A2 Revision Checklist F215

7/25/2019 A2 Revision Checklist F215

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A2 Unit F215: Control, Genomes and Environment

Module 1 Cellular Control and Variation5.1.1 Cellular Control

The way that DNA codes for proteins is central to our understanding of how cells and organisms function.The way in which cells control chemical reactions determines the ways in which organisms, grow, develop and function.

a) state that genes code for polypeptides, including enzymes;

(b) explain the meaning of the term genetic code;

(c) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the way in which a nucleotide sequence codes for the aminoacid sequence in a polypeptide;

(d) describe, with the aid of diagrams, how the sequence of nucleotides within a gene is used toconstruct a polypeptide, including the roles of messenger RNA, transfer RNA and ribosomes;

(e) state that mutations cause changes to the sequence of nucleotides in NA molecules;

(f) explain how mutations can ha!e beneficial, neutral or harmful effects on the way a protein

functions;(g) state that cyclic A"# acti!ates proteins by altering their three$dimensional structure;

h) explain genetic control of protein production in a pro%aryote using the lac operon;

(i) explain that the genes that control de!elopment of body plans are similar in plants, animals andfungi, with reference to homeobox sequences

(&) outline how apoptosis (programmed cell death) can act as a mechanism to change body plans'

5.1.2 Meiosis and VariationVariation generated by meiosis and mutation provides the raw material for natural selection.

Isolating mechanisms can lead to the accumulation of different genetic information in populations, potentially leading to new species. Over a prolonged period of time, organismshave changed and become etinct. The theory of evolution eplains these changes. !umans use artificial selection to produce similar changes in plants and animals.

(a) describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the beha!iour of chromosomes duringmeiosis, and the associated beha!iour of the nuclear en!elope, cell membrane and centrioles'

(Names of the main stages are expected, but not the subdi!isions of prophase);(b) explain the terms allele, locus, phenotype, genotype, dominant, codominant and recessive;

(c) explain the terms lin"age and crossingover ;

(d) explain how meiosis and fertilisation can lead to !ariation through the independent assortment ofalleles;

(e) use genetic diagrams to sol!e problems in!ol!ing sex lin%age and codominance;

(f) describe the interactions between loci (epistasis)' (#roduction of genetic diagrams is not required);

(g) predict phenotypic ratios in problems in!ol!ing epistasis;

(h) use the chi$squared () test to test the significance of the difference between obser!ed andexpected results' (*he formula for the chi$squared test will be pro!ided);

(i) describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous !ariation;

(&) explain the basis of continuous and discontinuous !ariation by reference to the number of genes which influence the !ariation;

(%) explain that both genotype and en!ironment contribute to phenotypic !ariation' (No calculations ofheritability will be expected);

(l) explain why !ariation is essential in selection;

(m) use the +ardy-einberg principle to calculate allele frequencies in populations

(n) explain, with examples, how en!ironmental factors can act as stabilising or e!olutionaryforces of natural selection;

(o) explain how genetic drift can cause large changes in small populations;

(p) explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the e!olution of new species, with reference toecological (geographic), seasonal (temporal) and reproducti!e mechanisms;

(q) explain the significance of the !arious concepts of the species, with reference to the biological

species concept and the phylogenetic (cladistic.e!olutionary) species concept '



(r) compare and contrast natural selection and artificial selection;

(s) describe how artificial selection has been used to produce the modern dairy cow and to producebread wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Module 2 Biotechnology and Gene Technologies5.2.1 Cloning in Plants and Animals

Far mers and growers exploit natural! vegetative propagation in the production o" uni"orm crops.Arti"icial clones o" plants and animals can now #e produced.

(a) outline the differences between reproducti!e and non$reproducti!e cloning;

(b) describe the production of natural clones in plants using the example of !egetati!e propagation in

elm trees;(c) describe the production of artificial clones of plants from tissue culture;

(d) discuss the ad!antages and disad!antages of plant cloning in agriculture

(e) describe how artificial clones of animals can be produced;

(f) discuss the ad!antages and disad!antages of cloning animals

5.2.2 BiotechnologyBiotechnology uses microorganisms and enzymes to make useful products.

(a) state that biotechnology is the industrial use of li!ing organisms (or parts of li!ingorganisms) to produce food, drugs or other products

(b) explain why microorganisms are often used in biotechnological processes;

(c) describe, with the aid of diagrams, and explain the standard growth cur!e of amicroorganism in a closed culture;

(d) describe how enzymes can be immobilised;(e) explain why immobilised enzymes are used in large$scale production;

(f) compare and contrast the processes of continuous culture and batch culture;

(g) describe the differences between primary and secondary metabolites;

(h) explain the importance of manipulating the growing conditions in a fermentation !essel in order tomaximise the yield of product required;

(i) explain the importance of asepsis in the manipulation of microorganisms'

5.2.3 Genomes and Gene TechnologiesGenome sequencing gives information about the location of genes and provides evidence for the evolutionary links between organisms.

Genetic engineering involves the manipulation of naturally occurring processes and enzymes.The capacity to manipulate genes has many potential benefits, but the implications of genetic techniques are subject to much public

debate.

(a) outline the steps in!ol!ed in sequencing the genome of an organism;

(b) outline how gene sequencing allows for genome$wide comparisons betweenindi!iduals and between species

(c) define the term recombinant DNA;

(d) explain that genetic engineering in!ol!es the extraction of genes from one organism, or themanufacture of genes, in order to place them in another organism (often of a different species) suchthat the recei!ing organism expresses the gene product

(e) describe how sections of NA containing a desired gene can be extracted from a donor organismusing restriction enzymes

(f) outline how NA fragments can be separated by size using electrophoresis

(g) describe how NA probes can be used to identify fragments containing specificsequences;

(h) outline how the polymerase chain reaction (#/R) can be used to ma%e multiple copies of NA

fragments;(i) explain how isolated NA fragments can be placed in plasmids, with reference to the role of ligase;

(&) state other !ectors into which fragments of NA may be incorporated;

(%) explain how plasmids may be ta%en up by bacterial cells in order to produce atransgenic microorganism that can express a desired gene product;

(l) describe the ad!antage to microorganisms of the capacity to ta%e up plasmid NA from theen!ironment;

(m) outline how genetic mar%ers in plasmids can be used to identify the bacteria that ha!e ta%en up arecombinant plasmid;

(n) outline the process in!ol!ed in the genetic engineering of bacteria to produce human insulin;

(o) outline the process in!ol!ed in the genetic engineering of 01olden Rice*"2

(p) outline how animals can be genetically engineered for xenotransplantation

(q) explain the term gene therapy#



(r) explain the differences between somatic cell gene therapy and germ line cell gene therapy;

(s) discuss the ethical concerns raised by the genetic manipulation of animals (including humans),plants and microorganisms

Module $ Ecosystems and Sustainaility5.$.1 Ecosystems

rganisms do not work in isolation but form comple! interactions, not just with other organisms but also with their physical environment. The efficiency of energy transfer limits the number of organisms in a particular ecosystem. "cosystems are dynamic

entities tending towards some form of clima! community

(a) define the term ecosystem;

(b) state that ecosystems are dynamic systems;

(c) define the terms biotic factor and abiotic factor , using named examples;(d) define the terms producer, consumer decomposer and trophic level ;

(e) describe how energy is transferred though ecosystems;

(f) outline how energy transfers between trophic le!els can be measured;

(g) discuss the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic le!els;

(h) explain how human acti!ities can manipulate the flow of energy throughecosystems

(i) describe one example of primary succession resulting in a climax community;

(&) describe how the distribution and abundance of organisms can be measured,using line transects, belt transects, quadrats and point quadrats

(%) describe the role of decomposers in the decomposition of organic material;

(l) describe how microorganisms recycle nitrogen within ecosystems' (3nly

Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter and $hi%obium need to be identified by name)'

5.$.2 Po!ulations and SustainailityThere are many factors that determine the size of a population. #or economic, social and ethical reasons

ecosystems may need to be carefully managed. To support an increasing human population, we must try to use biological resources ina sustainable way.

(a) explain the significance of limiting factors in determining the final size of a population;

(b) explain the meaning of the term carrying capacity ;

(c) describe predatorprey relationships and their possible effects on the populationsizes of both the predator and the prey;

(d) explain, with examples, the terms interspecific and intraspecific competition;

(e) distinguish between the terms conservation and preservation

(f) explain how the management of an ecosystem can pro!ide resources in a

sustainable way, with reference to timber production in a temperate country;(g) explain that conser!ation is a dynamic process in!ol!ing management andreclamation;

(h) discuss the economic, social and ethical reasons for conser!ation of biologicalresources

(i) outline, with examples, the effects of human acti!ities on the animal and plantpopulations in the 1alapagos 4slands

Module % "es!onding to the En#ironment5.%.1 Plant "es!onses

$lant responses to environmental changes are co%ordinated by hormones, some of which are commercially important .

(a) explain why plants need to respond to their en!ironment in terms of the need to a!oid predationand abiotic stress;

(b) define the term tropism;

(c) explain how plant responses to en!ironmental changes are co$ordinated byhormones, with reference to responding to changes in light direction;

(d) e!aluate the experimental e!idence for the role of auxins in the control of apicaldominance and gibberellin in the control of stem elongation;

(e) outline the role of hormones in leaf loss in deciduous plants;

(f) describe how plant hormones are used commercially



5.$.2 Animal "es!onses&n animals, responding to changes in the environment is a comple! and continuous process, involving nervous, hormonal and muscular

co%ordination.

(a) discuss why animals need to respond to their en!ironment;

(b) outline the organisation of the ner!ous system in terms of central and peripheralsystems in humans;

(c) outline the organisation and roles of the autonomic ner!ous system;

(d) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the gross structure of the human brain, andoutline the functions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata andhypothalamus;

(e) describe the role of the brain and ner!ous system in the co$ordination of muscular mo!ement;

(f) describe how co$ordinated mo!ement requires the action of s%eletal musclesabout &oints, with reference to the mo!ement of the elbow &oint;

(g) explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the sliding filament model ofmuscular contraction;

(h) outline the role of A*# in muscular contraction, and how the supply of A*# is

maintained in muscles;(i) compare and contrast the action of synapses and neuromuscular &unctions;

(&) outline the structural and functional differences between !oluntary, in!oluntaryand cardiac muscle;

(%) state that responses to en!ironmental stimuli in mammals are co$ordinated byner!ous and endocrine systems;

(l) explain how, in mammals, the 0fight or flight2 response to en!ironmental stimuli is coordinated by thener!ous and endocrine systems'

5.$.3 Animal Beha#iour 'nimals behave in ways that enhance their survival and reproductive capacity. Behaviour patterns can be simple or comple!, and can

range from genetically programmed behaviour to learned behaviour that is significantly influenced by the environment .

(a) explain the ad!antages to organisms of innate beha!iour;(b) describe escape reflexes, taxes and %ineses as examples of genetically determined innatebeha!iours;

(c) explain the meaning of the term learned behaviour ;

(d) describe habituation, imprinting, classical and operant conditioning, latent and insight learning asexamples of learned beha!iours;

(e) describe, using one example, thead!antages of social beha!iour in primates;

(f) discuss how the lin%s between a range of human beha!iours and the dopaminereceptor R5 may contribute to the understanding of human beha!iour

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A2 Revision Checklist F215