Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach Chapter 5 Gender Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett

Adolescence and Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Emerging Adulthood: A

Cultural ApproachCultural ApproachChapter 5 Chapter 5

GenderGender

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.


Clarifying the DifferenceClarifying the Difference

GenderGender• Refers to the social categories of male Refers to the social categories of male

and femaleand female

SexSex• Refers to the biological status of being Refers to the biological status of being

male or femalemale or female


Traditional CulturesTraditional Cultures From Girl to WomanFrom Girl to Woman

• Girls typically Girls typically work alongside their motherswork alongside their mothers from an early agefrom an early age

• Girls typically maintain a Girls typically maintain a close relationshipclose relationship with their with their mothersmothers

• During adolescent the ‘During adolescent the ‘world contracts for girls’world contracts for girls’ • Girls endure Girls endure new restrictionsnew restrictions observed for women observed for women

• Girls have Girls have narrower socializationnarrower socialization at adolescence at adolescence because of their budding sexuality is more likely to because of their budding sexuality is more likely to be tightly restrictedbe tightly restricted


Traditional CulturesTraditional Cultures

From Boy to ManFrom Boy to Man

• Boys typically have Boys typically have less contactless contact with their families and with their families and more contact with peersmore contact with peers

• During adolescent the ‘During adolescent the ‘world expands for boys’world expands for boys’

• Boys enjoy Boys enjoy new privilegesnew privileges reserved for men reserved for men

• For boys, For boys, manhoodmanhood is something that has to be is something that has to be achievedachieved


‘‘Achieving’ Achieving’ ManhoodManhood For boys the attainment of manhood is often For boys the attainment of manhood is often fraught with fraught with

perilperil and carries a definite and formidable possibility of and carries a definite and formidable possibility of failurefailure

In most cultures an adolescent boy must demonstrate In most cultures an adolescent boy must demonstrate three capacities before he is considered a manthree capacities before he is considered a man

1.1. ProvideProvide• Skills that are economically usefulSkills that are economically useful

2.2. ProtectProtect• Show he can contribute to protecting his familyShow he can contribute to protecting his family

3.3. ProcreateProcreate• He must gain some degree of sexual experience He must gain some degree of sexual experience

before marriagebefore marriage


Gender in American HistoryGender in American History

I was discouraged from pursuing a profession because it was considered “unhealthy” for women

This view was connected to beliefs about menstruation – specifically that intellectual work would draw a woman’s energy toward her brain and away from her ovaries … thus disrupting her menstrual cycle and endangering her health


Girls in American HistoryGirls in American History

Four areas where the lives of Four areas where the lives of adolescent girls were narrowly adolescent girls were narrowly constricted:constricted:

1.1. Occupational ChoiceOccupational Choice

2.2. Intellectual WorkIntellectual Work

3.3. SexualitySexuality

4.4. Physical AppearancePhysical Appearance


Three Manhood TransformationsThree Manhood Transformations (Rotundo, 1993)(Rotundo, 1993)

1.1. Communal Manhood (17Communal Manhood (17thth and 18 and 18thth centuries) centuries) The focus on gender expectations for adolescent boys The focus on gender expectations for adolescent boys

was on preparing to assume adult role responsibilities was on preparing to assume adult role responsibilities in work and marriagein work and marriage

2.2. Self-Made Manhood (19Self-Made Manhood (19thth century) century) Males were increasingly expected to become Males were increasingly expected to become

independent from their families in adolescence and independent from their families in adolescence and emerging adulthoodemerging adulthood

3.3. Passionate Manhood (20Passionate Manhood (20thth century) century) Passionate emotions such as anger and sexual desire Passionate emotions such as anger and sexual desire

became regarded more favorably as part of the became regarded more favorably as part of the manhood idealmanhood ideal

Self-expression and self-enjoyment replaced self-Self-expression and self-enjoyment replaced self-control and self-denial as the paramount virtuescontrol and self-denial as the paramount virtues


““Gender Intensification Hypothesis”Gender Intensification Hypothesis”

Psychological and behavioural difference between Psychological and behavioural difference between males and females become more pronounced at males and females become more pronounced at adolescence because of the intensified adolescence because of the intensified socialization pressures to conform to culturally socialization pressures to conform to culturally prescribed rolesprescribed roles

Gender intensification occurs especially for Gender intensification occurs especially for adolescents who are exposed to socialization adolescents who are exposed to socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender rolespressures to conform to traditional gender roles

How did your answer compare?


Family, Peers and SchoolFamily, Peers and School Differential Gender SocializationDifferential Gender Socialization

• Socializing boys and girls according to different expectationsSocializing boys and girls according to different expectations

• Creates an understanding of ‘appropriate’ behaviours for Creates an understanding of ‘appropriate’ behaviours for males and femalesmales and females

• Differential socialization most often results from how parents Differential socialization most often results from how parents and teachers were socializedand teachers were socialized

• Reflects a culture’s beliefs about genderReflects a culture’s beliefs about gender

• Parents and teachers may do this without even thinking Parents and teachers may do this without even thinking consciously about what they are doingconsciously about what they are doing

One study found that 90% of all infants observed at an American shopping mall were wearing clothing

that was gender specific in color or style


Magazines … a special issueMagazines … a special issue

This media forms the most obvious This media forms the most obvious focus on gender socialization focus on gender socialization especially for adolescent girlsespecially for adolescent girls

Physical appearance is stressed as Physical appearance is stressed as being of ultimate importancebeing of ultimate importance

There is also an intense focus on how There is also an intense focus on how to be appealing to boysto be appealing to boys


Cognition and GenderCognition and GenderKolhberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of GenderKolhberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender

Gender is a fundamental way of organizing ideas Gender is a fundamental way of organizing ideas about the worldabout the world

Age 3Understand

themselves as being either

male or female

Age 4 or 5Identify things as appropriate

for either males or females

Age 6 to 10Perceptions of

gender become less

rigid

Age 12 to 16Perceptions of

gender become more rigid – gender intensification

As adolescents become more capable of reflecting on these issues they become more concerned with compliance to gender norms

for themselves and other.


Masculinity, Femininity, and AndrogynyMasculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny

The Bem Sex Role InventoryThe Bem Sex Role Inventory

• Describes Describes traitstraits regarded by most members of the regarded by most members of the American majority culture as being American majority culture as being masculine or masculine or femininefeminine

• Most widely used measure of Most widely used measure of gender role perceptiongender role perception

• A cross-national study of young people in A cross-national study of young people in 30 countries30 countries found found similar gender role perceptionssimilar gender role perceptions with remarkable with remarkable consistencyconsistency


Bem Sex Role InventoryBem Sex Role Inventory… the answers!… the answers!

1.1. Self-Reliant – Self-Reliant – MasculineMasculine

2.2. Compassionate – Compassionate – FeminineFeminine

3.3. Shy – Shy – FeminineFeminine

4.4. Analytical – Analytical – MasculineMasculine

5.5. Dominant – Dominant – MasculineMasculine

6.6. Ambitious – Ambitious – MasculineMasculine

7.7. Loyal – Loyal – FeminineFeminine

8.8. Understanding – Understanding – FeminineFeminine

9.9. Assertive – Assertive – MasculineMasculine

10.10. Cheerful – Cheerful – FeminineFeminine

11.11. Affectionate – Affectionate – FeminineFeminine

12.12. Independent – Independent – MasculineMasculine

13.13. Aggressive – Aggressive – MasculineMasculine

14.14. Sympathetic – Sympathetic – FeminineFeminine

15.15. Athletic – Athletic – MasculineMasculine

16.16. Child-Like – Child-Like – FeminineFeminine

17.17. Tender – Tender – FeminineFeminine

18.18. Individualistic – Individualistic – MasculineMasculine

19.19. Competitive – Competitive – MasculineMasculine

20.20. Gullible – Gullible – FeminineFeminine


AndrogynyAndrogyny The term used for the The term used for the combination of masculine and femininecombination of masculine and feminine

traits in one persontraits in one person

Advocates of androgyny have argued that being androgynous is Advocates of androgyny have argued that being androgynous is better than being either masculine or feminine because an better than being either masculine or feminine because an androgynous person has a androgynous person has a greater repertoire of traitsgreater repertoire of traits to draw on to draw on in their daily livesin their daily lives

Advocates point to research that show androgynous children are Advocates point to research that show androgynous children are more flexible and creativemore flexible and creative than other children (Hemmer and than other children (Hemmer and Klieber, 1981)Klieber, 1981)

Androgynous women are Androgynous women are better at saying “no”better at saying “no” to unreasonable to unreasonable requests (Kelly et al., 1981)requests (Kelly et al., 1981)

But what about adolescents? Is androgyny best for themBut what about adolescents? Is androgyny best for them??


Gender Roles in Gender Roles in American Minority GroupsAmerican Minority Groups

African American WomenAfrican American Women• Female role contains a variety of Female role contains a variety of

characteristics that reflect the difficult characteristics that reflect the difficult challenge that Black women have faced challenge that Black women have faced historically which includehistorically which include

self-relianceself-reliance assertivenessassertiveness perseveranceperseverance

• Black adolescent girls tend to have higher self-Black adolescent girls tend to have higher self-esteem and are less concerned with physical esteem and are less concerned with physical appearance than White girlsappearance than White girls



African American MenAfrican American Men• Black men have been frequently subjected to insults to Black men have been frequently subjected to insults to

their manhood, from their status as property during their manhood, from their status as property during slavery to being denigrated as “boys” not matter what slavery to being denigrated as “boys” not matter what their age (in some parts of the United States)their age (in some parts of the United States)

• Economic conditions in many American cities make it Economic conditions in many American cities make it difficult for Black men to fill the traditional “provider” difficult for Black men to fill the traditional “provider” aspect of the male roleaspect of the male role

• As a consequence of these humiliations, according to As a consequence of these humiliations, according to some scholars, many young Black men adopt extreme some scholars, many young Black men adopt extreme characteristics of the male role in order to declare their characteristics of the male role in order to declare their masculinity in spite of the discrimination they masculinity in spite of the discrimination they experienceexperience



Latino WomenLatino Women• Gender roles have been highly traditional until Gender roles have been highly traditional until

recently, much along the lines of the traditional recently, much along the lines of the traditional cultureculture

• The role of women was concentrated on caring The role of women was concentrated on caring for children, taking care of the home and for children, taking care of the home and providing emotional support for the husbandproviding emotional support for the husband

• Woman have been taught to emulate the Woman have been taught to emulate the Virgin Mary by being submissive and self-Virgin Mary by being submissive and self-denyingdenying



Latino MenLatino Men• The role of men has been guided by the The role of men has been guided by the

ideology of ideology of machismomachismo which emphasizes males’ which emphasizes males’ dominance over femalesdominance over females

• Men are expected to be the undisputed head of Men are expected to be the undisputed head of the household and to demand respect and the household and to demand respect and obedience from their wives and childrenobedience from their wives and children

• The traditional aspects of manhood are strong The traditional aspects of manhood are strong among Latinos to provide for a family, protect among Latinos to provide for a family, protect the family from harm and procreate a large the family from harm and procreate a large familyfamily


Gender Stereotypes in Gender Stereotypes in Emerging AdulthoodEmerging Adulthood

StereotypeStereotype• Occurs when people believe others possess Occurs when people believe others possess

certain characteristics simply as a result of certain characteristics simply as a result of being a member of a particular groupbeing a member of a particular group

Gender StereotypesGender Stereotypes• Attributing certain characteristics to others Attributing certain characteristics to others

simply on the basis of whether they are male simply on the basis of whether they are male or femaleor female

Example: Truck are “male”Example: Truck are “male” Example: Shopping are “female”Example: Shopping are “female”


Persistence of Beliefs about Persistence of Beliefs about Gender DifferencesGender Differences

Even when there is a statistically significant Even when there is a statistically significant difference between males and females, for most difference between males and females, for most characteristics there is nevertheless more characteristics there is nevertheless more similarity than difference between genderssimilarity than difference between genders

Most human characteristics fall into a NORMAL Most human characteristics fall into a NORMAL DISTRIBUTION where a small proportion of people DISTRIBUTION where a small proportion of people rate much higher; a small proportion rate much rate much higher; a small proportion rate much lower; but most people fall somewhere in the lower; but most people fall somewhere in the middlemiddle

Take a look at the next slide to see how this works !


The Bell CurveThe Bell Curvelooking at math and genderlooking at math and gender

Even when gender difference exist between males and femalesthe portion of the two bell curves that overlap is much

greater than the portion that is distinctive to either gender


Persistence of Gender DifferencesPersistence of Gender Differences

1.1. Gender schemas tend to shape the way we Gender schemas tend to shape the way we notice, interpret and remember information notice, interpret and remember information according to our expectations about gendersaccording to our expectations about genders

2.2. Social roles for males and females enhance or Social roles for males and females enhance or suppress different capabilities (social roles suppress different capabilities (social roles theory)theory)

3.3. Differential gender socialization leads males and Differential gender socialization leads males and females to develop different skills and attitudes females to develop different skills and attitudes which leads to different behaviours – the which leads to different behaviours – the differences in behavior seem to confirm the differences in behavior seem to confirm the appropriateness of the different rolesappropriateness of the different roles


Gender and GlobalizationGender and Globalization Adolescent girls today have opportunities that Adolescent girls today have opportunities that

were unknown to women in previous eras of were unknown to women in previous eras of Western historyWestern history

The proportion of females in fields such as The proportion of females in fields such as medicine, business and law are considerably medicine, business and law are considerably higher than 20 years agohigher than 20 years ago

However, women tend to earn less money than However, women tend to earn less money than men even when they are doing similar workmen even when they are doing similar work

Gender equality still has a long way to go!Gender equality still has a long way to go!


Gender and GlobalizationGender and Globalization In countries outside the West, adolescent girls have much In countries outside the West, adolescent girls have much

less in the way of educational and occupational less in the way of educational and occupational opportunitiesopportunities

In most developing countries adolescent girls are In most developing countries adolescent girls are considerably less likely than boys to go to a secondary considerably less likely than boys to go to a secondary schoolschool

As traditional cultures proceed toward economic As traditional cultures proceed toward economic development, they may offer more opportunities for girlsdevelopment, they may offer more opportunities for girls

As economies become more developed and complex, brain As economies become more developed and complex, brain matters more than brawn and men’s physical advantage matters more than brawn and men’s physical advantage ceases to matter in work – women may have more ceases to matter in work – women may have more opportunity for different gender rolesopportunity for different gender roles

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Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach Chapter 5 Gender Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett