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Prvchologv in rhe Schoolr Volume 20, January. 1983 A UNIQUE RURAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT DIANE M. DODENDORF Creighton University An observational study of 34 children in a Midwest rural two-room school yielded several insights into a unique school environment. Teacher strategies are described, as well as child behavior, as they differed from urban schools. Five environmental characteristics were striking: (a) school routines, (b) group learning, (c) in- terdependence, (d) independence, and (e) community involvement. Comparison of the Metropolitan Achievement Tests and the Science Research Associates (SRA) scores yielded little or no differences in performance between urban and rural children. The only significant difference was on the Social Science subtest. Positive aspects of a rural school environment were highlighted by this study’s observational and test data. Children are not often observed in their habitats, especially if that habitat is a rural one. Little research with rural children has been observational; most has been sociological in nature or evaluative on educational programs. This study has been done in the tradition of Robert Coles; his participant observa- tion has focused on special groups of children (1967-1977). Cole’s insights regarding children and their environments have contributed significantly to many child-oriented disciplines. Gump (1980) has further refined observational strategies. This small study looked at some of Nebraska’s special children-children in rural schools. Given the diminishing numbers of these schools, the opportunity for such observations is in- creasingly rare. Psychologists who are called upon to evaluate children or to consult with rural school teachers need a familiarity with rural school environments. There are different functions for rural (vs. urban) psychologists and conditions that cause these different patterns of service (DeBlassie & Ludeman, 1973; Hughes & Clark, 1981). This rural school description and some comparison data on standardized test performance are presented to highlight the distinctiveness of rural schools. The decline in the number of rural schools has been partly due to population shifts. Another factor has been improved transportation, both vehicles and roads. State legislators generally have encouraged school consolidation, based partially on the literature that describes the lower quality of education obtained in rural schools, and par- tially on increased costs and strained tax structures (Henderson, 1975). While budget and tax concerns are citizen concerns, the quality of education is of utmost concern to educators (Barker & Gump, 1964; Moe, 1969; Peshkin, 1978; Sher, 1977). For the most part, studies have cited poor teachers, inadequate supplies, lack of resources, and out- dated texts and materials as reasons for the lower quality of rural education (McClurkin, 1970; Sasser, 1975; Tamblyn, 1975). Another disadvantage frequently cited was the in- bred group of students; that is, no or few changes in the student group from kindergarten to eighth grade. The lack of confidentiality in a small town or rural atmosphere has posed problems for teachers, tutors, and psychologists (Owen, 1970; Thomas, 1970). The above deficits in rural education did not match the positive nostalgic speeches and comments frequently voiced. At conferences on rural education and in the literature, this author heard the advantages repeatedly (Alexander, 1978; Brinkman, 1978; Elam, 1978; Pendergast, 1973; Thompson, 1978). This contrast prompted this ongoing evaluation of rural school environments and their impact on children. Requests for reprints should be sent to Diane M. Dodendorf, Dept. of Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178. 99

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Prvchologv in rhe Schoolr Volume 20, January. 1983

A UNIQUE RURAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT DIANE M. DODENDORF

Creighton University

An observational study of 34 children in a Midwest rural two-room school yielded several insights into a unique school environment. Teacher strategies are described, as well as child behavior, as they differed from urban schools. Five environmental characteristics were striking: (a) school routines, (b) group learning, (c) in- terdependence, (d) independence, and (e) community involvement. Comparison of the Metropolitan Achievement Tests and the Science Research Associates (SRA) scores yielded little or no differences in performance between urban and rural children. The only significant difference was on the Social Science subtest. Positive aspects of a rural school environment were highlighted by this study’s observational and test data.

Children are not often observed in their habitats, especially if that habitat is a rural one. Little research with rural children has been observational; most has been sociological in nature or evaluative on educational programs.

This study has been done in the tradition of Robert Coles; his participant observa- tion has focused on special groups of children (1967-1977). Cole’s insights regarding children and their environments have contributed significantly to many child-oriented disciplines. Gump (1980) has further refined observational strategies. This small study looked at some of Nebraska’s special children-children in rural schools. Given the diminishing numbers of these schools, the opportunity for such observations is in- creasingly rare.

Psychologists who are called upon to evaluate children or to consult with rural school teachers need a familiarity with rural school environments. There are different functions for rural (vs. urban) psychologists and conditions that cause these different patterns of service (DeBlassie & Ludeman, 1973; Hughes & Clark, 1981). This rural school description and some comparison data on standardized test performance are presented to highlight the distinctiveness of rural schools.

The decline in the number of rural schools has been partly due to population shifts. Another factor has been improved transportation, both vehicles and roads. State legislators generally have encouraged school consolidation, based partially on the literature that describes the lower quality of education obtained in rural schools, and par- tially on increased costs and strained tax structures (Henderson, 1975). While budget and tax concerns are citizen concerns, the quality of education is of utmost concern to educators (Barker & Gump, 1964; Moe, 1969; Peshkin, 1978; Sher, 1977). For the most part, studies have cited poor teachers, inadequate supplies, lack of resources, and out- dated texts and materials as reasons for the lower quality of rural education (McClurkin, 1970; Sasser, 1975; Tamblyn, 1975). Another disadvantage frequently cited was the in- bred group of students; that is, no or few changes in the student group from kindergarten to eighth grade. The lack of confidentiality in a small town or rural atmosphere has posed problems for teachers, tutors, and psychologists (Owen, 1970; Thomas, 1970). The above deficits in rural education did not match the positive nostalgic speeches and comments frequently voiced. At conferences on rural education and in the literature, this author heard the advantages repeatedly (Alexander, 1978; Brinkman, 1978; Elam, 1978; Pendergast, 1973; Thompson, 1978). This contrast prompted this ongoing evaluation of rural school environments and their impact on children.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Diane M . Dodendorf, Dept. of Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha, N E 68178.

99

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METHOD Subjects and Procedure

An observational study was conducted in a rural two-room school to study the day- to-day effects of a rural education. The author recorded observations and took photographs that illustrated the written recordings. There were 19 children in the “lower room” (kindergarten through fourth grade), and 15 children in the “higher room” (grades 5-8) . Efforts were concentrated in the lower room because of its greater number of children and grades, and its task of introducing children to a rural school, Both classroom time and recess time were studied to detail the environment. Conversations with the children attempted to understand the setting from the child’s point of view. Interviews with the teachers focused on their perceptions of the rural school environ- ment. The result is a description of what happened in a two-room schoolhouse, its advan- tages and disadvantages.

A second study was undertaken to compare the test performance on standardized examinations of rural and urban children. Test scores of 32 children in grades 3 to 8 were obtained. The 16 children from the two-room rural school were compared with 16 children from an urban school with comparable socioeconomic and educational factors. The urban children were randomly selected with matching by grade and sex.

A third study was attempted in a small town high school to compare the perfor- mance of freshmen from a rural grade school with freshmen from a more urban grade school. There were insufficient parent permissions for data collection and analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION School Routines

To watch 19 children in 5 different grades quietly and confidently move through the activities and duties of a school day was amazing. Routines were structured so that children start the day, do their workbooks, go to the bathroom, get assistance, tell stories, and go to the library-all with a minimum of noise and disruption. Mundane tasks, such as instructions for individual work or a spelling test, had to be handled differently in a rural schoolroom. The rural teacher had perfected such a system, and the children were comfortably adapted to that system. A measure of the system’s success was that when the teacher left the room there was no behavior change; children continued their work. All discipline was handled within the room or school; there was no principal to send the children to. The ultimate punishment was to call the parents to come get the child and take him/her home.

Some of the routines are nearly universal in the United States; the Pledge of Allegiance and announcing the month, day, and year are such routines. Others, however, were particularly designed for a multigrade classroom. The spelling test was one such routine. All of the children took spelling tests at the same time. A testing atmosphere was created by the teacher; she called out one spelling word for each grade in turn. The first graders “drop out” first, since they have the fewest spelling words. The children cor- rected their papers, then the teacher checked each one, and recorded their score in the grade book.

These routines contributed to the “everyone knows everything” environment in the classroom and in the school. Information was rapidly transmitted to all in the classroom, and soon to students in the other classroom. While there was some peer chiding for in- ferior work, most progress evaluations were treated as a matter of fact. Due to the group

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being closely knit and of long duration, such personal information was regarded by the children not as secret, but as common group knowledge. Learning by Groups

Each grade met with the teacher, as a group, twice a day. The children in each grade left their desks and gathered around a large table off to the side of the room. This group worked on various subjects-reading, mathematics, social studies. As a grade group, these children studied a new concept, practiced it, and then were given workbook assignments on this new concept. The children returned to their desks and did their assignments. Meanwhile, the next grade group was at the table with the teacher, working on their subject. If a student needed individual assistance while the teacher was occupied with another group, the student could either go to an older student or peer, or wait until the teacher stopped the group work. The students waited patiently, standing at the table at which another group was working. The patience displayed by the children was amaz- ing to this observer.

Both teachers acknowledged the need for a teacher aide. This person would provide assistance to the four or five grades working at their desks. Such help would free the teacher to work solely with one grade at the worktable. The reasons for the current lack of a teacher aide were: (a) a lack of finances to pay for such services, and (b) a reluctance to use volunteer teacher aides. The teachers’ past experiences indicated that information about the children’s school progress (or lack thereof) was circulated freely around the community.

The textbooks used were five years old and urban-oriented. One story. was about a farmer who was portrayed as a bumpkin. When questioned, several children s&d farmers were not like that. A textbook with both urban and rural orientations (a dual orientation) would be ideal, since this is the world in which these children live. They were in a rural area, but were also familiar with a nearby large metropolitan city.

Interdependence The interdependence among the children was the most striking quality in this

school. The younger children often approached the older children for help with their school work. Urban schools artificially try to create this by setting up peer teaching programs. The younger children commented that one learns more this way because you get help from other kids. The older children are learning by teaching others; this is often cited as the most effective way to learn.

An example of this interdependence was displayed when a group of children were ex- amining birds’ nests constructed as a science project. The younger children were ad- miring one nest in particular and were somewhat jealous; “She has older brothers and sisters who can help her.” Having older siblings was viewed as an asset; the siblings’ assistance was valuable in doing well in school and maybe at home, too.

The mixing of ages and grades was seen not only in the classroom but at recess, also. At recess, children discussed schoolwork as well as personal, social concerns with children who were the same age, older, and younger. Sometimes the younger children were the observers when older children were talking; the 6-year-old observers watched and listened, taking in what it means to be 8 or 9 years old. At recess, the most frequent division in play was by sex. In several games, it was the boys against the girls. In “Surround” and “Chicken,” there were elaborate rules the children had constructed. The winning sex in both games was determined by the number of boys or girls still “free” or “standing.” In other games, such as “Annie, Annie, Over” there was sex mixing, with

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throwing ability being the key attribute. The ball was thrown over the schoolhouse by competing teams. This game was played almost exclusively by the children in the “higher room.” Independence

The independence of the children was evidenced by the work effort and self- discipline in solitary work at the desk. Children had assignments to do by a specified hour or day; they turned in their work to a certain place on the teacher’s desk. Kindergartners, as novices to this independent system, had workbooks missing. The workbooks of older children were never observed to be lost or missing. The first to fourth graders were adept at submitting and receiving workbooks with no personal contact with the teacher. When an assignment was completed, the children would place the workbook in the “in” file on the teacher’s desk.

There was an “out” file on the teacher’s desk with workbooks or papers already cor- rected by the teacher, which were regularly returned to the students. The author assumed that a student was assigned to do this task. After inquiring from several children, it was discovered that this task was not assigned. A student would decide that workbooks needed to be distributed and that s/he had the time to do it. This kind of independent behavior was characteristic of the classroom, perhaps reflecting a value of the com- munity as well. Community Involvement

The fifth and last variable observed was the classroom involvement of the rural com- munity. The author was impressed by the number and kind of visitors to the school, and at the reception by the students. Mothers, and fathers as well, stopped in to bring forgotten homework or lunches. Mothers provided a hot lunch once a month and also planned holiday parties. One mother was in to observe how her oldest child, a kindergartner, was doing in school and how she could help him at home. The school board president stopped in to check on any needed repair and in general to see how things were going. Babies and toddlers came in with mothers who were preparing a lunch or party; these little ones were readily accepted into the classroom, and the school work continued. The children responded positively to the visitors by direct communication and by involving the visitor in their activities. There was little of the whispering or boisterous behavior that is commonly seen in urban classrooms with visitors. Most children con- tinued with their individual work, while a few children, on their own, became more in- volved with the visitor.

An example of this hospitable reception was the way kindergartners were welcomed into the classroom. At times, these 5-year-olds would wander from desk to desk just to see what the others were doing. These observational forays were obviously OK with older students. An older student may engage in conversation, explaining what they were doing, or may help a kindergartner to do his/her own work. A lot of positive nonverbal behavior, such as smiling, was directed at the kindergartners by the older children in the room.

Kindergartners spent full days in school starting in January, midway through the year. The teacher explained that the first to fourth graders are working independently by that time, and thus she can devote more time to the kindergartners. The other advantage to this arrangement is the reduced transportation that would be required of parents. Since all but one of the kindergartners have older siblings in school, these kindergartners are taken to and picked up from school at the same time as older children.

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Test Performance The rural teachers believed there were no differences in general academic perfor-

mance between urban and rural children. This belief was upheld in the data analyses, with one exception. The data in Table 1 illustrate the means and the r values of the grade equivalents on the Metropolitan Achievement Tests (rural) and the SRA (urban) Tests. There were no significant differences on the following subtests: Language, Math, and Science. The Social Studies portion of the Metropolitan Achievement Tests and the SRA showed the urban students to be superior to the rural students.

TABLE I Comparison of Test Score Averages

Subtests Urban Rural t Value df

Language 6.86 6.61 .27 30

Math 7.05 6.84 .24 24

Science 7.53 7.86 - .37 20 Social Sciences 9.30 7.26 2.13; 20

*p<.05.

Several advantages accrued for children and their parents in this rural school. The observed positive qualities far outweighed the disadvantages, and, more importantly, the values emphasized in the school reflected the community’s values. This match of values is rarely achieved in heterogeneous urban schools. Value congruence between home and school certainly fostered a secure, stable world for these children to grow up in.

REFERENCES ALEXANDER, R. BARKER, R. G., & GUMP, P. V. BRINKMAN, G. This one school is fighting to live-and winning. American School Board Journal, 1978, 165,

COLES, R. DEBLASSIE, R. R., & LUDEMAN, M.

ELAM, S. M. GUMP, P. V. HENDERSON, R. D., & GOMEZ, J . J .

HUGHES, J . N., & CLARK, R. D.

MCCLURKIN, W. D.

MOE, E. 0.

OWEN, W. L.

Is the country school the newest thing in education? Instructor, 1978, 88, 107-1 1 I . Big school, small school. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964.

38-39. Children of crisis, Vols. I-V. Boston: Little, Brown, 1964-1977.

Guidance programs andpractices in ruraland smallschools. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University, 1973. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 081 533)

The lingering lure of the little red schoolhouse. Phi Delta Kappan, 1978, 60, 265. Observation-orpersons and contexts. Paper presented at AERA Meeting, Boston, 1980.

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PENDERGAST, SR. M. R. On inkwells, hickory sticks, and other memories. Schools and Communities, 1973, 59, 19.

PESKIN, A. Growing up American: Schodling and survival of community. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.

SASSER, C. W. What’s wrong with rural schools? Everything says this ex-teacher. American School Board Journal, 1975, 162, 35-36.

SHER, J. Education in rural America: A reassessment of conventional wisdom. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977.

TAMBLYN, L. R. What is happening in rural education today: A status report. 1975. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 108 826)

THOMAS, A. R. Public relations and the role of the rural school psychologist. 1970. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 040 453)

THOMPSON, M. A lot we can learn from those not-so-second-rate rural schools. American School Board Journal, 1978, 165, 36-38.