JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING.

P.O BOX 62000, 00200 NAIROBI

TEL:(0151)-52181-4 FAX:(0151)-52164

E-Mail:eee@jkuat.ac.ke

FINAL YEAR PROJECT.

A DEVICE TO DETECT TRANSFORMER VANDALISM

MABONGA W. JOSHUA.

E26-0101/02.

AND

PURITY KOECH

E26-0257/03.

BSC. ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING.

SUPERVISORS:

MR. OMAE OTERI.

AND

DR. ABUNG’U.

This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of a degree in Bsc. Electronics and Computer Engineering, from Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.

March 25th, 2009

Declaration.We do hereby declare that this project has never been presented or published anywhere or in any institution of learning. Therefore, it is our own original work.

Signed :…………. Date:………………

Purity koech.

Signed:…………… Date………………..

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Mabonga W. Joshua.

Certification. This is to certify that the above named students have completed their final year project as per partial fulfilment of the degree in Bsc. in Electronic and Computer Engineering and the proposal has been submitted with our authority as the university project supervisors.

Signed:……………. Date:………………

Mr. Oteri Omae.

Project supervisor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

Signed: ………….. Date:…………………

Dr. Abungu

Project supervisor

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

Dedication.To those from whom we have learned:

Family, Teachers and Colleagues.

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Acknowledgement.We would like to acknowledge the following; the almighty God for bringing us this far, our supervisor Mr. Omae who helped in the inception of the idea and guiding us through to this moment, Dr. Abung’u who has also been of help. Lastly, our classmates who have been of help in brainstorming and nurturing of the idea. This especially goes to Collins Emadau who has been of help in designing of the network and component configuration. Their criticism has also helped us to think far and wide. Thank you all.

ContentsDeclaration............................................................................................................1

Certification...........................................................................................................2

Dedication.............................................................................................................3

Acknowledgement.................................................................................................4

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List of Tables.........................................................................................................8

List of Figures........................................................................................................9

List of Appendices................................................................................................10

Abbreviation and symbols...................................................................................11

Abstract...............................................................................................................13

CHAPTER 1...........................................................................................................13

1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................13

1.2 Project Importance.....................................................................................16

1.1 Statement of the Research Problem...........................................................16

1.5 Justification.................................................................................................17

1.2 Objectives...................................................................................................18

1.2.1 Main Objective......................................................................................18

1.2.2 Specific objectives................................................................................18

2.0 Literature Survey...........................................................................................19

2.1 Sensors......................................................................................................19

2.1.1 Motion sensor/ detector........................................................................20

2.2 Network...................................................................................................23

2.3 Wireless Technology..................................................................................24

2.3.1 The 802.11 Standards.........................................................................26

2.3.2 2.4GHz (802.11b)...........................................................................28

2.2.3 2.4GHz (802.11g)............................................................................28

2.4 Wi-Fi........................................................................................................29

2.5 WiMAX. (802.16)......................................................................................30

2.6 How wireless networkrk…………………………………………………………… 31

2.7 IP Addressing ………………………………………………………………….....34

2.8 Router and IP routing……………………………………………………………………38

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2.9 Routing protocols…………………………………………………………………40

2.10 Access point (AP)......................................................................................44

2.11 IP CAMERA.............................................................................................44

2.11.1 How an IP camera works..............................................................44

2.11.2 Why Use an IP camera..................................................................45

CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................46

3.0 Methodology..............................................................................................46

3.1 Components Required...........................................................................46

3.2 Configuration of the router...................................................................46

3.3 Configuring the IP Camera..........................................................................53

3.4 Wiring of the Sensor Circuit........................................................................64

3.5 Methodology Summary........................................................................664

3.5 Complete Project Diagram....................................................................66

CHAPTER 4.........................................................................................................667

4.1 RESULTS.....................................................................................................667

CHAPTER 5...........................................................................................................72

Time plan.............................................................................................................72

CHAPTER 6...........................................................................................................73

6.0 CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK................................................73

6.1 Conclusion..................................................................................................73

6.2 Problems Encountered................................................................................73

6.3 Recommendations......................................................................................73

REFERENCES........................................................................................................74

APPENDICES.........................................................................................................75

Appendix 1. Budget...........................................................................................75

Appendix 2. Project Code and Interface...............................................................76

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List of TablesTable 1: Agencies and their functions………………………………………..25

Table 2: 802.11 committees and sub committees…………………………..27

List of FiguresFigure 1: Infrared Motion Detector Circuit……………………………………….22

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Figure 2: An example of a simple network……………………………………….24

Figure 3: Complete Project Diagram……………………………………………..66

List of AppendicesAppendix 1: Parts list………………………………………… 76

Appendix 2: Project code and Interface…………………….77

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Abbreviation and symbols.Abbreviations;

OSI- Open System Interconnection.

LED Light Emitting Diode.

WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access.

WPA2 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2

WEP Wired Equipment Privacy

AP Access Point

VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask

CPU Central Processing Unit.

RIP Routing Information Protocol

IGRP Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

EIGRP Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol.

RIPV2 Routing Information Protocol Version 2.

RFC Request For Comments.

OSPF Open Shortest Path Fast.

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IP Internet Protocol

ID Identification

IR Infra Red

PIR Passive Infra Red.

IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4.

MEMS Micro Electro-mechanical Systems.

WLANs Wireless Local Area Networks.

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.

DNS Domain Name System.

Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity.

VoIP Voice over the Internet Protocol

TKIP Temporal Key Integration Protocol.

AES Advanced Encryption Standard.

RADIUS Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service.

AbstractKPLC is one of the major power distributors in the country. It’s responsible for transmission, distribution and retail of electricity throughout. KPLC has put-up rural electrification projects. These projects, although ambitious are hampered by frequent cases of vandalism.

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To address the issue of vandalism, the company has embarked on a public campaign:”mulika mwizi” –which encourages the community to report all cases and suspects. The idea is noble, but has its own shortcomings.

This project will try to implement a better monitoring system by use of modern technology to Provide real time 24 hour monitoring of the electricity grid. This will be done by using a system that incorporates the use of infrared motion sensors and IP Cameras. The sensor on detecting any unusual activity near the transformer lights a lamp which acts as a deterrent to a vandal and at the same time draws attention to that particular live video in the control room. The IP Camera records all the activities going on at the transformer 24/7 and transmits a real time live video to a remote control room. The IP Camera is a device on a wireless network that can be accessed by other hosts (which are computers/work stations in the control room) also on this network. The wireless network is facilitated by an access point which is the backbone of wireless network communication. The wireless network standard used is 802.11g which operates at 2.4GHz range.

CHAPTER 1.

1.1 IntroductionIn the past few years, various towns in the country have experienced vandalism of power lines, in which millions of Kenyan shillings were lost or destroyed. Some of the severely affected areas are the Nairobi city estates of Huruma, Eastleigh and Bahati and the neighbouring areas of kiambu, Thika, Ruiru, Embakasi, Limuru, Naivasha, Kangundo Road and Ruai . Nakuru and Njoro towns have not been left behind. KPLC is describing all these as economic sabotage, and it appears to be the work of a well organized syndicate that is active in a few major towns in the country.

Transformers are being vandalized in many rural towns and this is a major setback for the rural electrification program. According to the KPLC 2007 statistics on vandalism:

77% - Nairobi area.

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12% - Mt. Kenya region

9%- western Kenya

According to the KPLC statistics, between 2004 and 2007, electrical equipment worth over 1 billion was stolen or destroyed. The other impact to such crimes is the disruption of economic and social activities when electricity supply is interrupted.

Since 2004, the company has lost 329 transformers worth 212 million and more than 200 km of cable. Between July to November 2007, the company lost 71 transformers worth 35.5 million, and 29,970 meters of cables worth 1.9 million. All these losses exclude the losses caused by hours of power outages, affecting private businesses, not to mention loss of revenue for KPLC.

Large power transformers have their core and windings submerged in an oil bath to transfer heat and muffle noise, and also to displace moisture which would otherwise compromise the integrity of the winding insulation. Heat-dissipating "radiator" tubes on the outside of the transformer case provide a convective oil flow path to transfer heat from the

transformer's core to ambient air:The vandals’ main target is the transformer oil and copper cable, which easily sell in the black market. The transformer oil has unique qualities that make it a very efficient coolant for heavy machines. It’s a highly refined mineral oil that remains stable at high temperatures and is non-flammable.

Transformers are an easy target due to the fact that they have no security, and as people become more and more educated, knowledge of electricity and its principles is no longer reserved to the elite few. The transformers are usually simply mounted about 4 meters above the ground. The fuse and the tap for the oil chamber are easily accessed from the ground by use of even a short ladder.

Since vandalism involves coming up to the transformer and removing the fuse, or tampering with the oil tap, the automatic monitoring system is based on an intruder alarm system:-using infrared motion sensors and a wireless network.

The motion sensors are triggered to light a lamp when one comes within some distance in the vicinity of the transformer and stays in this region for more than 2 minutes. The wireless network consists of the IP camera, a router acting as an access point and a laptop computer which provides a means for viewing images from the IP camera. The lamp acts as a deterrent to the intruder and alerts the monitoring individual in the control room to look at the live video regarding the particular transformer. The system will rely on a database of all transformers and their locations. Each monitored transformer will have camera having a unique IP address that differentiates it from all the rest. The system will provide 24 hour surveillance, even for transformers that are in inaccessible places.

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1.2 Project Importance

This project if it succeeds is meant to come up with a system that will protect the electrical appliances (transformers, fuses, and transformer oil on the national electricity grid from the vandalism menace.

1.1 Statement of the Research Problem.

Power is of utmost importance in economic development of a country. This energy is only important if it is reliable, efficient and available at time of need. KPLC should be given a pat on the back for its tireless effort in availing electricity at the time of need. However, theft of the company’s appliances is resulting in stratospheric losses not only to the company but also to the consumers who are forced to stay long hours in darkness. The public campaign “mulika mwizi” has bore some fruits but only in areas where the appliances are near the communities.

What happens to transformers that are far away from the communities? Is it possible to protect these solitary appliances? I also believe that even the vandals are people well versed with the operation of the appliances. How well can we protect the appliances even from people who are well versed with them?

These are some of the questions this project attempts to answer.

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1.5 Justification.

With every passing day the KPLC is crossing its fingers hoping that there wouldn’t be reports of vandalisms across the country. All the media houses are repeatedly airing the “mulika mwizi” sensitization campaign in a bid to enlighten the public on how to respond when they suspect the vandals. This campaign has had some considerable impact but only in populated areas. Again the vandals learned this system and are employing some tactics to counter it. They usually go in groups where some groups are used as dummy groups while others carry out their duties.

This vandalism problem is resulting to huge unwanted losses not only to the company but also to the consumers. Just recently the finance minister banned the export of scrape metals and copper in a bid to curb the escalating vandalisms. The export dealers have come out in defence of their products claiming they are legally acquired.

To quote the KPLC director “vandalisms have reached alarming proportions” and the KPLC has incurred huge financial losses with 404 transformers worth 202 million shillings vandalized in the last eighteen months. The cost of vandalism to the national economy in terms of lost productivity, replacement costs of vandalized stolen equipment and loss in revenue for business and the KPLC, is unsustainable and must be halted.

The implementation of this project will not only act as a deterrent to vandals but also ensure that litigation measures are taken against them since the IP camera will have recorded their images.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 Main Objective.The main objective of the project is to devise a real time monitoring system for power appliances (transformer, transformer oil, power cables and fuses) using reliable technology to help reduce the menace of vandalism.

1.2.2 Specific objectives.i) To design and implement an infrared motion detector system that will sense any intruding objects and light an LED.

ii) To design and implement a reliable wireless communication system between the transformer and a person in a control room monitoring the operation of the transformers.

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iii) To integrate the signals from the transformers with a database to tell the location of the transformer with regard to the signals received.

2.0 Literature Survey.

2.1 Sensors.

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities.

Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.

Because sensors are a type of transducer, they change one form of energy into another. For this reason, sensors can be classified according to the type of energy transfer that they detect.

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A good sensor obeys the following rules:

1. the sensor should be sensitive to the measured property 2. the sensor should be insensitive to any other property

3. the sensor should not influence the measured property

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to the value of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all points of measurement.

2.1.1 Motion sensor/ detector.

A Passive Infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction of PIR-based motion detectors. Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with one temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another temperature, such as a wall.

All objects emit what is known as black body radiation. It is usually infrared radiation that is invisible to the human eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose. The term passive in this instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared beam but merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation.

There are many different ways to create a motion sensor. For example:

It is common for stores to have a beam of light crossing the room near the door, and a photosensor on the other side of the room. When a customer breaks the beam, the photosensor detects the change in the amount of light and rings a bell.

Many grocery stores have automatic door openers that use a very simple form of radar to detect when someone passes near the door. The box above the door sends out a burst of microwave radio energy and waits for the reflected energy to bounce back. When a person moves into the field of microwave energy, it changes the amount of reflected energy or the time it takes for the reflection to arrive, and the box opens the door. Since these devices use radar, they often set off radar detectors.

The same thing can be done with ultrasonic sound waves, bouncing them off a target and waiting for the echo.

All of these are active sensors. They inject energy (light, microwaves or sound) into the environment in order to detect a change of some sort.

The "motion sensing" feature on most lights (and security systems) is a passive system that detects infrared energy. These sensors are therefore known as PIR

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(passive infrared) detectors or pyroelectric sensors. In order to make a sensor that can detect a human being, one needs to make the sensor sensitive to the temperature of a human body. Humans,

having a skin temperature of about 93 degrees F, radiate infrared energy with a wavelength between 9 and 10 micrometers. Therefore, the sensors are typically sensitive in the range of 8 to 12 micrometers.

The devices themselves are simple electronic components not unlike a photosensor. The infrared light bumps electrons off a substrate, and these electrons can be detected and amplified into a signal.

Light is sensitive to motion, but not to a person who is standing still. That's because the electronics package attached to the sensor is looking for a fairly rapid change in the amount of infrared energy it is seeing. When a person walks by, the amount of infrared energy in the field of view changes rapidly and is easily detected.

Your motion sensing light has a wide field of view (200 degrees angle) because of the lens covering the sensor. Infrared energy is a form of light, so you can focus and bend it with plastic lenses. But it's not like there is a 2-D array of sensors in there. There is a single (or sometimes two) sensors inside looking for changes in infrared energy.

Infrared motion detector circuit.

Description.

Here is the circuit diagram of an infrared motion detector that can be used to sense intrusions. Infra red rays reflected from a static object will be in one phase, and the rays reflected from a moving object will be in another phase. The circuit uses this principle to sense the motion.

The IC1 (NE 555)  is wires as an astable multivibrator .The IR diode connected at the output of this IC produces infrared beams of frequency 5Khz.These beams are picked by the photo transistor Q1 .At normal condition i.e.; when there is no intrusion the output pin (7) of IC2 will be low. When there is an intrusion the phase of the reflected waveforms has a difference in phase and this phase difference will be picked by the IC2.Now the pin 7 of the IC 2 goes high to indicate the intrusion. An LED or a buzzer can be connected at the output of the IC to indicate the intrusion.

Circuit diagram with Parts list. 

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Figure 1. Infrared motion detector circuit.

Notes.

Comparators IC2a and IC2b are belonging to the same IC2 (LM11458).So the power supply is shown connected only once.

When there is disturbance in the air or vehicles passing nearby, the circuit may get false triggered.

POT R5 can be used for sensitivity adjustment.

2.2 Network.

A network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together. There are many types of computer networks, including:

Local Area Networks: The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building). Wide Area Networks: The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves. Campus Area Networks: The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a campus or military base.

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Metropolitan Area Networks ( MANs) : A data network designed for a town or city. Home Area Networks: A network contained within a user's home that connects a person's digital devices.

In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize different types of networks:

Topology: The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring. Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network. Architecture: Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.

Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers and devices that allocate resources for a network are called servers.

Figure 2 An example of a simple network.

2.3 Wireless Technology

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Transmitting a signal using the typical 802.11 specifications works a lot like it does with abasic Ethernet hub: They’re both two-way forms of communication, and they both use thesame frequency to both transmit and receive, often referred to as half-duplex. Wireless LANs (WLANs) use radio frequencies (RFs) that are radiatedinto the air from an antenna that creates radio waves. These waves can be absorbed, refracted,or reflected by walls, water, and metal surfaces, resulting in low signal strength. So because of this innate vulnerability to surrounding environmental factors, it’s pretty apparent that wireless will never offer us the same robustness as a wired network can, but that still doesn’t mean we’re not going to run wireless. We can increase the transmitting power and gain a greater transmitting distance, but doing so can create some nasty distortion, so it has to be done carefully. By using higher frequencies, we can attain higher data rates, but this is, unfortunately, at the cost of decreased transmitting distances. And if we use lower frequencies, we get to transmit greater distances but at lower data rates. This should make it pretty clear to you that understanding all the various types of WLANs you can implement is imperative to creating the LAN solution that best meets the specific requirements of the unique situation you’re dealing with.Also important to note is the fact that the 802.11 specifications were developed so that there would be no licensing required in most countries—to ensure the user the freedom to install and operate without any licensing or operating fees. This means that any manufacturer can create products and sell them at a local computer store or wherever. It also means that all our computers should be able to communicate wirelessly without configuring much, if anything at all. Various agencies have been around for a very long time to help govern the use of wirelessdevices, frequencies, standards, and how the frequency spectrums are used. The table below shows the current agencies that help create, maintain, and even enforce wireless standards worldwide.

Agency Purpose.Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers(IEEE)

Creates and maintains operational standards.

Federal Communications Commission Regulates the use of wireless devices in the U.S

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSi)

Chartered to produce common standards in Europe.

Wi-Fi Alliance Promotes and tests for WLAN interoperability.

WLAN association Educates and raises consumer awareness regarding WLANs.

Table 1. Agencies and their functions.

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Because WLANs transmit over radio frequencies, they’re regulated by the same types ofLaws used to govern things like AM/FM radios. It’s the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that regulates the use of wireless LAN devices, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) takes it from there and creates standards based

on what frequencies the FCC releases for public use.The FCC has released three unlicensed bands for public use: 900MHz, 2.4GHz, and 5.7GHz. The 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands are referred to as the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands, and the 5-GHz band is known as the Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII) band. Once the FCC opened the three frequency ranges for public use, many manufacturers were able to start offering myriad products that flooded the market, with 802.11b/g being the most widely used wireless network found today.The Wi-Fi Alliance grants certification for interoperability among 802.11 products offeredby various vendors. This certification provides a sort of comfort zone for the users purchasing the many types of products.In the current U.S. wireless LAN market, there are several accepted operational standardsand drafts created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE). Below are these standards and then the most commonly standards.

2.3.1 The 802.11 StandardsWireless networking has its own 802 standards group, Ethernet’s committee is 802.3. Wireless starts with 802.11, and there are various other up-and-coming standard groups as well, like 802.16 and 802.20. And there’s no doubt that cellular networks will become huge players in our wireless future. IEEE 802.11 was the first, original standardized WLAN at 1 and 2Mbps. It runs in the2.4GHz radio frequency and was ratified in 1997 even though there were no many products until around 1999 when 802.11b was introduced. All the committees listed in the table below are amendments to the original 802.11 standard except for 802.11F and 802.11T, which are both stand-alone documents.

Committee Purpose

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IEEE 802.11a 54Mbps, 5GHz standard

IEEE802.11b Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11Mbps

IEEE 802.11c Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard

IEEE 802.11d International roaming extensionsIEEE 802.11e Quality of serviceIEEE 802.11F Inter-Access Point ProtocolIEEE 802.11g 54Mbps, 2.4GHz standard (backward compatible with 802.11b)IEEE 802.11h Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) and Transmit Power Control

(TPC)at 5Ghz.

IEEE 802.11i Enhanced securityIEEE 802.11j Extensions for Japan and U.S. public safetyIEEE 802.11k Radio resource measurement enhancementsIEEE 802.11m Maintenance of the standard; odds and endsIEEE 802.11n Higher throughput improvements using MIMO (multiple input,

multipleoutput antennas)

IEEE 802.11p Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (WAVE)IEEE 802.11r Fast roamingIEEE 802.11s Extended Service Set (ESS) Mesh NetworkingIEEE 802.11T Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP)IEEE802.11u Internetworking with non-802 networks (cellular, for example)IEEE 802.11v Wireless network managementIEEE 802.11w Protected management framesIEEE 802.11y 3650–3700 operation in the U.S.

Table 2. 802.11 Committees and SubcommitteesBelow are some important specifics of the most popular 802.11 WLANs.

2.3.2 2.4GHz (802.11b)First on the menu is the 802.11b standard. It was the most widely deployed wireless standard, and it operates in the 2.4GHz unlicensed radio band that delivers a maximum data rate of 11Mbps.The 802.11b standard has been widely adopted by both vendors and customers who found that its 11Mbps data rate worked pretty well for most applications. But now that 802.11b has a big brother (802.11g), no one goes out and just buys an 802.11b card or access point anymore.An interesting thing about all Cisco 802.11 WLAN products is that they have the ability todata-rate-shift while moving. This allows the person operating at 11Mbps to shift to 5.5Mbps,2Mbps, and finally still communicate farthest from the access point at 1Mbps. And furthermore, this rate shifting happens without losing connection and with

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no interaction from the user. Rate shifting also occurs on a transmission-by-transmission basis. This is important because it means that the access point can support multiple clients at varying speeds depending upon the location of each client.The problem with 802.11b lies in how the Data Link layer is dealt with. In order to solve problems in the RF spectrum, a type of Ethernet collision detection was created called CSMA/CA, or Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance. CSMA/CA is also called a Request To Send, Clear To Send (RTS/CTS) because of the way that hosts must communicate to the access point (AP). For every packet sent, an RTS/CTS and acknowledgment must be received, and because of this rather cumbersome process, it is a bit hard to believe it all actually works.

2.2.3 2.4GHz (802.11g)The 802.11g standard was ratified in June 2003 and is backward compatible with 802.11b. The 802.11g standard delivers the same 54Mbps maximum data rate as 802.11a but runs in the 2.4GHz range—the same as 802.11 Because 802.11b/g operates in the same 2.4GHz unlicensed band, migrating to 802.11gis an affordable choice for organizations with existing 802.11b wireless infrastructures.Just keep in mind that 802.11b products can’t be “software upgraded” to 802.11g.

This limitation is because 802.11g radios use a different chipset in order to deliver the higherdata rate. But still, much like Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, 802.11g products can be commingled with802.11b products in the same network. Yet, for example, completely unlike Ethernet, if youhave four users running 802.11g cards and one user starts using an 802.11b card, everyoneconnected to the same access point is then forced to run the 802.11b CSMA/CA method—an ugly fact that really makes throughput suffer. So to optimize performance, it’s recommended and you disable the 802.11b-only modes on all your access points.To explain this further, 802.11b uses a modulation technique called Direct Sequence SpreadSpectrum (DSSS) that’s just not as robust as the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation used by both 802.11g and 802.11a. 802.11g clients using OFDM enjoy much better performance at the same ranges as 802.11b clients do, but when 802.11g clients are operating at the 802.11b rates (11, 5.5, 2, and 1Mbps), they’re actually using the same modulation 802.11b does.

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2.4 Wi-Fi

Is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi (registered trademark) term specifically defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards."

Initially, Wi-Fi was used in place of only the 2.4GHz 802.11b standard, however the Wi-Fi Alliance has expanded the generic use of the Wi-Fi term to include any type of network or WLAN product based on any of the 802.11 standards, including 802.11b, 802.11a, dual-band, and so on, in an attempt to stop confusion about wireless LAN interoperability. Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space. The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP).

The primary job of an access point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. In order to connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be equipped with wireless network adapters

Wi-Fi  is supported by many applications and devices including video game consoles, home networks, PDAs, mobile phones, major operating systems, and other types of consumer electronics.  Any products that are tested and approved as "Wi-Fi Certified" (a registered trademark) by the Wi-Fi Alliance are certified as interoperable with each other, even if they are from different manufacturers. For example, a user with a Wi-Fi Certified product can use any brand of access point with any other brand of client hardware that also is "Wi-Fi Certified". Products that pass this certification are required to carry an identifying seal on their packaging that states "Wi-Fi Certified" and indicates the radio frequency band used (2.5GHz for 802.11b,  802.11g, or 802.11n, and 5GHz for 802.11a).

A common misconception is that the term Wi-Fi is short for "wireless fidelity," however this is not the case. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked term meaning IEEE 802.11x.

2.5 WiMAX. (802.16)

Also reffered to as WirelessMAN or the Air Interface Standard, IEEE 802.16 is a specification for fixed broadband wireless metropolitan access networks (MANs) that use a point-to-multipoint architecture. Published on April 8, 2002, the standard defines the use of bandwidth between the licensed 10GHz and 66GHz

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and between the 2GHZ and 11GHz (licensed and unlicensed) frequency ranges and defines a MAC layer that supports multiple physical layer specifications customized for the frequency band of use and their associated regulations. 802.16 supports very high bit rates in both uploading to and downloading from a base station up to a distance of 30 miles to handle such services as VoIP, IP connectivity and TDM voice and data.

2.6 How Wireless Networks Work

A wireless network or Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) serves the same purpose as a wired one — to link a group of computers. Because "wireless" doesn't require costly wiring, the main benefit is that it's generally easier, faster and cheaper to set up.

By comparison, creating a network by pulling wires throughout the walls and ceilings of an office can be labor-intensive and thus expensive. But even when you have a wired network already in place, a wireless network can be a cost-effective way to expand or augment it. In fact, there's really no such thing as a purely wireless network, as most link back to a wired network at some point.

2.6.1 The Basics Wireless networks operate using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space.

The pillar of a wireless network is a device called an access point (AP). Its primary job is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. Since wireless networks are usually connected to wired ones, an access point also often serves as a link to the resources available on the wired network, such as an Internet connection.

To connect to an access point and join a wireless network, hosts must be equipped with wireless network adapters. They are often built into the computer, but if not, just about any computer or notebook can be made wireless-capable by the use of an add-on adapter plugged into an empty expansion slot, USB port, or for notebooks, a PC Card slot.

2.6.2 Wireless Technology Standards Because there are multiple technology standards for wireless networking, it

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pays to do your homework before buying any equipment. The most common wireless technology standards include the following:

802.11b: The first widely used wireless networking technology, known as 802.11b (more commonly called Wi-Fi), first debuted almost a decade ago, but is still in use.

802.11g: In 2003, a follow-on version called 802.11g appeared offering greater performance (that is, speed and range) and remains today's most common wireless networking technology.

802.11n: Another improved standard called 802.11n is currently under development and is scheduled to be complete in 2009. But even though the 802.11n standard has yet to be finalized, you can still buy products based on the draft 802.11n standard, which you will be able to upgrade later to the final standard.

All of the Wi-Fi variants (802.11b, g and n products) use the same 2.4 GHz radio frequency, and as a result are designed to be compatible with each other, so you can usually use devices based on the different standards within the same wireless network. The catch is that doing so often requires special configuration to accommodate the earlier devices, which in turn can reduce the overall performance of the network. In an ideal scenario you’ll want all your wireless devices. The access point and all wireless-capable computers to be using the same technology standard and to be from the same vendor whenever possible.

2.6.3 Speed & Range When you buy a piece of wireless network hardware, it will often quote performance figures (i.e., how fast it can transmit data) based on the type of wireless networking standard it uses, plus any added technological enhancements.  In truth, these performance figures are almost always wildly optimistic.

While the official speeds of 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n networks are 11, 54, and 270 megabits per second (Mbps) respectively, these figures represent a scenario that is simply not attainable in the real world. As a general rule, you should assume that in a best-case scenario you will get roughly one-third of the advertised performance.

It's also worth noting that a wireless network is by definition a shared network, so the more computers you have connected to a wireless access point the less data each will be able to send and receive. Just as a wireless network's speed can vary greatly, so too can the range. For example, 802.11b and g officially work over a distance of up to 328 feet indoors or 1,312 feet outdoors, but the key term there is "up to". Chances are you won't see anywhere close to those numbers. As you might expect, the closer you are to an access point, the stronger the

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signal and the faster the connection speed. The range and speed you get out of wireless network will also depend on the kind of environment in which it operates. And that brings us to the subject of interference.

2.6.4 Interference

Interference is an issue with any form of radio communication, and a wireless network is no exception. The potential for interference is especially great indoors, where different types of building materials (concrete, wood, drywall, metal, glass and so on) can absorb or reflect radio waves, affecting the strength and consistency of a wireless network's signal. Similarly, devices like microwave ovens and some cordless phones can cause interference because they operate in the same 2.4 frequency range as 802.11b/g/n networks. You can't avoid interference entirely, but in most cases it's not significant enough to affect the usability of the network. When it does, you can usually minimize the interference by relocating wireless networking hardware or using specialized antennas

2.6.5 Data Security In the same way that all you need to pick up a local radio station is a radio, all anyone needs to detect a wireless network within nearby range is a wireless-equipped computer. There's no way to selectively hide the presence of your network from strangers, but you can prevent unauthorized people from connecting to it, and you can protect the data traveling across the network from prying eyes. By turning on a wireless network's encryption feature, you can scramble the data and control access to the network.

Wireless network hardware supports several standard encryption schemes, but the most common are Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), and Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2). WEP is the oldest and least secure method and should be avoided. WPA and WPA2 are good choices, but provide better protection when you use longer and more complex passwords (all devices on a wireless network must use the same kind of encryption and be configured with the same password).

Unless you intend to provide public access to your wireless network — and put your business data or your own personal data at risk — you should consider encryption mandatory.

2.7 IP ADDRESSING

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to

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as TCP/IP.

IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite and has the task of delivering distinguished protocol datagrams (packets) from the source host to the destination host solely based on their addresses. For this purpose the Internet Protocol defines addressing methods and structures for datagram encapsulation.

An IP address( Internet Protocol address) is a numerical identification (logical address) that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.

Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 192.168.1.2 (for IPv4).The role of the IP address has been characterized as follows: A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.

The Internet Protocol also has the task of routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a sub network.

2.7.1 IP versions

The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in use. Each version has its own definition of an IP address. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.

IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses, and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable in the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only offering to replace IPv4.

2.7.2 IPv4 networks

IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots as shown above). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. When converting, each octet is

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usually treated as a separate number.

2.7.3 IPv4 private addresses

Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and address space needed to be conserved.

Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks, one range for each class (A, B, C), were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet, and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.

Today, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through Network Address Translation (NAT).

IANA Reserved Private Network Ranges

Start of range

End of rangeTotal addresses

24-bit Block (/8 prefix, 1 x A) 10.0.0.010.255.255.255

16,777,216

20-bit Block (/12 prefix, 16 x B)

172.16.0.0172.31.255.255

1,048,576

16-bit Block (/16 prefix, 256 x C)

192.168.0.0192.168.255.255

65,536

Any user may use any block. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

2.7.4 Static and dynamic IP addresses

When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.

Uses of static addressing

Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name System host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary,

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to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed.

2.7.5 IP Sub-netting

This is sub netting a subnet. The concept of subnet was introduced to address the following requirements: if there is an internet that includes one or more WANs and a number of sites, each of which has a number of LANs. We would like to allow arbitrary complexity of interconnected LAN structures within an organization while insulating the overall internet against explosive growth in network number and routing complexity. One approach to this problem is to assign a single network number to all the LANs at a site. From the point of view of the rest of the internet, there is a single network at that site, which simplifies addressing and routing.

To allow the routers within the site to function properly, each LAN is assigned a subnet number. The host portion of the internet address is partitioned into a subnet number and a host number to accommodate this new level of addressing. Within the sub-netted network, the local routers must router on the basis of an extended network number consisting of the network portion of the IP address and the subnet number.

The bit positions containing this extended network number are indicated by the address mask. The use of the address mask allows the host to determine whether an outgoing datagram is destined for a host on the same LAN (send directly) or another LAN (send datagram to router).

Reasons for sub-netting.

The following reasons may necessitate sub-netting:

The users and resources are dispersed at different physical locations.

The users are physically dispersed in the same location.

There specific security requirements

There is need to mix different cabling types.

There is need to reduce traffic congestion on a particular segment of the network.

However before sub-netting the following facts should be clear:

The number of physical segments the network has.

The number of hosts that will be needed on each segment.

Every client requires a host ID and each physical network segment requires its

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own network ID.

2.8 Router and IP Routing.

2.8.1 Router.

A router is an OSI layer three device. On the network, it performs the same functions as a bridge, such as filtering, forwarding and learning. Routers connect LANS at the network layer of the OSI model, which enable them to interpret more information from packet traffic than bridges can. A router directs a packet to a specific network, rather than unnecessarily broadcast that packet to all connected networks. In general, routers are used to:

Efficiently direct packets from one network to another, reducing excessive traffic.

Join neighboring or distant networks.

Connect dissimilar networks.

Prevent network bottlenecks by isolating portions of a network.

Secure portions of a network from intruders.

A router performs two basic activities: determining the optimal routing paths and transporting data through the network. The optimal path may be measured in several different ways;

Such as the fewest number of links to the destination.

The least cost path.

The optimum speed of the circuits along the way.

The router uses the packets destination address and routing table stored in its memory to determine how to forward the packet. Router can keep track of several possible routes to a destination and then can forward the packet along an alternate path if the primary route is busy or is out of service.

Routers communicate with one another and maintain their routing tables with the latest information about the status of the network. By analyzing updates from other routers, a router can maintain an up-to-date picture of the network topology. The logic that routers use to determine how to forward data is called routing algorithm. However routers do not forward broadcast messages.

2.8.2 IP Routing.

In internetworking, the process of moving a packet of data from source to destination. Routing is usually performed by a dedicated device called a router.

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Routing is a key feature of the Internet because it enables messages to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. Each intermediary computer performs routing by passing along the message to the next computer. Part of this process involves analyzing a routing table to determine the best path.

Routing is often confused with bridging, which performs a similar function. The principal difference between the two is that bridging occurs at a lower level and is therefore more of a hardware function whereas routing occurs at a higher level where the software component is more important. And because routing occurs at a higher level, it can perform more complex analysis to determine the optimal path for the packet.

2.9 Routing protocols.

This is a generic term that refers to a formula, or protocol, used by a router to determine the appropriate path over which data is transmitted. The routing protocol also specifies how routers in a network share information with each other and report changes. The routing protocol enables a network to make dynamic adjustments to its conditions, so routing decisions do not have to be predetermined and static.

2.9.1 Routing Protocols Characteristics

Routing protocols can be compared based on the following characteristics:

Time to Convergence - Time to convergence defines how quickly the routers in the network topology share routing information and reach a state of consistent knowledge. The faster the convergence, the more preferable the protocol. Routing loops can occur when inconsistent routing tables are not updated due to slow convergence in a changing network.

Scalability - Scalability defines how large a network can become based on the routing protocol that is deployed. The larger the network is, the more scalable the routing protocol needs to be.

Classless (Use of VLSM) or Classful - Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask in the updates. This feature supports the use of Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) and better route summarization. Classful routing protocols do not include the subnet mask and cannot support VLSM.

Resource Usage - Resource usage includes the requirements of a routing protocol such as memory space, CPU utilization, and link bandwidth utilization. Higher resource requirements necessitate more powerful hardware to support the routing protocol operation in addition to the packet forwarding processes.

Implementation and Maintenance - Implementation and maintenance describes the level of knowledge that is required for a network administrator to implement and maintain the network based on the routing protocol deployed.

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Routing protocols are either distance vector or link state routing protocols.

2.9.2 Distance vector routing protocols

As the name implies, distance vector means that routes are advertised as vectors of distance and direction. Distance is defined in terms of a metric such as hop count and direction is simply the next-hop router or exit interface.

A router using a distance vector routing protocol does not have the knowledge of the entire path to a destination network. Instead the router knows only:

The direction or interface in which packets should be forwarded and

ii) The distance or how far it is to the destination network

2.9.2.1 Operation of Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Some distance vector routing protocols call for the router to periodically broadcast the entire routing table to each of its neighbors. This method is inefficient because the updates not only consume bandwidth but also consume router CPU resources to process the updates.

Distance vector routing protocols share certain characteristics.

Periodic Updates are sent at regular intervals (30 seconds for RIP and 90 seconds for IGRP). Even if the topology has not changed in several days, periodic updates continue to be sent to all neighbors.

Neighbors are routers that share a link and are configured to use the same routing protocol. The router is only aware of the network addresses of its own interfaces and the remote network addresses it can reach through its neighbors. It has no broader knowledge of the network topology. Routers using distance vector routing are not aware of the network topology.

Broadcast Updates are sent to 255.255.255.255. Neighboring routers that are configured with the same routing protocol will process the updates. All other devices will also process the update up to Layer 3 before discarding it. Some distance vector routing protocols use multicast addresses instead of broadcast addresses.

Entire Routing Table Updates are sent, with some exceptions to be discussed later, periodically to all neighbors. Neighbors receiving these updates must process the entire update to find pertinent information and discard the rest. Some distance vector routing protocols like EIGRP do not send periodic routing table updates.

Examples of distance vector routing protocols are, RIP, RIPv2, and EIGRP.

2.9.2.2 Routing information protocol

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Abbreviated as RIP, an interior gateway protocol defined by RFC 1058 that specifies how routers exchange routing table information. With RIP, routers periodically exchange entire tables. RIP has the following key characteristics:

RIP is a distance vector routing protocol.

RIP uses hop count as its only metric for path selection.

Advertised routes with hop counts greater than 15 are unreachable.

Messages are broadcast every 30 seconds.

2.9.3 Link state routing protocols.

Link-state routing protocols are more like a road map because they create a topological map of the network and each router uses this map to determine the shortest path to each network. Just as you refer to a map to find the route to another town, link-state routers use a map to determine the preferred path to reach another destination.

Routers running a link-state routing protocol send information about the state of its links to other routers in the routing domain. The state of those links refers to its directly connected networks and includes information about the type of network and any neighboring routers on those networks-hence the name link-state routing protocol.

The ultimate objective is that every router receives all of the link-state information about all other routers in the routing area. With this link-state information, each router can create its own topological map of the network and independently calculate the shortest path to every network. An example of a link state routing protocol is OSPF.

2.9.3.1 OSPF

Short for Open Shortest Path First, an interior gateway routing protocol developed for IP networks based on the shortest path first or link-state algorithm.

Routers use link-state algorithms to send routing information to all nodes in an internetwork by calculating the shortest path to each node based on a topography of the Internet constructed by each node. Each router sends that portion of the routing table (keeps track of routes to particular network destinations) that describes the state of its own links, and it also sends the complete routing structure (topography).

The advantage of shortest path first algorithms is that they result in smaller more frequent updates everywhere.

They converge quickly, thus preventing such problems as routing loops and Count-to-Infinity (when routers continuously increment the hop count to a

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particular network). This makes for a stable network.

The disadvantage of shortest path first algorithms is that they require a lot of CPU power and memory. In the end, the advantages out weigh the disadvantages.

OSPF Version 2 is defined in RFC 1583. It is rapidly replacing RIP on the Internet.

2.10 Access point (AP)

Short for Access Point, a hardware device or a computer's software that acts as a communication hub for users of a wireless device to connect to a wired LAN. APs are important for providing heightened wireless security and for extending the physical range of service a wireless user has access to.

2.11 IP CAMERA

An IP Network Video Camera is a Video Camera with a built in web server that can be controlled, monitored and viewed from virtually any location via High-Speed Internet Access.

2.11.1 How an IP camera works

A Network Camera has its own IP Address and built-in computing functions to handle network communication. Everything required for viewing images over the Network is built into the unit. An IP Network Video Camera can be described as a Camera and a computer combined. It is connected directly to the Network as any other network device and it has built-in software for a Web server, FTP Server, FTP client and e-mail client. It also includes alarm input and relay output as well. Others can also be equipped with many other value-added functions such as motion detection.

The lens of the Network Camera focuses the image onto the image sensor (CCD). Before reaching the image sensor, the images pass through the optical filter, which removes any infrared light so that the "correct" colors will be displayed. The image sensor converts the image, which is composed of light information, into electrical signals. These electrical, digital signals are now in a format that can be compressed and transferred over networks.

For storing and transmitting images over the Network, the data must be compressed or it will consume too much disk space or bandwidth. If bandwidth is limited, lowering the frame rate or accepting a lower image quality will radically reduce the amount of information being sent. A number of compression standards exist that deal with the trade off between frame rate and image quality in different ways. Of the more common standards, both JPEG and MPEG

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transmit high-quality Video, while the H-standards, normally used in Video conferencing, do not generate clear images of fast-moving objects.

Recent advances make it possible to connect Cameras directly to an IP-based computer network. Network Camera technology enables a user to have a Camera at one location and view Live Video at another location over the Network/Internet. Access can be restricted so only authorized persons can view the images, or Live Video can be posted on a company's Web site for all the world to see.

2.11.2 Why Use an IP camera

If a building is equipped with an IP Network, then the necessary infrastructure already exists to add IP Network Cameras. A Network Camera performs many of the same functions as a standard analogue CCTV Camera, but it does so with greater functionality at substantially lower costs. Because Network Cameras plug directly into the existing Network via an Ethernet Port, companies save thousands of dollars by not having to wire their facilities with coaxial cabling required for Analogue Cameras. When computers are already in place, no additional equipment is needed to view Network Camera footage. The output can be viewed in its simplest form in a Web Browser at the computer monitor. If Analogue Cameras are already present at a site, the addition of a Video Server will make those images available in any location required.

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CHAPTER THREE.

3.0 Methodology.

3.1 Components Required

A Network Camera requires several components: a Broadband or High-Speed Internet Connection for fast download times; a Wired or Wireless Router, depending on your Camera; a Static IP Address or a Dynamic Domain Name Server (DNS) Provider; a personal computer to configure your Camera; and a computer that you will act as a remote viewing station.

3.2 Configuration of the router

The Linksys RangePlus Wireless Router lets you access the Internet via a wireless connection or through one of its four switched ports. You can also use the Router to share resources such as computers, printers and files. A variety of securityfeatures help to protect your data and your privacy while online. Security features include WPA2 security, a Stateful Packet Inspection (SPI) firewall and NAT technology.Configuring the Router is easy using the provided browserbased utility.

Front Panel

1, 2, 3, 4 (Blue) These numbered LEDs,corresponding with the numbered ports on the Router’s back panel, serve two purposes. If the LED is continuously lit, the Router is successfullyconnected to a device through that port. A flashing LED indicates network activity over that port.Wi-Fi Protected Setup Button If you have client devices, such as wireless adapters, thatsupport Wi-Fi Protected Setup, then you can use Wi-Fi Protected Setup to automatically configure wireless security for your wireless network(s).To use Wi-Fi Protected Setup, run the Setup Wizard.Wi-Fi Protected Setup LED (Blue/Amber) It lights up blue when wireless security is enabled. The LED flashes blue for two minutes during Wi-Fi Protected Setup.The LED lights up amber if there is an error during the Wi-Fi Protected Setup process. Make sure the client device supports Wi-Fi ProtectedSetup. Wait until the LED is off, and then try again.The LED flashes amber when a Wi-Fi Protected Setup session is active, and a second session begins. The Router supports one session at a time. Wait until the LED is off before starting the next Wi-Fi Protected Setup session.Wireless (Blue) The Wireless LED lights up when the wireless feature is enabled. If the LED is flashing, the Router is actively sending or receiving data over the network.Internet (Blue) The Internet LED lights up when there is a connection made through the Internet port. A flashing LED indicates network activity over the Internet port.Power (Blue) The Power LED lights up and will stay on while the Router is powered on. When the Router goes through its self-diagnostic mode during every

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boot-up, this LED will flash. When the diagnostic is complete, the LED will be solidly lit.Back Panel

Internet The Internet port is where you connect the cable or DSL Internet connection.1, 2, 3, 4 These Ethernet ports (1, 2, 3, 4) connect the Router to PCs on the wired network and other Ethernet network devices.Reset There are two ways to reset the Router’s factory defaults. Either press and hold the Reset Button for approximately five seconds, or restore the defaults from Administration > Factory Defaults in the Router’s web-based utility.Power The Power port is where you connect the power adapter.

Advanced ConfigurationAfter setting up the Router with the Setup Wizard (located on the CD-ROM), the Router was ready for use. However, it was necessary to change its advanced settings using the Router’s web-based utility. The utility can be accessed via a web browser on a computer connected to the Router. The web-based utility has these main tabs: Setup, Wireless, Security, Access Restrictions, Applications &Gaming, Administration, and Status. Additional tabs are available after you click one of the main tabs.It should be noted that when first installing the Router, the Setup Wizard on the Setup CD-ROM should be used, then to configure advanced settings, the web-based utility is used.

How to Access the Web-Based UtilityTo access the web-based utility, the web browser on your computer is launched, and the Router’s default IP address, 192.168.1.1, entered in the Address field. Then Enter is pressed. A login screen appears. Leave the User name field blank. The first time you open the Web-based utility, the default password admin is used. (You can set a new password from the Administration tab’s Management screen.) Click OK to continue.

Login screen

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Setup > Basic SetupThe first screen that appears is the Basic Setup screen. This allows changes to be made to the Router’s general settings.

Internet SetupThe Internet Setup section configures the Router to the available Internet connection. Most of this information can be obtained through your ISP.

Internet Connection TypeThe type of Internet connection provided by the ISP Is selected from the drop-down menu. These are the available types:•• Automatic Configuration - DHCP•• Static IP•• PPPoE•• PPTP•• L2TP•• Telstra Cable

Automatic Configuration - DHCPBy default, the Router’s Internet Connection Type is set to Automatic Configuration - DHCP, which is kept only if the ISP supports DHCP or the connection is through a dynamic IP address. (This option usually applies to cable connections) and also was the connection type used in this project.

Internet Connection Type > Automatic Configuration – DHCP

Optional Settings

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Host Name and Domain Name These fields allow a host and domain name to be supplied for the Router. Some ISPs, usually cable ISPs, require these names as identification. In most cases, leaving these fields blank works.MTU is the Maximum Transmission Unit. It specifies the largest packet size permitted for Internet transmission. To have the Router select the best MTU for the Internet connection, the default setting, Auto is kept.

Network SetupThe Network Setup section changes the settings on the network connected to the Router’s Ethernet ports. Wireless setup is performed through the Wireless tab.

Router IPThis presents both the Router’s IP Address and Subnet Mask as seen by the network.

Router IP

DHCP Server SettingThe settings allow the configuration of the Router’s Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server function. The Router can be used as a DHCP server by the network. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address to each computer on the network. If the routers DHCP server option is enabled then there should be no other DHCP server on the network.

DHCP Server Setting

Setup > Advanced RoutingThis screen is used to set up the Router’s advanced functions. Dynamic Routing automatically adjusts how packets travel on the network. Static Routing sets up a fixed route to another network destination.

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Setup > Advanced Routing

NATEnabled/Disabled If the Router is hosting the network’s connection to the Internet, the default, Enabled is kept. If another router exists on the network, Disabled is selected. When the NAT setting is disabled, dynamic routing is enabled.

Wireless > Basic Wireless SettingsThe basic settings for wireless networking are set on this screen. There are two ways to configure the Router’s wireless network(s); manual and Wi-Fi Protected Setup.Wi-Fi Protected Setup is a feature that makes it easy to set up wireless networks. Wireless Configuration To manually configure a wireless network, select Manual. Proceed to the “Basic Wireless Settings” section. To use Wi-Fi Protected Setup, select Wi-Fi Protected Setup. Proceed to the “Wi-Fi Protected Setup” section.

Wireless > Basic Wireless SettingsBasic Wireless SettingsNetwork Mode From this drop-down menu, select the wireless standards running on the network. Wireless-G only is selected since the devices in the network use Wireless-G

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Network Name (SSID) The SSID is the network name shared among all points in a wireless network. The SSID must be identical for all devices in the wireless network. It is case-sensitive and must not exceed 32 characters. This setting should be the same for all points in the wireless network Radio Band For best performance in a network using Wireless-N, Wireless-G and Wireless-B devices, the default, Auto - 20/40MHz Channel is kept. SSID Broadcast When wireless clients survey the local area for wireless networks to associate with, they will detect the SSID broadcast by the Router. To broadcast the Router’s SSID, the default setting, Enabled is kept.

Wireless > Wireless SecurityThe Wireless Security screen configures the security of your wireless network. There are six wireless security mode options supported by the Router: WPA Personal, WPA Enterprise, WPA2 Personal, WPA2 Enterprise, RADIUS, and WEP. (WPA stands for Wi-Fi Protected Access, which is a security standard stronger than WEP encryption. WEP stands for Wired Equivalent Privacy, while RADIUS stands for Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service.)

WPA Personal WPA was the security mode used. Each device in the wireless network had to use the same WPA method and shared key, or else the network would not function properly.

Security Mode > WPA PersonalEncryption WPA supports two encryption methods, TKIP and AES, with dynamic encryption keys. The type of algorithm selected was TKIP which was the default algorithm. Passphrase A Passphrase of 8-63 characters was entered.Key Renewal A Key Renewal period is entered, which instructs the Router how often it should change the encryption keys. The default Group Key Renewal period is 3600 seconds.

3.3 Configuring the IP Camera

The Linksys Wireless-G Internet Home Monitoring Camera sends live video through the Internet to a web browser anywhere in the world.

Front Panel

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Power (Blue) This LED lights up when the Camera is powered on. It flashes while the Camera is booting up and remains lit when the Camera is ready for use.Microphone (small dot on the right) The microphone is used to record the ambient sound.Back Panel

Power The Power port is where the power adapter is connected.Ethernet The Ethernet port is where the Ethernet network cable is connected.

Bottom Panel

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Reset This button is used to reset the Camera.

Setting Up the CameraSetup WizardThe Wireless-G Internet Home Monitoring Camera Setup Wizard provides a guide through the installation and configuration procedure.1 The Setup CD-ROM was inserted into the CD-ROM drive.The Setup Wizard ran automatically, and the Welcome screen appeared.

2 The Setup Wizard displayed the following options.Setup Camera This was clicked to begin the installation process.Install Camera Utility This was clicked to install the Camera Utility on the PC.To install the Camera, the Setup Camera icon was clicked.3 On the End User License Agreement screen, the box next to I accept the agreement was checked and Next clicked .

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4 The included network cable to the network router was connected before clicking next.

Connect Network Cable to the Switch or Router5 The other end of the network cable was connected to the Camera’s Ethernet port and next clicked .

Connect Network Cable to the Camera44

6 The included power adapter was plugged into the Camera’s Power port and the other end into an electrical outlet and next Clicked.

Power on the Camera7 It was verified that the LED on the Camera’s front panel was lit before proceeding to the next step.

Check the LED8 The Wizard searched for the Wireless-G Internet Home Monitoring Camera on the network, then displayed the Camera found along with status information.

Camera Found on NetworkIn the Camera List box, the name of the Camera being installed was clicked and its IP address written down in the status box for it to be accessed by the web based utility later. 9. The Camera was given a name. Click Next.

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Assign the Camera Name10. An automatic option of assigning the IP address was selected before proceeding to the next step.

IP Address Settings

11 A new password was assigned to the camera. 12 The Wizard searches for wireless networks, then lists the wireless networks found. Select the wireless network to connect the Camera to, then click Next.

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Select Wireless Network13 The Wizard displayed the wireless security method that the network is using: WPA/WPA2-Personal A passphrase is entered in the Passphrase field.

Security Settings - WPA/WPA2-Personal

14 The Camera’s settings are reviewed and any necessary changes made.

Save the Camera Settings15 When the Wizard verifies that the new Camera settings have been saved, then Continue.16 The network cable is disconnected from the Camera and from the router before proceeding to the next step.

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17 The Setup Wizard displayed,”Camera successfully connected to network.” Click Continue, then click Next on the following screen.

Camera Connected to Wireless Network

Installing the Camera Utility1 On the Welcome or Congratulations screen of the Setup Wizard, click Install Camera Utility.2 The Setup Wizard begins to install the Camera Utility. The progress of the installation is displayed.3 When the Setup Wizard completes the installation click Continue. The Utility starts up automatically and displays the Setup screen.

Using the Camera Utility for the First TimeThe Camera Utility starts up automatically after the Utility is successfully installed. This section described the steps to follow in setting up the Camera.1 The Camera Utility displayed the Setup screen and searched for the Wireless-G Camera.2 Access to the wireless-G Camera was authenticated and the settings on the Camera saved.After the Camera Utility is installed, its icon is displayed on the Desktop and in the System Tray of the Taskbar.Monitor WindowOn double clicking the desktop icon to open the Utility; the Monitor window is displayed.The Monitor window contains the following sections: Camera Status, Motion Detection Events, Hard Disk Quota, the viewing area containing video displays for Channels 1-9, video layout controls, and video control buttons.

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Monitor Window

Video Layout ControlsThis section of the Monitor window lets one change the layout of the viewing area. To select a particular layout, the layout’s icon is clicked.

Video Layout Icons

Setup ScreenThe Setup screen is accessed by clicking the Setup button on the Monitor window of the Camera Utility. There are four tabs along the left side of the Setup screen: Network Camera, Internet Camera, Recording Schedule, and Preferences. By default, the Network Camera tab is selected when the Setup screen is opened. These tabs display screens whose functions are described below.

Setup > Network CameraClick the Network Camera tab to set up a network Camera.

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Setup > Network CameraThe upper section of the Setup > Network Camera screen contains a list of all Wireless-G Cameras that have been detected (up to 9). The Camera Details section of the screen provides information about the selected Camera.

Camera ListEnable Check this box to enable the Camera. Uncheck the box to disable the Camera.Camera Name Displays the name of the Camera.IP Address Displays the Camera’s IP address.Port Number Displays the Camera’s port number.Motion Detection Recording Indicates if motion detection recording is enabled or disabled.

Camera DetailsCamera Name Displays the name of the Camera that was specified while running the Setup Wizard.MAC Address Displays the Camera’s MAC address.IP Address Displays the Camera’s IP address.Port Number Displays the Camera’s port number.User Name and Password Displays the user name. The password is displayed as “•••••“ for security reasons.Enable Motion Detection To enable motion detection recording, the checkbox is checked. The default is disabled.Advanced Configuration with the Web-based Utility

OverviewThe Camera’s Web-based Utility is used to access and alter camera settings. The Utility is accessed via the web browser of a computer connected to the Camera.

How to Access the Web-based UtilityThe Utility can be accessed using either of these methods.

Launching Internet Explorer, and entering the Camera’s IP address in the Address field. Then, pressing Enter.

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From the Monitor window of the Camera Utility, selecting the Camera, then clicking the Setup button. The Welcome screen of the Web-based Utility appears.

Web-Based Utility Welcome ScreenThere are six tabs across the top of the Welcome screen:Click the View Video tab on the Welcome screen.The View Video screen appears, showing the live video from the Camera. Other advanced settings can be done depending on the users needs.

3.4 Wiring of the Sensor Circuit.

The sensor circuit was wired on the breadboard as shown in figure 1. in the literature review section. After wiring it was tested and found to light an LED when an object came within the sensing range.

3.5 Methodology Summary

The IP camera was configured to the wireless network available with the help of a set up CD-ROM. The configuration process included giving the camera a name and an IP address. The IP address was assigned automatically (using DHCP). The camera was then given a password to restrict access and the set up wizard searched wireless networks then listed the wireless networks found upon which a network was selected to which the camera would be connected to. The camera was then assigned a passphrase that had to match with the passphrase of the wireless router (or an access point) in order for them to communicate in the network. The camera settings were saved and therefore, the camera could now be accessed remotely from the laptop. Any video recording at the camera could be viewed in real-time from the laptop and was also recorded in a designated folder in the hard-drive. The camera can also be configured (using additional software) to send e-mail alerts with a video record attachment whenever it detects motion.

The sensor on detecting any unusual activity near the transformer lights a lamp which acts as a deterrent to a vandal and at the same time draws attention to that particular live video in the control room.

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3.5 Complete Project Diagram.

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CHAPTER 4.

4.1 RESULTS.The following are a few snapshots taken by the camera after it was successfully configured to the wireless network.

Photo 1: photo of a transformer in a six layout format

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Photo 2: Photo of a transformer in a four layout format

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Photo 3: Photo of a transformer using a one layout format

Sensor Circuit Results.

The circuit was wired as shown in the circuit diagram below:

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The IC1 (NE 555)  is wires as an astable multivibrator .The IR diode connected at the output of this IC produces infrared beams of frequency 5Khz.These beams are picked by the photo transistor Q1 .At normal condition i.e. when there is no intrusion the output pin (7) of IC2 will be low. When there is an intrusion the phase of the reflected waveforms has a difference in phase and this phase difference will be picked by the IC2.Now the pin 7 of the IC 2 goes high to indicate the intrusion. An LED was connected at the output of the IC to indicate the intrusion.

The lighted LED is ideally supposed to draw attention to a particular video in the control room since it lights near the camera and thus there will be a flash of light in the video from that camera.

In a situation where many transformers are being monitored, the respective IP cameras mac addresses can be resolved to the various transformer codes. This is possible if a database is integrated in the network server that will resolve these mac addresses to the respective

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transformer codes. Since we had only one camera transmitting a live video to the laptop, dynamic IP addresses was used instead.

The table above shows how mac addresses are resolved to the respective computer names.

These results were as expected in the project objectives. This is because the bandwidth of the network was compatible with that specified on the router. The video was clear and the transmission was live.

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CHAPTER 5

Time plan

Activity Duration

  Semester I Semester II

  Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr

Project proposal                

Drawing time plan                

Research              

Mini presentation              

Code & hardware

development                

Simulation &

implementation                

Documentation                

Final presentation                

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CHAPTER 6

6.0 CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK.

6.1 Conclusion

Form the objectives listed in chapter one of this documentation it is clear that the main task of this project was to design and implement a monitoring system for transformers in the country’s electricity grid. This was done successfully by use of an IP Camera, Router acting as an access point and a laptop all configured on the same wireless network. The sensor circuit was also designed to detect any unusual activity near the transformer upon which it lights a lamp that acts as a deterrent to a vandal and at the same time draws attention to that particular live video in the control room in the case of many transformers being monitored.

6.2 Problems Encountered.

1. Configuring both the Router and the IP Camera proved to be quite a task due to limited working knowledge of the same.

2. The unreliability of the internet connection available caused unnecessary delay in the implementation of the project.

3. Because of limited finances we had to keep changing the implementation technique to meet budget constraints.

6.3 Recommendations

After the completion of this project we recommend that;1. The university should revise the syllabus such that more units

addressing current technology are taught.2. Project funding should be increased so that such like projects can

be redone using many IP Cameras and other hosts to better demonstrate how efficiently it can work.

REFERENCES.

[1] Radio Frequency Circuit Design. W. Alan Davis, Krishna Agarwal Copyright ©2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Print ISBN 0-471-35052-4 Electronic ISBN 0-471-20068-9

[2] Introduction to signal transmission. W.R Bennet

Copyright©1998 Walter & David, Inc.

Print ISBN 0-324-34051-9 Electronic ISBN 0-324-34598-2.

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[3] Cisco Certified Network Associate Study Guide 6th Edition.

Copywright©2007 by Wiley publishing, Inc, Indianapolis Indiana

ISBN: 978-0470-11008-9.

[4] Internet.

http://www.webopedia.com

http://www.howstuffworks.com

http://www.wikipedia.com

http://www.discoverelectronics.com

APPENDICES.

Appendix 1. BudgetItem Quantity Price (Ksh.)Step down transformer 1 1300Lynksys IP Camera 1 9520Lynksys Range plus Router

1 4250

Internet Cost & miscellaneous

1 2150

Intergrated circuits 3 300Resistors 7 100Capacitors 4 100IR Diode 1 100Transistor 1 100Connecting Wire 1 50IR Motion sensor 1 2800Total 20770

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Appendix 2. Project Code and Interface

Option ExplicitDim FSO As New FileSystemObjectDim myfolder As Folder

Private Sub cmdClose_Click() Unload MeEnd Sub

Private Sub cmdUpdate_Click() If FSO.FolderExists(txtImageFolder.Text) Then MsgBox "'" & txtImageFolder.Text & "'is not a valid folder", vbInformation: Exit Sub Set myfolder = FSO.GetFolder(txtImageFolder.Text) SaveSetting App.Title, "Folder", "MyFolder", myfolder.PathEnd Sub

Private Sub Form_Load() Set Icon = Nothing txtImageFolder.Text = GetSetting(App.Title, "Folder", "MyFolder", App.Path) cmdUpdate_ClickEnd SubPrivate Sub DeleteImage() 'Deletes Images Older Than 3 Days Dim myfile As file For Each myfile In myfolder.Files If DateDiff("y", Date, myfile.DateCreated) >= 3 Then 'if file is older than 3 days If UCase(Right(myfile.Name, 4)) = ".JPG" Then 'confirming the file is an image file myfile.Delete True Beep End If End If NextEnd Sub

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