Abhidharma to Mahāyāna (R2)

8/22/2019 Abhidharma to Mahyna (R2)

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From!Abhidharma!to!Mah"y"na!

:!Remarks!on!the!early!Abhidharma!doctrine!of!the!three!y!na-s!!

!

KL!DHAMMAJOTI

!!!

!

For! a! couple! of! decades! since! 1968,! modern! studies! on! the! origin(s)! of! Mah"y"na!

Buddhism! had! been! dominated! by! the! theory! of! Akira! Hirakawa! who! claimed! that!

Mah"y"na!Buddhism! arose!outside! the!monastic! context,! among! a!group!of! lay!people!

fully! devoted! to! st!pa! worship.! If! his! theory! is! true,! all! previous! studies! aiming! at!

uncovering!the!developmental!link!between!the!doctrines!advocated!by!the!pre-mah"y"na!

monastic!Sa#gha!on!the!one!hand,!and!those!of!the!early!Mah"y"na!on!the!other,!would!

completely! lose! their! significance.! However,! towards! the! latter! part! of! the! 80s,! this!

theory!has!come!to!be!challenged!and!now!largely!rejected.!!

! More! recently,! of! course,! there! are! some! other! scholars! who! also! argue! that!

Mah"y"na! Buddhism! arose! totally! outside! the! Sa#gha.! Reginald! Ray,! for! instance,!

proposes that it emerged among the forest-dwelling (!ra"yaka) renunciants who were

dissatisfied with the monastic members negligence in praxis and who wanted to

devote fully to intensive meditative praxis. For him, these forest renunciants should be

highlighted as a distinct religious typeapart from the monastic members and the lay

practitioners. The Mah!y!na from the beginning was primarily a forest tradition,

entirely non-monastic in character.1

However, various!evidences!point!to!the!fact!that!at!first,!the!term!Mah"y"na!was!

not! coined! in! contradistinction! to! the! (later)! term,! H$nay"na,! but! was! used!

interchangeably!with!bodhisattva-y"na!and!Buddha-y"na.!This!is!clearly!suggested!when!

we!examine!some!of! texts!belonging!to! the!earliest!extant!Mah"y"na!scriptures,!such!as!

the!Inquiry# of# Ugra! (Ugra-parip$cch")! and! the! Eight-thousand# Perfection# of# Wisdom!

(especially! its! first! chapter).! Moreover,! these! texts! indicate! that! the! emerging!

Mah"y"nists!were!most!probably!an!integral!part!of!the!traditional!Sa#gha.!Firstly,!the

characters in these earliest Mah!y!na s#tra-s are the familiar bhik$u-s (such as

"!riputra, Subh#ti, etc) or lay devotee we have come across in the early discourses

(the P!li sutta, Chinese !gama). The setting too is likewise familiar there is

nothing distinctively deviating from those in these early discourses. The Buddha is

depicted as being in the company of a large bhik$u-sa%gha; no well known Mah!y!na

bodhisattva such as Maju$r%, Samantabhadra, etc., is mentioned. What is more, we

see no condemnation or humiliation of the early bhik$u-s who are in fact described in

very respectful terms. Particularly in theInquiry of Ugra, we get a clear picture of the


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harmonious co-existence of the monks who follow the traditional &r!vaka-y!na

(Disciple Vehicle) and monks who have taken up the vocation of the Mah!y!na

bodhisattva. The lay followers of the new bodhisattva-y!na too are seen to be highly

respectful towards the traditionalsa%gha and the monasteries. They are urged to leave

the household life and become monks at the earliest opportunity. The renunciant

forest-dwelling bodhisattva-s were considered members of the bhik$u-sa%gha even

during the long periods of time they spent outside the monastery.2

In brief, now that most scholars have come out of the shadow of the influence

of such theories as proposed by Hirakawa, Ray, et. al, it is time to both revisit and

further the researches into the linkdoctrinally or otherwisebetween pre-Mah!y!na

Buddhism and the emergence of the Mah!y!na. In this connection, I would like to

discuss below, such a probable link between doctrines in the Abhidharma-

mah!vibh!$! (=!MV%;!)! and early Mah!y!na. I shall here focus on the

threey!na-sparticularly in respect of wisdom and compassion.

!

Three-vehicle!doctrine!in!the!northern!tradition!

An examination of the earliest extant Mah!y!na sources shows that early Mah!y!na

was definableand in a way more correctlyas bodhisattva-y!na. This is woven

into the threefold scheme: &r!vaka-y!na, pratyekabuddha-y!na, bodhisattva-y!na,

with the last as the path to Supreme Perfect Enlightenment. This threefold scheme

was in fact derived from the earlier, pre-Mah!y!na scheme of &r!vaka-y!na,

pratyekabuddha-y!na and buddha-y!na. It is certainly clearly enunciated in the

Abhidharma-mah!vibh!$! of the Sarv!stiv!da, a gigantic compendium! (translated

into Chinese by Xuan Zang in 200 fascicles) whose compilation was completed

around 150 C.E. We can see in this Vibh!$! that, in this pre-Mah!y!na scheme, the

various buddhological doctrinesgreat compassion, perfect wisdom (in contrast tothose of the two-y!na-s, etc.which were to become the distinctive doctrinal features

of Mah!y!na, were already well articulated. From this perspective, we may say that

early Mah!y!na, emphasizing the ideal of perfect enlightenment through the

bodhisattva path as it does, has highlighted the buddha-y!na as the bodhisattva-y!na.

!

Like! the!Mah"y"na! texts,! the!MV%! states! explicitly! that! the! Buddha! alone! possesses!

Great!Compassion,!(mah"karu%",!as!distinct!from!just!compassion,!karu%"):!

!


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Great!Compassion!is!knowledge!(!;!j"na);!it!is!not!an!entity!distinct!from!it.3!For,!

one!rescues!and!cures!only!after!understanding!the!medicine!required!and!the!disease!

involved.!!What! is! the!meaning!of!Great!Compassion?!The!uplifting!of! sentient!

beings! from! the! dominant! sufferings! is! called! Great! Compassion:! uplifting! them!

from! the! great! sufferings! in! the! planes! of! existence! of! hell! beings,! animals! and!

preta-s!and!placing!them!in!the!abodes!of!happiness!of!men!and!gods,!etc.!!

Moreover,!Great!Compassion!is!uplifting!sentient!beings!from!the!dominant!

mire! [of!sams"ra]:! sentient!beings!are!submerged! in! the!great!mire!of!defilements.!!

[The!Buddha]! gives! his! hand! of! the! True!Dharma,! uplifting! them! therefrom4!and!

placing!them!in!the!Noble!Path!(i.e.!spiritual!path)!and!spiritual!attainments.!!!

Moreover,! it! is! the!planting!of! the!seeds!of! the! three!vehicles!and!bringing!

about!the!Nirv"%a!of!the!enlightenment!of!the!three!vehicles.!All!this!is!by!virtue!of!

the!might!of!Great!Compassion.!!

Moreover,! it! is! called!Great!Compassion!because! it! is! acquired! at! a!great!

price:! This! pure! Great! Compassion! is! acquired! only! with! the! great! price! of! the!

requisites!of!merits!and!wisdom!(pu%ya-j"na-sa&bh"ra)!which!is!perfected,!such!as!the!giving!away!of!all! that! is! treasurable!!ones!body,!wealth,!wife,!sons,!etc.! in!

order! to! save! sentient! beings! from! suffering,! being! fully! endowed!with! the! pure!

precepts! ! [enduring! even! the! cutting! of! ones! limbs],! vigorously! practicing!

asceticism,! practicing! meditation! in! solitude! and! untiringly! seeking! the! excellent!

wisdom.!(note!the!perfections,!p"ramit"!mentioned!here).!This!is!unlike!the!case!of!

the! two! vehicles! (y"na-dvaya;! )! who! can! acquire! their! fruits! (spiritual!

attainment)!just!by!a!single!alms-giving,!or!observing!the!precepts!for!a!single![day!

and]!night!!or!by!reflecting!on!a!single!four-line!stanza.!

Moreover,!it!is!called!Great!Compassion!because!it!is!acquired!through!great!

preparatory!effort!(prayoga):![The!bodhisattva]!must!practice!hundreds!of!thousands!

of! difficult! and! ascetic! practices! through! three! uncountable! great! aeons! (kalpa)! in!

order! to! acquire! this! boundless!Great!Compassion.!This! is! unlike! the! case! of! the!

'r"vaka-s! the! strongest!grade!among!whom! can! acquire!enlightenment! through!60!

aeons! of! preparatory! effort.!Nor! is! it! like! the! case! of! the!pratyeka-buddha-s! the!

strongest!grade!among!whom!can!acquire!enlightenment! through!just!100!aeons!of!

preparatory!effort.!

Moreover,! it! is!called!great!compassion!because! [the!Buddha],! in!order! to!

cross! over! innumerable! difficult-to-guide ! (durvineya)! sentient! beings,! performs!

difficult!deeds!requiring!immense!effort:!Although!abiding!in!the!supremely!exalted!

position,! the!Buddha! transforms! himself! into! a! potter,!merchant,! a! strong!man,! a!hunter,!! .!Or,!he!journeys! in! the! five!planes!of!existence! together!with!&nanda,!

incessantly!days!and!nights!benefitting!sentient!beings.5!!

!

Elsewhere,!we!find!similar!descriptions.!It!is!stated!that!Great!Compassion!is!achieved!by!

the!Buddha!alone;! the!ordinary!worldlings,! the!'r"vaka-s!and! the!pratyekabuddha-s!can!

achieve!only!compassion.!Various!distinctions!are!made!between!compassion!and!great!

compassions:!For! instance,! the!former!can!exist! in! the!four!dhy"na-s;! the! latter,!only! in!

the! fourth!dhy"na.!The! former! is!subsumed!under! the! four! immeasurables! (apram"%a);!

the!latter!is!not!subsumable!under!them.!The!former!can!only!feel!pity,!but!not!capable!of!actually!saving!(beings!in!suffering);!the!latter!is!capable!of!both.6!The!Buddha,!by!virtue!


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of! this! Great! Compassion,! is! said! to! even! transform! himself! as! a! musician,! ! a!

prostitute,! a! beggar,! etc.! in! order! to! guide! sentient! beings.7!More! noteworthy! is! the!

emphasis! there! that! the! seed!of!Great!Compassion! can!be! said! to!have!been!planted!

only!when! [the!bodhisattva]!has!made! the! excellent!vow! (*vi'i(ta-pra%idh"na;!)!

[to!be! enlightened! for! the! sake! of! all! beings]8

!!which,! as!we!know,! is! a! distinctive!feature!of!the!Mah"y"na!bodhisattva!ideal.!!

In! his! A# History# of# Indian# Buddhism,! Akira! Hirakawa! cites! from! the!

Samayabhedoparaca%a-cakra*!the!Mah"s"'ghika!doctrine!that!bodhisattva-s!can!choose!

to!be!born!into!the!unfortunate!planes!of!existence!(durgati)!through!their!vows!in!order!

to! benefit! sentient! beings.9!He! asserts! that! this! position! is! close! to! the!Mah"y"na,! and!

differs!significantly!from! the!Sarv"stiv"din!position! that!birth! is!by!karma.10!But,!as!we!

have!seen!above,!the!MV%!already!clearly!mentions!this!Sarv"stiv"din!notion!in!the!case!

of!the!bodhisattva.!

!Another! equally! noteworthy! Mah"y"nistic! emphasis! is! the! requirement! of! the!

accomplishment!of!the!unique!Buddha-body:!

!

Moreover,!it!is!called!Great!Compassion!because!it!has!the!great!body!()!as!its!

support! basis.! This! is! unlike! the! case! of! the! enlightenment! of! the! sr"vaka-s! and!

pratyeka-buddha-s!which! can! arise! even!with! an! inferior!body.!Great!Compassion!

must!have!as!its!basis!for!arising!the!body!adorned!with!the!32!marks!of!a!Great!Man!

(mah"-puru(a),!with! the!body!and! limbs!embellished!with! the!80! secondary!marks!

radiating! a! halo! of! golden! colour! extending! a! fathom,11!the! sight! of! ! which! is!

insatiable.12!!!

The!MV%!in!fact!stipulates!that!a!practitioner!truly!qualifies!as!a!bodhisattva!only!when!

he! is! at! the! stage! of! creating! ((k$)! and! accumulating! (upa-(ci)! the! retributive! karma!

leading!to!the!accomplishments!of!the!marks!of!a!Great!Man.!For,!it!is!only!then!that!he!

is!determined!(niyata)!with!regard!to!bodhi!and!determined!with!regard!to!reaching!it.13!

This!accomplishment!of! the!Buddha-body!endowed!with! the!marks!also!seems! to!be!an!

aspect!underscored!by!early!Mah"y"na!with!respect!to!the!ideal!of!attaining!buddha-hood.!!

Thus!the!Ugraparip$cch"!teaches!that!when!a!bodhisattva!goes!to!the!Buddha!for!refuge,!

he!should!vow!thus:!I!must!accomplish!the!32!marks!of!the!Buddha-body,!so!as!to!adorn!myself.14!The! continuation!of! this!emphasis!can!be!discerned! in! the! further!Mah"y"na!

developmentespecially! in! the! Yog"c"ra! tradition,! via! the! doctrines! of! the!

transformation! of! the! basis! ("'raya-par"v$tti/-pariv$tti)! and! the! threefold! body!

(trik"ya)that! the! spiritual! transformation! of! the! practitioner! includes! that! of! the!

physical!aspect.!!

Probably!the!most!important!distinction!between!the!Buddha!and!the!two!y"na-s!concerns!

their!wisdom! (praj"):! The!Buddhas!wisdom! is! perfect!! it! knows! everything! both!

generically! and! in! all! its! particularities.! i.e.,! he! has! both! omniscience!

(sarvaj"/sarvajat")! and! wisdom! of! all! modes! (sarv"k"ra-j"na/-jat").! This! is!


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explained!as!owing!to!the!fact!that!the!Buddha!has!abandoned!all!defilements!as!well!as!

their! traces! (v"san"),!whereas! the! two!y"na-s!have! abandoned! all!defilements,! but! not!

their!traces.!Another!perspective!of!explanation! is:! the!Buddha!has!abandoned!all!forms!

of! nescience,! defiled! and! non-defiled! (akli()a-aj"na;!);! two!y"na-s,! only! the!

defiled.!The!following!are!some!of!the!passages!indicating!this!important!difference:!!

[1]!There!are!two!kinds!of!false!knowledge!(mithy"-j"na;!):!1.!defiled!(kli()a),!2.!

non-defiled! (akli()a).!The! defiled!one! is! associated!with!avidy",! the! non-defiled! one,!

such!as!that!which!generates!the!thought!of!a!man!with!regard!to!a!bare!tree,!is!not.!

!

As! for! the! defiled! one,! both! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the!pratyekabuddha-s! can! completely!

abandon! it,!as!well!as! render! it! incapable!of!manifesting! (sam-ud-"-(car).!As! for! the!

non-defiled! one,! though! it! can! be! completely! abandoned! by! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the!

pratyeka-buddha-s,!it!can!still!manifest!in!them.!It!is!only!in!the!case!of!the!Tath"gata!

that! it! absolutely!does!not!manifest! any!more,! as!he!has!permanently! abandoned! the!defilements!as!well!as!their!traces.!It!is!for!this!reason!that!he!alone!is!called!a!perfectly!

enlightened! buddha.! The! defiled! false! knowledge! is! a! false! knowledge! from! the!

absolute! standpoint.!The! non-defiled! false! knowledge! is! a# false! knowledge! from! the!

conventional!standpoint,!not!from!the!absolute!standpoint,!since!it!is!not!associated!with!

the!false!dharma-s!of!defilement.15!!

!

[2]!The!wisdom! fire!of! the! 'r"vaka-s! and!pratyeka-buddha-s! is!not! fierce.! [With! it],!

though! the! defilements! are! abandoned,! their! traces! remain.! It! is! like! the! case! of!

ordinary!fire!in!the!world:!Though!it!can!consume!a!thing,!it!leaves!behind!ashes.!The!

Buddhas!wisdom! is! fierce;! it! consumes! the! defilements!without! leaving! behind! any!trace,!like!the!fire!at!the!end!of!an!aeon!(kalpa)!which!consumes!everything!on!its!way!

leaving!no!ash!behind.16!!

!

[3]!Q:!...!All!the!non-trainee!(a'aik(a;!i.e.!arhat)!of!the!three!y"na-s!have#the!faculty!of!

full!knolwedge!("j"t"v*ndriya),!why!is!it!that!the!Bhagavat!alone!is!called!buddha?!

!

A:! Because! he! can! attain! enlightenment! for! the! first! time,! because! he! can! be!

enlightened!with!regard!to!the!universal,!and!because!he!can!be!enlightened!with!regard!

to!the!particular,!he!is!called!a!buddha.!Because!the!'r"vaka!and!the!pratyeka-buddha!

cannot!attain!enlightenment!for!the!first!time,!because!they!cannot!be!enlightened!with!regard! to! the! universal,! and! because! they! cannot! be! enlightened!with! regard! to! the!

particular,!they!are!not!called!!buddha-s.!

!

Some!say:!With! regard! to! the!object!of!knowledge! (jeya),!he!who! is!enlightened!by!

himself,! enlightened! to! the! universal,! and! enlightened!without! any! error,! is! called! a!

Buddha.!Although!a!pratyeka-buddha!can!be!enlightened!by!himself,!he!does!not!have!

the!other!two!kinds!of!enlightenment;!a#'r"vaka#has!none![of!the!three].!Hence!they!are!

not!called!buddha-s.!

!

Some! say:! With! regard! to! the! conditions! (pratyaya),! he! who! is! enlightened!spontaneously,!and!enlightened! in!all!manners! (sarva-prak"re%a),! is!called!a!buddha.!


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Although!a!pratyekabuddha! is!spontaneously!enlightened,!he! is!not!enlightened! in!all!

manners;!a! 'r"vaka!has!none!of! the! two! forms!of!enlightenment.!Hence! they!are!not!

called!buddha-s.!!

!

...!Some!say:!He!who!has!absolutely!overcome!all!irrational!traces,!is!called!a!buddha.!

The!two!y"na-s!have!not!done!so.!!

Some! say:!He!who! can! go! to! the! the! very! bottom! of! the! profoundly! deep! river! of!

conditioned!co-arising!(prat*tya-samutp"da)!is!called!a!buddha.!The!two!y"na-s!cannot!

do! so.! Thus! the! s!tra! gives! the! simile! of! three! animalsa! hare,! a! horse,! and! an!

elephant!crossing!a!river:!A!hare!swims!across!on!the!surface!only.!A!horse!swims!

across!at!times!on!the!surface,!at!times!touching!the!bottom.!An!elephant!crosses!over!

always!by!walking!on! the!rivers!bottom! .!The!ways!the!'r"vaka,!the!pratyekabuddha!

and!the!Buddha!cross!over!the!river!of!coditioned!co-arising!is!likewise!respectively.!

!

Some!say:!He!who!has!abandoned!both!kinds!of!non-cognizance/nescience!(aj"na)!!!defiled!and!non-defiled!! is!called!a!buddha.!The! 'r"vaka!and! the!pratyeka-buddha!

can!only!abandon! the!defiled!one,!not! the!non-defiled!one;!hence! they!are!not!called!

buddhas.!17!!

!

On! the! Buddhas! unique! omniscience,! we! may! compare! the! above! Abhidharma!

conception! in! the! MV%! to! that! expounded! in! the! Twenty-five-thousand# Perfection# of#

Wisdom!S!tra!(Pacavi&'ati-s"hasrik"#Praj"p"ramit";!included!in!),!

an!early!Mah"y"na!text:!

!Subh)ti:! But! how! is! it! that! the! Bhagavat! has! spoken! of! the! all-mode! knowledge!

(sarv"k"ra-jat"),! the!path-mode!knowledge!(m"rg"k"ra-jat"),18!as!well!as! the!all-

knowledge! (sarva-jat";! omniscience).!What! is! the! distinction! among! these! three!

types!of!all-knowledge?!

!

Bhagavat:! The! all-mode! knowledge,! Subh)ti,! belongs! to! the! Tath"gata,! Arhat,!

Samyak-sa&buddha.!The! path-mode! knowledge! belongs! to! the!bodhisattva-s,! great!

beings.!The!all-knowledge,!Subh)ti,!belongs!to!all!'r"vaka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s.!

........................!

!Bhagavat:!Subh)ti,!as!many!as!there!are!modes!("k"ra),!marks!(li+ga),!signs!!(nimitta)!

by!which! the!dharma-s!are! indicated,! those!modes,! those!marks!and! those!signs!are!

awakened!into!by!the!Tath"gata.!Therefore!it!is!called!the!all-mode!knowledge!of!the!

Tath"gata,!Samyak-sa&buddha.!...19!

!

Subh)ti:!For!what!reason,!Bhagavat,!does!all-knowledge !belong!to!all!'r"vaka-s!and!

pratyekabuddha-s?!

!

Bhagavat:! All! that! there! isinternal! and! external! dharma-sis! known! by! all!

'r"vaka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s;!but!not!in!respect!of!all-paths!or!all-modes.!


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(Xuan!Zangs!tr:!The!different!dharma-pary"ya-sfive!skandha-s,!twelve!"yatana-s,!

eighteen!dh"tu-s,!etc.can!also!be!discerned!by!all!'r"vaka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s.!

But!they!cannot!know!all!the!path-modes!and!all!the!modes!of!all!dharma-s.!...)!

.........!

!

Subh)ti:!But!that!which!is!all-mode!knowledge,!that!which!is!path-mode!knowledge,!and!that!which!is!all-knowledge !!is!there!a!difference!in!terms!of!the!abandonment!

of!defilements!among!these!three!all-knowledges? !

!

Bhagavat:!Subh)ti,!there!is!no!difference!in!terms!of!the!abandonment!of!defilements!

[pertaining!to!the!three!types!of!all-knowledge].!However,!for!the!Tath"gata,!there!is!

the!abandonment!of!defilements!along!with! the!continuity!of!all! their! traces!(sarva-

v"san"nusa&dhi-kle'aprah"%a).! But,! for! the! 'r"vaka,! there! is! no! [such! thorough]!

abandonment!of!defilements!along!with!the!continuity!of!all!their!traces.!!

.........!

!Subh)ti,! ...! there! is! the!abandonment!of!greed,!hatred!and! ignorance!on! the!part!of!

those!['rav"ka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s];!but![their!traces!still!remain!so!that!certain]!

bodily!and!vocal!perturbations!arise.!These!lead!to!non-beneficial![consequences]!in!

the!case!of!the!childish!worldlings,!but!not!in!the!case!of!the!'r"vaka-s.!They!do!not!

exist!in!the!Tath"gata.!

(Xuan!Zangs! tr.:!Subh)ti,! the!continuity!of! the! traces! is!not!defilement.!However,!

although! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the!pratyekabuddha-s! have! abandoned! the! defilements; !

there!still!exist!some!semblance!of!greed,!hatred!and!ignorance!which!propel![certain]!

bodily!acts!and!words.!This!is!what!has!been!called!the!continuity!of!the!traces.!...!All!

such!continuities!of!traces!are!absolutely!absent!in!the!Buddhas,!the!Bhagavats.)20

!!!!!From! these! passages,!we! learn! that:! (1)!whereas! all! the! three!y"na-s! are! said! to! have!

obtained! omniscience/all-knowledge,! the! omniscience! of! the! Buddha! is! unique! and!

supreme,! described! as! the! all-mode! knowledge.! As! far! as! the! abandonment! of!

defilements!is!concerned,!all!three!y"na-s!have!fully!accomplished!it.!But!it!is!a!perfectly!

enlightened! buddha! alone! who! has! eradicated! the! continuity! of! the! v"san"-s! of!

defilements!besides!having! fully!abandoned! the!defilements.!These!v"san"-s!are!not!of!

the!nature!defilement.!They!induce!certain!physical!or!vocal!actions!in!the!'r"vaka-s!and!

pratyekabuddha-s;!but!without!thereby!defiling!them.!It!is!on!their!account!that!these!two!

y"na-s! are! unable! to! achieve! the! same! perfection! of!wisdom! as! the! buddha-s.! Such! a!

doctrine! can!be! traced! to! the!MV%!which,! as!we!have! above,! also! links! it!up!with! the!

notion! of! the! non-defiled! nescience.21!Sa'ghabhadra! states! that! according! to! all! his!

&bhidharmika! teachers,! a! practitioner! trains! to! sublimate! his! faculties!

(indriyott"pana!!see!below)!for!the!sole!purpose!of!eradicating!the!manifestation!of!the!

non-defined! non-defiled! nescience! (!"!#!$ ;! aniv$tam# avy"k$tam# aj"nam)!

induced! by! virtue! of! the! defilements! to! be! abandoned! through! insight! and! cultivation!

(dar'ana-bh"van"-heya).22!

!!The!progressive!attainment!of!the!three!types!of!enlightenment!(bodhi)!!


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The!teachings!of!the!MV%!is!that!a!practitioner!can!attain!any!of!the!three!types!of!bodhi!

corresponding!to!the!three!y"na-s.!This!essentially!depends!on!his!capacity!!the!relative!

strength!of! the! faculty!of!understanding! (praj")! that!he! is! capable!of!developing.!The!

&bhidharmika!doctrine,!attested!already!in!the!K"ty"yan$putras!J"naprasth"na,23!of!the!

elevation! or! sublimation! of! the! faculties! (indriyott"pana)! affirms! the! possibility! of! a!

practitioner!upgrading!his!faculties!through!effort!right!up!to!those!of!the!highest!grade!

of!arhat-ship,!the!immovable!type!(akopya-dharman).24!!!

The! ordinary!worldlings! (p$thagjana)! before! achieving! any! spiritual! fruition! are!

classified! at! the! stage! of! preparatory! effort! (prayoga)25!into! three! distinctive! types! or!

families!(gotra):!the!family!of!'r"vaka,! the! !family!of!pratyeka-buddha,!the!family!

of!buddha.!In!the!first!part!of!the!preparatory!part!known!as!the!emancipation-part,!or!

the!part!conducing!to!emancipation!(mok(a-bh"g*ya),!it!is!possible!for!the!practitioner!

to!be!progressively!transformed!from!a!lower!family!to!a!higher!one:!!

![He! can]! transform! the! 'r"vaka-family! emancipation-part, ! and! generate! the!pratyekabuddha-! or! buddha-family! emancipation-part; ! transform! the!

pratyekabuddha-family! emancipation-part ! and! generate! the! 'r"vaka-! or! buddha-

family! emancipation-part. ! If! he! generates! the! buddha-family! emancipation-part, !

there!will!be!no!transformation, !since!it!is!the!strongest.26!

!

Note,! in!particular,! that! (i)! although! in! terms!of! the! stated! sequence!of! transformation,!

there! is! implied! some! sort!of! superiority!of! the!pratyekabuddha-type!over! the! 'r"vaka-

type,! a! practitioner! can! transform! from! one! into! the! other!! either!way.!There! is! no!

explicit! suggestion! of! one! type! being!more! desirable! than! the! other.! (ii)!On! the! other!hand,!the!buddha-type!is!explicitly!stated!to!be!the!strongest!and!highest;!a!buddha-type!

is!not!transformed!into!a!'r"vaka-!or!pratyekabuddha-type.!!

!

The!following!passage!clarifies!that!through!the!same!spiritual!practicein!this!case,!the!

fourfold!abodes!of!mindfulness!(sm$ty-upasth"na)different!practitioners!with!different!

strengths!of!insight!attain!different!types!of!bodhi:!!

!...! Sentient! beings! practise! these! two! types! of!meditation! as! the! true! gateway! into!

Immortality! (i.e.! Nirv"%a)! of! the! Buddha-dharma:! 1.,! the! contemplation ! of! the!

loathsome! (a'ubh"),! 2.,! mindfulness! of! breathing! ("n"p"na-sm$ti).! The! first!contemplates! on! derived! matter! (up"d"ya-r!pa);! the! second,! the! Great! Elements!

(mah"-bh!ta).!!

According! to! some:! if! one! contemplates! on! the!Great! Elements! and! derived!

matter,!one!can,! in!a! successive!manner,! realize! the! three! types!of!bodhi:!buddha-,!

pratyekabuddha-! and! 'r"vaka-bodhi.! That! is:! if! one! contemplates! on! them!with! a!

strong-grade! knowledge! (insight),! one! generates! a! strong-grade !mindfulness! of! the!

body! (k"ya-sm$tyupasth"na).! From! this,! one! next! generates! a! strong-grade!

mindfulness!of! sensation! (vedan"-sm$yupasth"na);!next,!of! thought! (citta);!next,!of!

dharma-s;!next,!of!mixed!cognitive!objects;!...;!next,!the!path!of!vision,!up!to!the!path!

of! the!non-trainee!!all!with!a!strong-grade! [insight].!At! that! time,!one! is!called!a!True!Man!(satpuru(a)!of!the!strong!grade,!realizing!as!one!does,!the!Supreme,!Perfect!


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Enlightenment. ! If!one!contemplates!on! them!with!a!medium-grade!knowledge,!one!

generates!a!medium-grade!mindfulness!of! the!body,!etc.,! ...! !path!of! the!non-trainee!

!all!with!a!medium-grade![insight].!At! that! time,!one! is!called!a!True!Man!of! the!

medium!grade,!realizing!as!one!does!the!pratyekabuddha-bodhi,!of!a!medium!grade.!

If!one!contemplates!on!them!with!a!weak-(/inferior)grade !knowledge,!one!generates!a!

weak-grade!mindfulness!of! the!body,!etc.,! ...! !path!of! the!non-trainee!!all!with!a!weak-grade! [insight].!At! that! time,! one! is! called! a! True!Man! of! the!weak! grade,!

realizing!as!one!does!the!'r"vaka-bodhi,!of!a!weak!grade.27!!

Summary and discussion

In! the! emerging!Mah"y"na,! Mah"y"na! is!definable! as! the! bodhisattva-y"na.!There!

are! thus! three!y"na-s:!'r"vaka-,!pratyeka-buddha-!and!bodhissatva-y"na.!This! threefold!

division!had!clearly!been!inspired!by!the!doctrine!of!the!three!vehicles!or!three!bodhi

'r"vaka-,!pratyeka-buddha-!and!buddha-bodhi(/samyak-sa&bodhideveloped!in!the!pre-

Mah"y"na!schools.!!!

Within!the!Sarv"stiv"da!Abhidharma!tradition,!we!saw!that!the!contrast!between!the!two!

y"na-s!on!the!one!hand!and!the!Buddha!on!the!other,!has!been!well!developed!around!the!

Common!Era!(i.e.!around!the!time!of!emergence!of!the!Mah"y"na).!It!is!taught!that!there!

are! three!types!of!bodhi,!corresponding! to! the!three!y"na-s.!A!practitioner,!according! to!

his!strength!of! insight!and! temperament,!can!attain!any!of! the! three.!At! the!preparatory!

stage!before!entry! into! the!path!of!vision!(dar'ana-m"rga),!a!'r"vaka-family! type!and!a!

pratyekabuddha-family! type!can!be! transformed! into!each!other,!as!well!as!promoted! to!

be!a!buddha-family! type.!Moreover,!with! regard! to!one!and! the! same! spiritual!practice!(e.g.,! the!a'ubh"),!different!practitioners!with!different!strength!of! insight!can!attain!the!

enlightenment!of!a!buddha,!or!a!pratyekabuddha,!or!a!'r"vaka.!

!

In!brief,!in!the!MV%,!two!major!differences!stand!out!between!the!Buddha!(a!buddha)!on!

the!one!hand,!and!the!two-y"na!on!the!other:!!

(1)! the!Buddha! alone! is!perfect! in!wisdom!! this! is! explained! as! a!perfection!

acquired! by! virtue! of! his! having! overcome! the! two-fold! nescience,! defiled! and! non-

defiled,!and!as!having!abandoned!all!defilements!together!with!their!traces.!In!the!MV%,!

the!difference! is!also!articulated! in! terms!of! the!doctrine!of! the! twofold!hindrance:!The!Buddha! alone! has! overcome! both! the! hindrance! of! defilement! (kle'a-"vara%a)! and! of!

knowable! (jeya-"vara%a).28!! This! twofold! hindrance! in! fact! constitutes! an! important!

early!Mah"y"na!doctrine.!!

(2)!The!Buddha! alone! has!Great!Compassion,!which,! in! its! intrinsic! nature,! is!

knowledge! (j"na)! ! which,! in! Sarv"stv"da,! is! praj".! It! is! argued! that! Great!

Compassion!!is!none!other!than!knowledge!or!wisdom;!for,!a!doctor!can!save!a!patient!by!

curing!him!only!when!he!possesses!the!true!knowledge!of!the!required!medicine.!This!is!

comparable!to! the!Mah"y"na!doctrine!that!wisdom!and!(great)!compassion!are!one,!and!

that! true!skill! in!means! (up"ya-kau'alya)! issues!necessarily! from!praj"-p"ramit".!The!

Buddha!is!said!to!acquire!Great!Compassion!through!a!very!long!period!of!the!practice!of!


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the! perfections! (p"ramit"),! and! through! strong! vows,! and!when! the! unique!Buddha-

bodyendowed!with! all! the! 32! marksis! acquired.! The! emphasis! on! vows! and! the!

generation!of!the!thought!of!bodhi!(bodhicittotp"da)!as!important!parts!of!the!bodhisattva!

career! is!particularly!noteworthy.!Equally!noteworthy! is! the! assertion! that!by!virtue!of!

this! Great! Compassion,! a! buddha! gives! up! his! great! Dharma-bliss! and! undergoes!

hardship,! entering! voluntarily! into! the! different! planes! of! existence! and! transforming!

himself!in!various!forms,!in!order!to!benefit!and!skillfully!guide!sentient!beings.!!

All! this,! as! is! well! known,! in! fact! constitutes! the! essential! elements! of! early!

Mah"y"na!doctrines.!!

!

!

1!Reginald!Ray,!Buddhist#Saints# in#India:#A#Study# in#Buddhist#Values#and#Orientations#(New!York,! 1994),!407.!!2!For! a! detailed! discussion! on! the!Inquiry#of#Ugra,! see! Jan!Nattier,!The#Bodhisattva#Path##based#on# the#

Ugraparip$cch",#a#Mah"y"na#S!tra.!(Delhi,!2007).!3!Elsewhere!(MV%,428a),!great!compassion!is!also!described!as!having!the!non-delusion!(amoha)!as!its!intrinsic!nature.!4!Cf.!P.!Pradhan!(ed.)!Abhidharmako'abh"(yam#of#Vasubandhu,!1:!sa&s"ro#hi#jagad"sa+gasth"natv"d#duruttaratv"c#ca#pa+kabh!ta,#|#tatr"vamagnajagad#atr"%am#anukampam"no#bhagav"n#saddharmade'an"-hasta-prad"nair#yath"bhavyam#abhyuddh$tav"n#iti#|!5!MV%,159b160a.!See!also!MV%,!428ab.!6!MV%,!428a.!7!MV%,!428c.!8!MV%,!428b.!9!"#$%&!T49,!no.!2031,!15c:!'()*+,-./0123/45678!10!Akira!Hirakawa,!%&'(9:!(Tokyo,!1979)!vol.!I,!332.!English!tr.!by!Paul!Groner,!A#History#of#Indian#Buddhism:#From#-"kyamuni#to#Early#Mah"y"na!(New!Delhi,!1993),!262.!11!;!vy"ma;!said!to!be!about!7!feet.!12!MV%,!428c.!13!MV%,!886c887a.!14!E.g.,!T11,!no.!310,!472c:!)*+,-./012?!345612789:;,!?@ABCD,!E89:FG;,!HEBI,!JKLM@NO!!PQ+,-.,!/012@!15!MV%,!42b.!16!MV%,!77c.!17!MV%,!735bc.!18!In!the!discussion!below,!we!shall!not!be!concerned!with!this!form!of!sarvajat"!which!is!confined!to!the!bodhisattva-s.!19 !In! Xuan! Zangs! tr.,! this! comes! just! after! the! explanation! on! the! sarvajat"! of! the! 'r"vaka-s! and!pratyekabuddha-s.!See!Chinese!in!the!following!note.!

20 !Pacavi&'ati-s"hasrik"praj"p"ramit",! Vol! V,! 125! f:! bhagav"n# "ha! |# sarv"k"rajat"# subh!te#tath"gatasy"rhata,# samyaksa&buddhasya# |#m"rgajat"# subh!te#bodhisattv"n"mah"sattv"n" sarvajat"#subh!te#sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddh"n"m#|#

subh!tir#"ha#|#kena#k"ra%ena#bhagavan#sarv"k"rajat"#tath"gatasy"rhata,#samyaksa&buddhasya!|!

bhagav"n#"ha# |#y"vanta,#subh!te#"k"r"#li+g"ni#nimitt"ni#yair#"k"rair#yair#li+gair#yair#nimittais#te#dharm",#s!cyante# |# te# "k"r"s# t"ni# li+g"ni# t"ni# nimitt"ni# tath"gaten"nub(u)ddh"ni! |# tenocyate# tath"gatasy"rhata,#samyaksa&buddhasya#sarv"k"rajat"#|#...#

......#

subh!tir#"ha#|#kena#k"ra%ena#bhagavan#sarvajat"#sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddh"n"m#|#

bhagav"n# "ha# |# et"vad# eva# subh!te# sarva y"vad# ev"dhy"tmik"'# ca# b"hy"'# ca# dharm"s# te# ca#sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddhair#j"t"#|#na#puna,#sarvam"rge%a#sarv"k"re%a#|#...##

......#


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!o@21!See!also,!KL!Dhammajoti,!The!Defects!in!the!Arhats!Enlightenment!!His!akli()a-aj"na!and!v"san".!In:!Bukky.#Kenky!!(Buddhist#Studies),!Vol.!XXVII!(1998),!65!ff.!22!Ny"y"nus"ra*,!T29,!723a:!3S,!fDH,!!"!#!$cK.!23!E.g.,!T26,!999a.!24!Sa'ghabhadra!(T29,!723c)!explains!this!doctrine!of!indriyott"ona:!

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Abhidharma to Mahāyāna (R2)