in this first Psychodrama that he described as ‘The Psychodrama of the Fallen God’.

The spontaneity and the creativity of role playing, in both the Psychodramatic process and the classroom, heal us and remove us from any blocks, conflict or psychopathological rigidity, thereby making the learning easier.

Moreno later manages to limit the complexity of the symbolization process when, while studying medicine, he experiences roles in other games – such as making reconstructions of court trials that he attended, or organizing theatrical performances

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for children in the gardens of Vienna and, among other things, giving them the chance to temporarily choose a father.

These and other rebellious practices, that cost him several visits to jail, serve to illustrate how the founder of Psychodrama understood psychotherapy, and the evolution, from the Freud analyst of dreams and symbols, that his point of view entails.

A phrase that Moreno himself recounts in his autobiography illustrates this point well, although Freud never mentioned the meeting: “In 1912 I went to one of Freud's readings. He had finished his analysis of a telepathic dream. Surrounded by students, he came over to me and asked what I was doing. I replied, ‘well, Dr Freud, I start where you finish. You bring people together in artificial places, like your office. I do so in the street, in their homes or in natural settings. You analyze their dreams. I give them the courage to dream again. You analyze them and divide them into different parts. I allow them to act out their conflicts in roles, and I help them to put the parts together again”.

The classroom also corresponds to a natural setting, since it is a space where the student can take on roles and act them out; where there is room for actions that can be Psychodramatised, with no need to be in a consulting room.

Despite Freud and Moreno's differences, the fact is that psychoanalysis and Psychodrama are forms of therapy that study the psyche and the soul. To speak of drama is to speak of action. Psychodrama, therefore, is the psyche in action, it is the human in action, in any work, home, educational, sporting, or social setting…

Psychodrama involves the group therapy of Moreno. The latter is based on the idea that the representation of roles, in both children and adults, serves to partially satisfy the needs or desires that are repressed by family upbringing or social and cultural restrictions. That is to say, in the group form, this psychiatrist understood that those unconscious drives, censured by the conscience, were allowed to flow by either representing a role within a group and reliving an individual experience – in such a way that all members of the group relive similar experiences - or by representing imagined scenes.

As he himself says in his response to Freud; new dreams, new creative and spontaneous inventions that are developed in the Psychodramatic scene, giving rise to the creation of new symbols. It could be said that each individual's desires and unconscious join with the group unconscious through certain universal archetypes. These archetypes allow both the unconscious and desires of the individual to be understood via these same symbols. They also allow common and individual drives to be shared through the individuals' creations, both alone and within the group.

Role-playing is based on the same idea as Freudian symbol theory; that play and dreams are a channel through which the unconscious is revealed, along the lines of Melanie Klein's concept of play. In role-play, this allows for the development of spontaneity, understood, according to the classical idea, as either a new response to an old situation or a response adapted to a new situation and seen as such by Moreno.

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According to Moreno, psychotherapeutic practice goes one step further; not only does it interpret dreams themselves in the light of new emotions, but it creates new emotions by means of both one's own and the group's new dreams, symbols, performances and dramatizations.

Moreno's concept of spontaneity is a key element throughout his theory, as he understands that it is the unconscious potential through which emotions are expressed. Spontaneity is the creator of 'vital values' – the individual's own values – although it is often masked by official and stereotyped values, those values Freud would understand as social and censorial that crush the individuality of each ego's unconscious. An spontaneous, creative human being is the Morenian key.

This creation is brought about by changing roles in such a way that the protagonist acts from the position of some other person, object or part of themselves. The range of roles is limitless and open to the symbolization process, creativity and the needs of the process.

The roles can be imaginary characters, animals, objects and others that make it easier for behaviours to be demonstrated and thoughts, emotions and other aspects of the protagonist to be externalized. The role may be represented from the symbolic or through symbols in such a way that the protagonist acquires something more than a specific meaning; a wider set of values and beliefs that may be shared in common or respond to an individual idea about that symbol.

To sum up, we can say that certain roles like God, the wisest man in the world, Superman, angels, Judas, Achilles, Cinderella, Hitler, Dionisio… are roles based on symbols that can facilitate, depending on each culture, the discovery of new answers and allow group aspects to be investigated. Working with symbols in the scene using other materials that allow greater creativity, such as masks, plasticine, painting or collages, can also generate high levels of unconscious projection by creating situations that are difficult to contain for adult educators who lack specific training in Psychodrama. In the action, the symbol acquires the role of what it represents, not of what it is. The mask is no longer a mask, it is what it symbolizes, an excess of meaning that delves deep into the unconscious. Although Freud is always present in Moreno's work, it is nearly always in opposition to him. So, let the spontaneity and the creativity play in the classroom, giving to the students the opportunity to dream again, creating new symbols. The classroom is a natural setting, a space where students can take on roles that can be psychodramatised

1.6. Intermediary objects

As has already been seen throughout the course, the “auxiliary ego” is a concept introduced by Moreno that operates in the area of “transitional phenomena”. The function of this third ego has already been explained thoroughly, in the introduction to the key concepts of Psychodrama. Nevertheless, gaining an understanding of intermediary objects regarding the symbolic dimension of Psychodrama is recommended.

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The intermediary objects may work as an “auxiliary ego”. They are objects that are neither inside nor outside. They form a part of the individual as a projection of partial aspects of their ego, or, in other words, of some of its internal symbols, multiple egos and/or internal characters. At the same time, however, it is an object that is outside. It is and it is not part of the individual. To a certain extent, the character of auxiliary alludes to that ambiguous character of the object:

It is ego; aspects of the ego/egos embodied within itself. It is auxiliary because it helps the individual – and the educator in the context of

the class – to become aware of, not only those parts of his/herself that are divided and "projected" onto the object, but also the extent to which it is someone different from the learners themselves.

This makes it easier to differentiate between what is inside and what is outside, between ego and non-ego.

Any intermediary object can be a symbol. If we want to carry out a symbolic process in the classroom, the objects selected by the students will not be mere aids, but will have, in their very symbolism, more meaning than the mere representation through them of a message of the unconscious. The symbolic aspects may be innumerable, and more so if one considers that almost all the elements have a symbolic value, especially in a Psychodramatic action. There is an excess of underlying meaning beyond what is observed, at both an individual level and in the classroom as a whole.

The term intermediary object was the result, after a long process of investigation, of a treatment that used Psychodrama for a large group of chronic psychotic patients in the Hospital Nacional J. T. Borda in Buenos Aires. The patients had been hospitalized for years and had almost no family or social contact outside the hospital. As he explains, it was not felt that a treatment was at all possible and the initial expectations for what the application of Psychodrama could achieve were not ambitious. Instead, the aim was to restore both the communication that had been disrupted by the patients' specific pathology and that which stemmed from the hospitalization.

The analysis of the results concluded that this response was directed at the object and not at whatever character the puppet represented. That's why the puppet went on to be considered both as an object and as a puppet on the basis of the character it represented. This object was therefore called intermediary. That is, communication could be established with the self-absorbed patient through the intermediary of the object. The capsule that represented the patient's self-absorption was called "psychological self". Subsequent investigations were practiced with other objects such as masks, tunics, hoods and pieces of fabric.

The visual response of the patients in the presence of the objects was an important phenomenon that should be noted. After a period of interaction, almost all of the patients would try to touch the object. This has led to a very productive variant; handing the puppet or another object to the patient, and letting them use and interact with it as they see fit. In the same way, when this type of symbolic play is applied to the classroom, it may be the students themselves who decide what value to give to the objects they use, by projecting their unconscious ideas onto them.

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Through more extensive studies it can be established that any object may serve as an intermediary object: from concrete objects such as cigarettes to elements like air or fire, and including fantasies - characters, dreams, colors…. Having this wide variety of uses and meanings is similar to what has happened with the term of role; applied without much rigor, it ends up having so many meanings that a prior definition is required in order to be able to understand the terms in which it is being used.

Attempting to conceptualize what an intermediary object is, can seem an awkward task. With regard to this module, however, a definition that offers some clarification may serve as a guideline when it comes to applying and recreating the exercises, providing the educator with the necessary resources so that they know how to use almost any object as an intermediary object. Nonetheless, understanding and using this type of object requires an experiential component, away from theoretical precision.

Going back to its etymological origin, object first comes from the Latin objectus and means 'thrown against'; something that exists outside of ourselves, something material that is made visible and presented to the senses. On the other hand, the intermediary is what mediates between two or more people.

An intermediary object, therefore, is a real and concrete object - the puppet, the mask, the piece of fabric, the umbrella - that is given a new function. When the intermediary object was used originally, its function was restoring the blocked communication in the case of a self-absorbed patient.

Over time, however, and paying heed to Moreno's prediction that this technique can be applied far beyond the psychotic chronic, it has been used to offer new channels of expression wherever communication has not been lost but where the latent requires other means by which it can emerge.

In the Psychodramatic session, the same object may be used for different purposes and these will mark the object's function, the technique for its use, and the type of occasions on which it will be introduced. There may be three main functions:

Auxiliary function: the object emphasizes or highlights something that is already happening in the session. The point of these objects is to help create or highlight something that occurs in the scene: a character or a specific emotional atmosphere.

Warm-up stage: the intermediary object is frequently used in the body warm-up for purposes of communication and expression. The object is used as a “radar” at the outset, in order to define the roles and situations that are in play (emerging). A meaning beyond the object itself is not explicitly attributed during this stage – it is simply interpreted. It intervenes by favouring and protecting the interactions (ropes, nets, tapes, cushions, etc.), the creation of characters, etc.

Dramatization stage: they facilitate the action in particular. It is usually the leader who takes the initiative for using them, although the auxiliary egos and protagonists may also use them spontaneously. The most usual auxiliary objects are chairs and drawers, for emphasizing different levels, and pieces of fabric, lights, music and other elements for complementing or emphasizing character traits.

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An example: a piece of fabric used as a cloak highlights a character's power; a white sheet covering a character who is lying down emphasizes death; a character who is interpreted standing on a bucket is attributed a hierarchy and placed on a different level from his interlocutor, etc.

Mediating function: the presence of the object is a determining factor for the appearance of communicational and expressive behaviour on the part of the protagonist. Without the object, the act would not take place, that is, its introduction produces – or facilitates – a change in the way the protagonist acts.

As an intermediary object, it restores disrupted communication; the object chosen by the leader, and handled by the auxiliary ego, works as a communicational bridge with the self-absorbed patient, allowing them to communicate. In this case, the patient communicates with the object; he responds to the object itself and not to the person who is operating it.

As an intraintermediary object: the object is used by the protagonist himself/herself, who acts as a catalyst for communication with himself/herself and with the rest of the group. The protagonist uses the object, provided by the leader, as a protector of the ego, something that makes it easier for him/her to communicate.

Creative or creator function: the object is created by the participant and facilitates the expression of contents that manifest themselves in shapes. With the previous functions, the objects have meaning based on what they are. In this case, they do so based on what they represent, since the individual does not express him or herself through the object, but in the object. This object takes on a form that is modeled on the contents that emerge in the protagonist. The creation of an object by the protagonist favors the emergence of new material and new perspectives from which to review the previous material. The contents expressed in these objects generally refer to very intimate matters concerning the individual.

The use of intermediary objects involves, therefore, a symbolization process in which the student communicates information that is either impossible to verbalize or not conscious, allowing it to appear through the object. In Psychodrama, the individual does this in a group. He/she discovers that the other is different, and sees them as such, so the others take on importance. This highlights the importance of the group in the recognition of oneself and one's egos that are expressed and communicated through symbolic intermediary objects.

Any intermediary object can be a symbol. If we want to carry out a symbolic process in the classroom, the objects selected by the students will not be mere aids, but will have, in their very symbolism, more meaning than the mere representation through them of a message of the unconscious. The symbolic aspects may be innumerable, and more so if one considers that almost all the elements have a symbolic value, especially in a Psychodramatic action. When a symbolic play is applied to the classroom, students themselves should decide what value to give to the objects they use, by projecting their unconscious ideas onto them. Any object may serve as an intermediary object and everything is symbolic in Psychodrama, so every object can act as a symbol.

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1.7. The value of the symbol in group learning

As has been seen all along this journey through the origins of the psychoanalytic symbol, working with symbols in Psychodrama involves a process of group learning; archetypes, group fantasies and play are concepts that work at a group level and that intervene in Psychodrama.

Although Psychodrama can work at an individual level, the work that is set out in the classroom is for groups, with the group being an essential element for dramatization. The group allows the acting out of the dramas of the group situation that the individuals experience everyday. In particular, when working with symbols, it allows a reading of the symbol that is experienced within the group. That is, it permits the conversion of the participants into cosmic, creative and spontaneous man. Group fantasies can therefore be expressed as a Psychodramatic group process that reveals the implicit of each individual.

Psychodramatic group work, through symbols, provides a channel that favours a connection with aspects rejected by the group, and that helps to bring out the creative and pacifying strength from these aspects.

The symbolic process can be particularly helpful when coping with diverse groups and different levels of learning, since the students can get closer to the other from the symbols. A group that accepts itself makes it easier for adults to overcome any resistance to learning. Working with symbols can also help the teacher to understand the feelings of their students, as well as the difficulties and different situations that can arise within a class of diverse people. In addition, expression through the use of symbols is a channel for getting students to participate in the classroom and creating an atmosphere of trust, one in which all participants can get along and enjoy equality of opportunities with respect to learning, although their individual situations may differ.

The publication in 1998 of the book by the American psychologist Daniel Goleman (1947-), Emotional Intelligence, had very important implications for Psychodramatists. In his study, Goleman distinguished two different aspects of the mind –the rational and the emotional –that are directly connected to the hemispheres of the brain. Thus, the right hemisphere receives rational information whereas the left receives emotional information.

The great importance of working with symbols lies in the fact that they activate the left hemisphere, which results in implicit knowledge being generated. At the same time, and because it is concerned with action, Psychodrama activates the brain all over when it works with symbols. According to Goleman, the logic of the emotional part of the mind is associative and understands symbolic elements as reality.

For that reason, similes, metaphors and images speak directly to the left hemisphere, in the same way as do the arts – literature, film, music, theatre, etc. Freud described this logic in his concept of “primary process”, according to which this process is the logic of religion, poetry and psychosis, as well as that of children, dreams and myths.

Immersed in Psychodramatic action, the group discovers elements of itself that it did not know. Through the others and their roles, the individual discovers his or her own

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ego, and the group evolves. This is not only based on Moreno's Tele concept – reviewed earlier in other chapters – but on the neurosciences, with their discoveries on mirror neurons, the Polyvagal theory (Porges, 2011) and limbic resonance.

Mirror neurons are a particular type of neuron that are fired when an individual performs an action or when they observe a similar action being carried out by some other individual, in such a way that, in the presence of this stimulus - the action of another individual - the observer's neurons are stimulated as if they were performing the action.

These neurons are called mirror neurons and they form a system of neural networks that allows for not only the perception of the action, but the perception-execution-intention-emotion. Mirror neurons allow us to understand the minds of our fellow humans, not through conceptual reasoning but directly, by feeling and not thinking.

For theory of mind, attributing a mind to another individual is a theoretical activity since we cannot really observe it, but we do generate hypotheses on what they think and feel – we interpret their behaviour. These two facts encourage empathy, the capacity of a person to experience the thoughts and feelings of others and to react appropriately.

Psychodrama encourages connections between people, empathy and understanding. The creative and spontaneous processes that take place within groups allow us to connect with our individuality through others and the other, from the particular to the general and vice versa, sharing dreams and myths. As the American mythologist, Joseph Campbell, said: “Dreams are private myths, myths are shared dreams”.

The symbolic process can be particularly helpful when coping with diverse groups and different levels of learning, since the students can get closer to the other through symbols. A group that accepts itself makes it easier for adults to overcome any resistance to learning. Working with symbols can also help the teacher to understand the feelings of their students, as well as the difficulties and different situations that can arise within a class of diverse people. Expression through the use of symbols is a channel for getting students to participate in the classroom and creating an atmosphere of trust, one in which all participants can get along and enjoy equality of opportunities with respect to learning, although their individual situations may differ. Playing with symbols in Psychodrama allows getting in touch with the emotions and encourages the empathy among the group by feeling instead of thinking.

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Analysing with symbols

Think of a real or imagined experience that could take place in the classroom. Take some time to reflect on the theoretical concepts you have read. In particular, do not forget any of the following.

The difference between sign and symbol. The rule of ‘free association’. Explicit and implicit content in symbols. Spontaneity and creativity. Role-playing. Functions of intermediary objects in the Psychodrama session.

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2. Introduction to exercises

Exercises in educational settings can be created according to the demands of the situation, the challenges present in the educational process or the ability of the educator. “When in doubt, try it yourself first” should be a major rule for the educator when working with classes and using active techniques and Psychodrama. The most important thing is to avoid situations or processes that you may not be able to handle as an educator. Psychodrama is not fragile – the exercises can be stopped or redirected by the director, and auxiliaries can be coached and given advice on how to redirect a situation. It is sometimes even correct to stop the exercise, sit down and discuss what has just taken place. (White, 2002).

This module relies heavily on the educator's own judgment and, although the techniques presented can be summarized in a list, the educator must always be clear about the goals, their own experience, the nature of the group, the character of the individuals, and the particular circumstances at that specific point in time. For the educator or group leader, a safe way of deciding which exercise or technique to use is to be clear about the goal of the intervention. What am I proposing this exercise for? What are the goals of this intervention? Is there a simpler way of approaching this matter? Every single intervention of the leader needs a clear reason, a justification; bearing in mind that the welfare of the individuals and the group must be protected at all times.

Perhaps the less experienced group leader-educator can choose exercises with a lower symbolic content; however, another golden rule is to “expect more impact than you bargained for”. This is particularly relevant when working with symbols and, as you are learning, everything is a symbol in Psychodrama. It is better to choose a “gentle, complete and inspiring encounter, with full sharing and questions, than a brilliant exercise that proves overwhelming and uncontained and leaves the participants with migraines” (White, 2002). From reading these lines, you can see that some of the exercises proposed in the module on symbols may require greater presence and skills on the part of the educator-leader than some of the more structured sociometric techniques, for example.

A major aspect of active and Psychodramatic exercises is spontaneity. Spontaneity is required for the group to explore new ways of resolving conflicts and seeing itself, and for it to access implicit learning. In order for spontaneity to appear, the individuals need to feel safe. Providing a safe space so that change may appear is the responsibility of the educator, facilitator or leader. This is especially the case when working with symbols. The symbol carries a large amount of unconscious information, projections and identifications, and the educator must be aware of the dynamics and processes that each exercise may mobilize within the group.

In many of the techniques and exercises that have already been presented, symbols and the process of symbolization play an important role. In Moreno's world, the symbol is out there to be played, symbols are not to be analyzed or interpreted; their value lies in being acted. In a way, everything is a symbol; playing the role of a soldier can be interpreted by someone's mind as a symbol of bravery. It can also symbolize the grief and pain caused by the death of their grandfather in a battlefield in France during

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World War II. Some other exercises may propose working with or handling objects, or the identification with certain objects that can be understood by the collective unconscious as symbols. A crucifix, a snake, an angel and a Nazi swastika are all clear symbols and can be used as real objects, drawings or shapes created with ropes, pieces of fabric, scarves, etc. Each person or group places different energies onto each symbol, and has different ways of viewing and identifying with them. These techniques allow us to “see ourselves”, and, in doing so, we can “recreate ourselves” and “co-create ourselves”. Everything is open to whatever the educator proposes, the materials available and the spontaneity of the group. A crucial point for the educator to understand is the nature of the group, the setting and the goals of the proposal.

Every aspect of Psychodrama can be classified within the warming-up phase, the action or the sharing. The principal categorization of techniques in Psychodrama, according to its nature, is defined by its warm-up, action or sharing goal. Nevertheless, if the group is ready for action we may not need a warming-up exercise. For example, if there was a clear conflict between two learners that was causing problems for the correct setting of machinery for the following classes, it would not perhaps be necessary to use any warming-up techniques, and an appropriate exercise could be presented for working on the explicit conflict between the classmates.

Identify your objectives

When choosing an exercise to carry out, ask yourself the following questions:

Why am I proposing to do this exercise? What is the challenge that I am planning to overcome in the classroom? What objectives do I want to achieve?

Once you have identified your answers, look over the suggested exercise examples and select those that best suit your needs, according to their characteristics.

*If you are working on the materials in a workshop, discuss your responses with the other participants.

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2.1. Considerations for the educator

When working with symbols and Psychodrama in an educational setting, we may face some of the following difficulties:

The need for a warm-up process may be a problem due to lack of available time in the classroom. For the students to get more deeply into symbolic work, it may be necessary to go through a planned warm-up, before starting on the symbolic work.

Another problem may be the difficulty the group members have in understanding the active work as a horizontal, group-based, circle-based process and not as an individual process. Educational systems are often designed for the individual; individual grades, mentions… but the basis and meaning of Psychodrama has to be understood as a group process.

The group is not used to performing in front of the others. Most of the time, it is the teacher who is the centre of attention and who does the work. This is in contrast to the acting, when it is the group that takes charge and does the work.

Embarrassment may be a big barrier. The safety of the participants and the rule of “do as much as you want and, if you don’t feel like it, just watch” are important. Remember that in Psychodrama and active techniques sometimes “less is more”; students may remain silent whilst watching somebody act, and the entire class atmosphere and matrix changes after the acting, so do not push anyone into acting or taking part.

Other important aspects of the use of these techniques in an educational setting are:

Not to slip into personal or pseudo-therapeutic interventions. It is intended only for working on the educational, professional and developmental aspects of education, not on personal ones. In this respect, it is important for the educator to always be clear about the “contract” he or she has with the student. If it is a training and educational contract, it is not a therapeutic contract. Sometimes personal development runs close to the learning process, but educators must be clear about respecting personal space.

It can be an advantage working with educational groups as they are accustomed to taking part in activities that are centered on tasks. The students may be “task focused" in some way, and that is excellent for applying active techniques.

Asking the “entire group” for help can be a very good motivating factor for those students in the group who receive little recognition or who are lacking motivation. This is because it makes them the protagonist and they often feel important. It is a collaborative effort that can greatly benefit the class.

The schedule may be determined by the academic rules of the institute, company, centre of studies or educational entity. Time limits are important in Psychodrama; the educator must take responsibility for, and be clear about, the time frame set aside for each stage of the work.

2.2. Risks in applying the techniques and considerations Most of these exercise proposals are just suggestions, and they should be combined with the educator's own “know-how”. Learning about active techniques and

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Psychodrama involves action. It requires a set of implicit skills in order to read the group's needs, know when there has been enough acting, know the right moment to move to the sharing, be familiar with the different exercises to propose, or protect a particular member of the group. There are a number of interrelated and complex skill sets involved; when the class gets to the action phase, the educator must be an action analyst, a producer, a counselor and a reliable, trustworthy, calm and secure group leader (Moreno, 1953, p. 83).

When working with exercises, techniques or Psychodramas, the educator must be especially clear about the boundaries, assignments, responsibilities and the nature of the educator-learner relationship. All these boundaries acquire particular relevance in symbolic work. As mentioned earlier, symbolic work, archetypes and implicit memories may place the class members in a particularly vulnerable situation, and it is the educator's responsibility to protect the welfare of the students and the class at all times.

The goals of the proposed exercise must be clear and the possible benefits for the class clearly understood. Any show-off or narcissistic traits in the educator should be left to one side; they should play a serving role to the class.

There may be strong pressure from within the class to change the class process, but it can also make the individual feel compelled to take part in the activities. This should not be allowed to happen. It is the role of the educator to always recognize the right of the others to say no. On many occasions, the technique or proposed exercise might not happen, and that is completely acceptable. Maybe the proposal was too risky for the students, perhaps there is still not enough trust between the group members, or it might be the case that the class is just not ready. Always remember, therefore, to “walk behind the class”, never pushing, and always respecting the rhythms and needs of the class, especially when proposing or working with active techniques. Remember, also, “to try it yourself first” before proposing anything.

2.3. Exercises

The categorization of exercises or techniques is never easy in Psychodrama. The basis of the work is “spontaneity”, something that does not lend itself to categorization. The natural way of presenting exercises may be related to their nature as warming up, acting or sharing. Here we present some exercises that have an important symbolic content and that are designed to meet the skills that adult educators themselves have indicated as being essential:

Helping the educator to be a team player, networked with the students Involving the learners, encouraging them to participate, and share opinions and

experiences Being a motivator Dealing with diverse groups and creating an atmosphere of trust Developing awareness of the students' real needs Encouraging minds to be open to new knowledge Promoting respect in the classroom Developing the students' confidence and faith in their own learning abilities

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PUPPETS

The puppet can communicate with words what group members cannot say, and it introduces creativity that can redefine the group experience.

There are different types of puppets, cloth dolls and marionettes, but glove puppets are easy to use and do not require any particular technical skills. Sometimes, finger puppets can also be used – they are small and easy to use and transport.

Working with puppets

Working with puppets facilitates communication within the group

A glove puppet is just the hand moving – a transformed hand. Such a puppet can be used behind a simple piece of fabric held by two people, or behind a table or a window. Nearly every Psychodramatic technical resource can be used when working with puppets: role reversal, doubling, soliloquies, acting out of scenes, acting with a script, etc.

Glove puppets that are available on the market usually symbolize human roles, animals or fairy-tale characters, and these can be excellent elements for facilitating the symbolization process and the emergence of communication.

Facing up to a group challenge

Boosting motivation among students

Understanding the students better

In stressful situations such as an external examination, a real life application of learned skills, fear of the professional world, lack of self-belief…

From a selection of different glove puppets provided by the educator, each participant can choose one puppet. The instructor can present one of the following situations – or any other that is relevant – for the students to act out using the puppets selected.

Two people face an obstacle they have to overcome. A danger presents. One of the characters wants to deal with it, and the other wants

to escape from it. They have to come to an agreement.

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One character has to convince the other one about something. One character has to sell something to the other one.

The characters played by the puppets may adopt one of the following profiles, chosen by the participants:

Amusing, fast and stammering Nervous, slow and restless Playful, sleepy and happy Sad, chatty and bored An old man, rascally and forgetful

This exercise may not require a specific warm-up; if the group is already struggling with the challenge, the exercise can be presented and acted out.

In a class with low levels of motivation, or little involvement in the learning process, this simple exercise can mobilize energies and change the students' attitude towards the learning process. It depends on the educator's understanding of the situation whether one of the suggested situations should be presented for acting out, or a more specific proposal in accordance with the educator's goals.

Once the scene enacted with puppets has finished, the educator will open up a space for sharing and allow both the audience, and those playing roles with the puppets, to have their say. Anything that evokes a real life situation may also be drawn up.

A variation on working with puppets (or masks, fancy dress, makeup, etc.) may be to let each member of the class choose a puppet with which to speak from the role, to make the puppet speak. The classmates can be asked to introduce themselves, talk about something that worries them, discuss a difficulty they have in class or something about the learning methodology that they would like to change, etc. Again, the educator's understanding of the needs of the class will play a crucial role.

One puppet, one concept: learning difficult topics

Learning difficult topics

If learning a particularly difficult topic, another variation may be to assign a puppet to each concept of the topic and have each puppet explain that concept. Each puppet can be asked to explain its concept in different ways… with an Italian accent, in an animated way, in an extremely quiet way… It may seem simple but it is an active Psychodramatic exercise that meets the demands of adult educators. This exercise can wake up a sleepy group of students, be part of the ongoing evaluation of the class, get the students to participate, etc.

CARDS AND POSTCARDS

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Cards, postcards, or pieces of paper that carry differing ideas, icons, symbols or other information can be used for performing active symbolic work in a classroom. Any topic or piece of knowledge can be separated or divided into smaller pieces of information or concepts. Each concept or topic area may be presented on a card and group members can be asked to play the concept or reflect upon it. If teaching a team of professionals who are working on the same project, exercises with cards can be created in order to boost the skills and hidden abilities of the group. Instead of having the educator discuss their talents or the topic, we can use an exercise to get the group to discover both itself, and the topic being learned, through symbolic work with cards. Other elements could also be employed, but using written cards can be a simple and cost-free method as it does not require any particular materials aside from sheets of paper and pens.

Learning through Cards

Identifying different intelligences. Promoting group coherence and motivation.

Following a brief presentation, multiple intelligences can be a topic for learning. Concepts cards can be created with the names of different types of intelligence. The cards can read as follows:

The cards marked with each type of intelligence can be spread out on the floor and the group members asked to position themselves according to their “most dominant” intelligence, the “second most dominant” and, finally, their least-developed intelligence.

While at each position that corresponds to a type of intelligence, a few words can be shared about the specific competences this intelligence implies.

Logical-Mathematical intelligence (Number/Reasoning smart)

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body smart)

Spatial intelligence (Picture smart)

Interpersonal intelligence (People smart)

Musical intelligence (Music smart)

Naturalist intelligence (Nature smart)

Existential intelligence

Linguistic Intelligence (Word smart)

Intrapersonal intelligence (Self Smart)

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This may be the end of the exercise and a subsequent sharing can take place. Using an exercise with cards, the educator can develop real life awareness of the needs of the students, with the play part of the exercise being an excellent space for an evaluation and for promoting group coherence and motivation. If the goal of the educator is to continue to take an in-depth look at the implicit learning process of the contents, the exercise may develop a second part. The educator has to make these decisions according to the learning contract and the needs of the group.

Small groups

Getting to know each other better. Creating an atmosphere of trust.

Small groups may be formed with each receiving pieces of paper and “two intelligence” cards. They can then be asked to list the ideas that they would use to teach these intelligences and encourage their expression.

This extension of the exercise would allow students to continue to inquire and share information about the subject while getting to know each other. It would also place each student in a proactive learning situation.

Using an exercise with cards places the focus of the work on the students, creating an atmosphere of trust and sharing responsibility for the learning process with the students.

The Postcards

Dealing with diversity Creating an atmosphere of trust.

This can be an exercise that introduces the power of images and symbols for discovering about the class and each of the students. It is an exercise that will involve the class in dealing with diversity, providing them with a space in which to speak safely about themselves through images. Using images, the students will be able to express themselves differently. It can be a diagnostic tool for the educator to assess the group's state of mind.

The educator will prepare a large collection of postcards, photos, pictures, etc. from a wide range of subjects. They will then spread them out on the floor. They can have various symbolic aspects: sport-related, social life, art, some can be enigmatic or historic, others romantic, colorful, black and white and so on. The educator will also prepare some sheets of sugar paper of varying colors and place them on the floor. They will then ask the group members to select the picture they are more comfortable with, and the one that makes them feel least comfortable. The students can also choose a coloured sheet of sugar paper to present their picture. When selecting the

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pictures, they can be asked to introduce themselves or to share something about their choices.

A space can then be opened up for the sharing phase of the exercise.

MASKS

In a similar way to puppets, masks are an excellent way to encourage communication within the classroom. Wearing the mask focuses attention on it, and allows verbal or nonverbal messages to appear. The mask becomes the intermediary object that allows the internal messages, kidnapped in the classroom, to be projected. It may be a concern about the running of the education centre, a conflict between students, the lack of support during the learning process, an overload of study material, or whatever other issue is present in the classroom.

Masks or eye masks can be constructed in many different ways using paper, cardboard, clay, glue or even ceramics, etc. Making the mask can be a warm-up process full of communication and sharing in the classroom. And, again, the educator's experience and common sense with regard to the needs of the class and the goals of the intervention will determine the content of the exercise. In a classroom setting, it is perhaps most practical to make them from cardboard. However, there may be a two-year class coming to an end and, if there is time available, the educator could provide the materials and opt for a more complex mask-making exercise. That would be a wonderful experience for the group.

For cardboard masks, a rectangle large enough to cover the face can be cut out. Shapes can then be made to symbolize animals or other characters. Two small holes can be made to pass an elastic string or band through and attach the mask to the head. Another two holes can be cut out for the eyes and the masks then painted, coloured, etc.

What does your mask have to say?

Being a motivator Promoting free expression

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The students are asked to create a mask – or choose one from a selection – and wear it. Being aware of the lack of inhibition and the free expression that the mask provides the students, they can be asked to interact among themselves from the mask roles.

This can be the end of the acting phase, and the exercise can finish with a sharing about the experience. This may be seen as a simple exercise; nevertheless, it is surprising how much information comes out in the sharing, and how the energy of the group can be changed by this exercise. By encouraging this kind of exercise, the educator becomes a motivator, redirecting the class's moods and providing a space where the class can express themselves.

Masks – character interactions

Promoting open minds Generating empathy, respect and understanding

Once each class member has produced their own mask and presented their mask character, the students can exchange the masks. This exercise can generate empathy, respect and understanding for the positions of the other students in the class. When working with diverse groups, this can be an interesting exercise. If enough time is available, the mask can be made from photos or pictures from magazines or newspapers.

The students can make masks that correspond to the characters, and then be asked to interact with each other. At some point, students could be asked to exchange masks, encouraging role reversal. For an inexperienced adult educator, an easy way to understand how this exercise works is to realize that a first year student would perhaps not talk about his creative ideas on the subject of study, but Yoko Ono will. It is a way of getting the most out of the class and the students, and of encouraging them to open their minds to new knowledge.

PAINTING – DRAWING

Painting and drawing can be an extremely simple way of working with symbolic content. An important element of this type of work are the instructions provided by the educator. The latter must be clear about what challenges the class faces and what classroom situations they want to tackle.

Painting on your own

Reflecting in a creative way Sharing with the group

After an exhausting week of intense theoretical classes or of learning difficult topics, the educator can, in a spontaneous manner, provide the students with crayons or pencils and ask them to express, by drawing on their own, how they feel about the information and teaching received that particular week. They can later explain their drawings.

Drawing places each student in a position where they can reflect, in a creative way, about their own experience, one that they can later share with the group. This allows each experience and reaction to be normalized and validated.

Here are some of the explanations a student may provide with regard to their drawing.

Creating a mural

Encouraging group cohesion Boosting team work Fostering leadership

The educator can hand out cardboard, pens and coloured pencils to the class. The group can then be asked to create a mural about a particular topic relevant to the class: learning, the classmates, professions, etc.

This can be an excellent way of encouraging group cohesion and teamwork. It also allows us to observe the leadership qualities of each class member and the roles that they assume when dealing with a group task.

Examples of proposals for the painting exercise could be:

The future of our studies. A representation of the learning process. A representation of the class itself. The situation of computer technicians in Italy. Renewable energies. Religion and faiths.

These are just examples. Although, as mentioned earlier, it is up to the creativity and responsibility of the educator to create, adapt and present other topics for the mural, that are related to the needs of both the class and the individual students. Not forgetting that the sharing phase is also part of the drawing exercises.

SCULPTURES

Sculptures can form a part of the acting in Psychodrama. A sculpture is a graphical representation, using the participant's body, of a relational image or associated experiences. A sculpture may represent a real situation, one that is wished for or feared, in the present, the past or the future of the relation. It mostly concerns relationships. Sculpting strongly encourages spontaneity, creativity, group cohesion, empathy and respect within the group. It is also a very good way to cast off rigidity, and for the students to recognise their own self-belief and that of the rest of the class.

It is a very powerful tool and requires, therefore, a present, calm and experienced facilitator who has clear “know-how” about sculpting.

Let’s celebrate with a difference

Resolving conflicts Sharing with the group

If a class has achieved success as a group, let's say everyone in the class passed an exam, the class received an award in a contest, or they earned enough money selling lottery tickets to go on a class trip, then the educator

can suggest that the group form a group sculpture at that particular moment. Afterwards, in the sharing phase, they can all talk about how they felt, the images that were evoked and so on.

The educator must always be aware of the issues that can arise during active

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work. Proposing an exercise that has a strong reinforcing element, or is highly positive or celebratory, can allow conflict to surface and group members to be criticized or discredited. The educator must, therefore, be attentive to the group's safety.

Let’s Grieve for Our Friend

Facilitating the development of the group Encouraging spontaneity

Sometimes losses and grieving occur within groups. These emotional processes can interfere with the learning process and the normal development of the group. Dealing with strong emotions and grief is something that must be supervised and dealt with by psychology or psychiatry professionals. That point having been made clear, the educator of adult learners can use some techniques to regain stability within the group and facilitate its development from an educational point of view.

Following a loss within the group, the educator can ask all the members to walk around the room looking at each other; sharing glances. After a few moments, students can be asked to spontaneously start a free sculpture that will be completed by the other students.

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ACTING ROLES

Acting out a role may have a powerful symbolic message for the class. In Psychodrama anything can be played or acted out. Creativity can transfer us from one place to another. In a dentist training group, playing the role of the dentist or the patient would carry a large amount of symbolic content: projecting fears, aspirations, hopes, distrust… and allowing the group to discuss and share these important non-implicit aspects of the performance of an excellent dentist.

Another useful practice is to suggest the dramatization of not only roles of people, but that of roles of objects as well. In this type of work with objects, the students are asked to represent abstract or intangible feelings, situations or memories with real objects. These can be real objects that are present in the room or verbal descriptions of imagined objects. Examples will be provided in the following exercises.

If you were…

An indicator of latent emotional processes within the classroom. Conflict resolution.

With the group standing in a circle and a medium-sized ball, the educator starts with a question for the group:

If you were … (for example: a flower, a car), you would be a …

And after a short while, allowing the group to answer mentally, the educator throws the ball to one of the students in the class who answers out loud. That student then formulates the next assumption.

If you were …you would be a …

After a few moments to let the group think internally, and allowing space for personal reflection, the student points to another classmate for an answer and passes them the ball.

The exercise would finish with a sharing: ¿How did you feel during the exercise? (When you had the ball, while reflecting mentally, on receiving the ball, etc.) What was evoked during the exercise?

Training design engineers

Encouraging creativity and new thinking Promoting confidence and interaction within the group.

Training technical designers to build electrical appliances. The group can be separated into two subgroups using any of the sociodrama techniques presented earlier. We can

then ask one of the groups to play the role of the “electrical device”. By doing so, we attribute the “electrical device” object the human ability to speak, sing, complain, cry, celebrate, be grateful or do whatever the object needs to do. The other subgroup can take on the role of the designer, relating to the object, speaking to the “electrical device”, answering queries, questions or whatever comes up. We can use the variation of forming a third subgroup that has the role of symbolizing the opinions and needs of home users. The home users can come up with views such as: “I need a long life appliance”, “I need a user-friendly appliance without complicated controls that my husband will never understand...”

This exercise brings creativity, new thinking, confidence and interaction to the group as they prepare to carry out the professional role they are being trained to perform.

Parts of the group

Empowering the educator to be a leader Involving learners in the class Resolving conflicts

When two contradictory positions are held on a particular issue in the classroom, this exercise can be a strategy for conflict resolution; a place where different solutions can be investigated, a way of handling a doubting group, etc. The two positions can be given a role symbolized by two chairs placed one in front of the other. One chair represents one view and the chair in front the opposite view. The classmates are asked to give their opinions one at a time from each of the chairs. This way, the various opinions and positions regarding the issue can be heard. Even if the students have a clear idea and they naturally place themselves on one chair's “point of view”, they should be asked to sit and talk in the opposite role. This method of face conflict, as with many of the techniques provided, empowers the leadership role of the educator who, being a team player, involves the learners by asking them to share their opinions and experiences.

Heroes and heroines

Team building Promoting respect and support among the group members

Group members are asked to reflect on which literary or historical character they respect, admire or love. Each person is invited to perform a short representation of a famous character in front of the group. After the self-representation, each group member should find another member to play his beloved role. Each member may have a conversation with his own chosen character, enacted by another group member. This is an excellent team building exercise that promotes respect and support for classmates.

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Shaman and apprentice

Motivating the class Promoting empathy Allowing students to connect with their inner capabilities and resources

Two chairs can be placed in the middle of the class and students can place themselves in the role of either Shaman or Apprentice. The role of the Apprentice poses questions and the Shaman answers from wisdom. Students may reverse roles, with each student asked to place themselves in both roles.

This can be an exercise that motivates the class and allows the students to connect with their inner capabilities and resources, promoting empathy and allowing vulnerabilities and strengths to be demonstrated.

Improvising characters

Promoting cohesion and enjoyment in the classroom.

A free space can be provided for group members to improvise characters. These can be television or movie characters. It is a space in which to break rigidly structured learning, to play, for students to show what they cannot in a normal class, subject to a regulated structure. Pieces of fabric, fancy dress, makeup or masks could be used for this exercise. The sharing phase and the closure should also be carried out.

Animals

Dealing with diverse groups Understanding the dynamics, relationships and hierarchies within the class

The students can be asked to become a particular animal and to interact with the other animals. It is a simple exercise that allows the educator to understand the dynamics, relationships and hierarchies within the class. Each student places a large amount of symbolism on each animal, and it can be an excellent diagnostic tool for dealing with diverse classes. This is an example of a simple, but powerful, exercise that is suitable for an experienced educator.

ACTING OBJECTS

Encouragingcreativity Improving communication within the group

An important aspect of working with symbols is the use of all kinds of intermediary objects. One of the characteristics of the intermediary object is that it encourages the restoration of disrupted communication. The use of these objects makes it easier to modify or increase communication within the group. Anything can be an intermediary object: a cushion, clay for making shapes, a rope, a piece of cloth, a balloon, a mask, toys, hand puppets, crayons, colour pencils, etc. The object can take on a role, suggest symbolic language or be an instrument for communication. The objects facilitate the creative aspects of the groupwith their symbolic power. For example, a piece of fabric used as a cloak may provide a role with incredible powers, and if the person also carries a measuring ruler (magic sword) the powers may be infinite.

Presenting a “thing”

Recognising latent feelings among the learners. Resolving conflicts. Fostering open-minded thinkers.

In a particular moment of crisis, confusion or lack of trust and confidence, the educator can ask the students to transform themselves into an object that better represents how they feel about themselves in the class at that specific point. The educator can then leave the objects to interact. The exercise could also be presented by asking the group to choose an object that:

You admire You detest You find useful You do not find useful at all

Following the interaction, it will be necessary to open a space for sharing.

An object in the room

Sharing, being a good communicator Dealing with blockage in the class

When the class is blocked, boycotted or taken over by some students. The educator may ask them to take on the role of an object in the room and interact with each other. This simple exercise will remove the blockage and allow the students, who are feeling oppressed because some classmates have taken over the class, to regain their voice. An open and respectful sharing will be crucial.

The speaking stapler

Developing awareness of unexpressed needs within the group. Improving communication.

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This exercise is about taking on the roles of objects in the room. One of the students may take on the role of a stapler. If the “stapler” turns out to have a beneficial role for the class, such as adopting a position of rescuer, or presenting sensible ideas and options, the educator can move that particular role into a protagonist position and propose a dramatised soliloquy by the “staple”.

It becomes “a talking staple” that comes to the rescue of the entire class. The soliloquy would be the action part of the exercise and the sharing phase would come later. This kind of exercise may require a deeper understanding and more experience of Psychodrama on the part of the educator.

Empty chair

Encouraging communication and expression Resolving conflicts

Empty chair is a classic exercise in Psychodrama. The chair becomes a symbol that provides unspoken characters or elements with a space, and allows embedded feelings or experiences within the class to be aired. It is a space from which a student can speak to the other; it can be someone real or imaginary, from within or from outside the class. The proposal may be to imagine someone is sitting in the chair and to interact with that person. For example, students can be asked to imagine the head teacher of the school sat in the chair and to then have a chat with him or her. Or, they can place their anger in the empty chair, and speak angrily from it. The chair can take on the role of an emotion or a situation from which feelings can be aired.

IMAGINATIVE EXERCISES

Imagination and spontaneity are the basis of this work; the educator whose idea is to serve the group will be able to create and shape the exercises. Here are some examples of creatively designed exercises for working on different issues.

Taking for a dance

Encouraging self-motivation, respect and trust

Ask group members to silently invite another member of the group to a dance. The person inviting can then take the other person to a separate space, inside or outside the room, and tell them what it is they like about them. It is important that the invited person remains silent during this phase. The two then go back to the group. The invited person can take another person for a dance, and so the dancing continues.

This is a powerful exercise for encouraging self-motivation, respect and trust, and an easy one for the educator to do.

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The door after the training

Exploring students' self-imposed limitations with regard to learning Encouraging self-motivation

An imaginary line can be drawn that crosses the room from one side to the other. Someone can be asked to position themselves at the start of the line and talk about the first time they heard about this training or particular type of education, and about all the steps they have taken to get into the class. When the person returns to the present moment, they can be asked to close their eyes and to imagine a door in front of them. They can then be asked to describe the door. Is it big or small? Made of wood or metal? Does it have a large handle? Is it silver or gold, etc.? The student can then be asked to open the door and talk about what they hope to find on the other side, once the training has ended. All the students can pass through the door, and they can all be invited to cross the line. Afterwards, the class can move to the sharing phase, where the proposal may be: How did you feel during the exercise? When you were on the line or when others were on the line? What has the exercise evoked for you?

This can be an excellent exercise for exploring the self-imposed limitations of the student with regard to the materials learned, the implementation of their knowledge, etc. It may provide an opportunity for the students to become aware both of their fears and of what motivates them, moving from explicit knowledge to being able to put into words what the learning experience means to each one of them.

Once upon a time…

Improving group cohesion Creating an atmosphere of trust

A group story can be created starting with “Once upon a time…”. The group members sit together with their backs to each other. Each member can add a phrase to the first one, and so complete a story. The story created could be enacted in a full Psychodramatic session; this requires expertise in handling full Psychodrama sessions on the part of the educator. Nevertheless, the creation of a shared story on its own can be incredibly revealing for both the students and the general atmosphere in the classroom. It is about group cohesion and creating a task force, and it can also provide information about how the class feels at that particular moment.

Imaginary power

Developing self-belief in students' with regard to their learning abilities. Being a motivator.

Ask the students to lie down face up, and to imagine a powerful force pinning them to the floor. Command them to face that power with their bodies to a no-end situation. Let

them relax. The exercise may be repeated if necessary. The class can then move on to a respectful sharing. This can be a very good exercise for experiencing the importance of attitudes towards tasks, mind games, etc.

Studying power and trust

Encouraging communication within the group Studying the power of games in the classroom

Form the group into pairs, and ask one of the students in each pair to go onto their hands and knees. The other student can then position a chair beside the first student, stand on the chair and place one foot on the back of their partner. The person standing can try placing more and less weight on the other, in different positions, and so on. While in those positions, they can be asked to express what they feel about the power of control, their feelings regarding power, trust, the nature of their relationship, etc. The students can then reverse roles so that the person on their hands and knees moves to the chair. It can be an exercise for studying the power of games both in the classroom and in the professional field, among client suppliers…

EXERCISES WITH MUSIC AND MOVEMENT

Music and movement have strong symbolic power and disciplines such as Dance Movement Therapy or Music Therapy study this particular approach. In Psychodrama, however, music, dance and movement are part of the acting.

Moving to the music

Developing spontaneity in a group Releasing tensions and feelings

Different types of music that have strong symbolic power may be played: Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, heavy rock, punk, romantic and gentle music, the Rocky movie soundtrack, etc. The students can be asked to interact without speaking, to just dance and to try to identify their bodies' reactions and their feelings with regard to each type of music. This could lead to a group dramatization of a particular song. It may be an excellent exercise to develop spontaneity within a group and to release tensions and feelings.

A variation could be to ask the students to each bring their favorite song to class and to listen to them all, allowing space for a good sharing afterwards. This exercise encourages encounters within the group, an opening up, class cohesion…

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The exercises presented can be used in the warming-up, action or closure phase of a pure psychodramatic session. Once again it is the director or educator judgement based on experience and intuition which will lead the group to one or another exercise, assessing group challenges and safety.

3. Evaluation

Following the application in the classroom of one of the recommended exercises, the educator can carry out an evaluation on two levels: a self-evaluation and an evaluation of the students. This evaluation can be made by focusing on the objectives that are set out when the exercise is performed in the classroom, and by using the questionnaires and tables that can be found are in trainer’s Hand Book for Psychodrama as a Tool in Education course.

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4. Bibliography

4.1. References in English

Apter, N. (2013). J. L. Moreno’s method: a rich ground for developing multiple intelligences. A workshop on the use of Action Methods in companies, organisations and institutions. Revista romana de Psicodrama, 1, 12-17.

Cukier, R. (2007). Words from Jacob Levy Moreno, Editorial Lulu. Fox, J. (2000). The Essential Moreno, Springer Publishing Company, Incorporated. Freud, S. (1999). The Interpretation of Dreams, Manchester University Press, 1999 Jung, G. (1990). The Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious. Princeton

University Press. Jung, G. (1968). Man and His Symbols. Random House. Moreno, J. L. (1953). Who Shall Survive? Foundations of Sociometry, Group

Psychotherapy, and Sociodrama (Revised from the 1934 edition. Reprinted as third edition in 1978). Beacon NY: Beacon House.

Moreno, J. L. (1977). The theatre of Spontaneity. Beacon NY: Beacon House. Moreno, J. L. (1946). Psychodrama, Vol1. (Republished 1972 and 1994). Beacon

NY: Beacon House. Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a Defensive World. A Polyvagal Theory.

Psychophysiology, 32. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. White, L. (2002). The Action Manual. Techniques for Enlivening Group Process

and Individual Counselling. Canada: Liz White.

4.2. References in Spanish

Bastin, G. (1966). Los tests sociométricos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Kapelusz. Bustos, D. M. (1992). Peligro… amor a la vista. Buenos Aires: Lugar Editorial. Freud, S. (2004). La interpretación de los sueños. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Jung, G. (1995). El hombre y sus símbolos. Barcelona: Paidós. Jung, G. (1992). Formaciones de lo inconsciente. Barcelona: Paidós. Moreno, J. L. (1977). Psicomúsica y Sociodrama. Buenos Aires: Hormé/

Psicología de Hoy. Rojas Bermúdez, J. (1979). ¿Qué es el Psicodrama? Buenos Aires: Genitor. Rojas Bermúdez, J. (1997). Teoría y técnica psicodramáticas. Barcelona: Paidós. Zito Lema, V. (1985). Conversaciones con Enrique Pichón-Rivière sobre el arte y

la locura. (Octava edición 1992). Buenos Aires: Ediciones Cinco. Klein, M. (1921-1945). Obras completas: amor, culpa y reparación y otros trabajos.

Barcelona: Paidós.

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