Alca torda -- Linnaeus, 1758ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- CHARADRIIFORMES -- ALCIDAECommon names: Razorbill; Petit Pingouin

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

NT -- Near Threatened, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Tarzia, M., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

This auk began undergoing rapid declines in parts of its European breeding range during the 2000s, primarily in Iceland, which holds at least 60% of the European population, but where the population declined by 18% over the period 2005-2008. Extrapolated over a three generation length (GL 13.6 years) period (41 years), these declines are estimated to range between 20-29%, resulting in its classification as Near Threatened in Europe under Criterion A.

Within the EU27 the range size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be increasing within the EU27 region, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within the EU27.

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Belgium; Denmark; Faroe Islands (to DK); Greenland (to DK); Estonia; Finland; France; Germany; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Latvia; Lithuania; Netherlands; Norway; Svalbard and Jan Mayen (to NO); Poland; Portugal; Russian Federation; Spain; Sweden; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK)Vagrant:Austria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Hungary; Italy; Malta; Montenegro; Serbia; Slovenia

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 979,000-1,020,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 279,000-295,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendAlthough a number of populations are increasing, a recent sharp decline was observed in Iceland (where more than 60% of the European population is found) since 2005. As a result of the reported decline in Iceland, the estimated and projected rate of decline of the European population size over the period 2005-2046 (three generations) varies from 25% to more than 50%. In the EU27 the population size is estimated to be increasing. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThe species lives on rocky sea coasts, breeding on cliff ledges and under boulders. Northern populations

migrate outside the breeding season, while southern ones are both migratory as far as the Mediterranean (mainly immatures) and dispersive (adults). Iceland holds over two-thirds of the European total, followed in importance by the U.K. and Norway, these three countries together supporting over 90% of the European population (Tucker and Heath 1994).

The species is a pursuit diver that propels itself through the water with its wings. They are capable of diving to 120 m depth, but mostly forage nearer the surface. They spend most of their lives at sea, only arriving ashore to reproduce. They are known to consume Krill, Sprat (Sprattus sprattus), Sandeels (Ammondytes spp.) and Capelin amongst other prey (Nettleship 1996).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceMarine Coastal/Supratidal - Sea Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands major breedingMarine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline major breedingMarine Intertidal - Tidepools major breedingMarine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp major breedingMarine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Pelagic suitable breedingMarine Neritic - Pelagic suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) major breedingMarine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel major breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs major breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy major breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud major breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud major non-breedingMarine Oceanic - Epipelagic (m) suitable non-breedingAltitude Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsThis species is threatened by the current and future impacts of climate change, including temperature extremes, sea temperature rises and shifts and reductions in prey availability (Sandvik et al. 2005). The species is vulnerable to extreme weather, with severe winter storms causing large scale mortality across north-western Europe in the past (Underwood & Stowe 1984). As a pursuit diver the species is at risk from being caught in gillnets and driftnets, with gillnet fisheries in the North and Baltic Seas known to catch significant numbers (Zydelis et al. 2009, 2013; Skov et al. 2011). As the species spends much of its life at sea, including at and below the sea surface, it is vulnerable to both chronic oil pollution and oil spill events. Offshore renewable energy, such as wind farms are also likely to pose a threat to this species, including through habitat displacement (Furness et al. 2013) and collision, although collision risk is currently considered low (Bradbury et al. 2014). Disturbance from shipping lanes and marine constructions occurs in coastal and offshore areas with high human presence, and habitat degradation at sea from mining and aggregate extraction also threatens this species. On land during its breeding season this species is exposed to invasive mammalian predators (e.g. rats, cats, mink), which could increase in severity as climate change allows their northward movement. The species is also vulnerable to disturbance from recreational and tourism activities. It is hunted in the Faroe Islands (Thorup et al. 2014).Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesBiological resource use

Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources (unintentional effects: (large scale) [harvest])

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional use - species is the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Climate change & severe weather

Other impacts Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Unknown Unknown Unknown

StressesEcosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects

Climate change & severe weather

Storms & flooding Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Unknown Unknown Unknown

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Species mortality

Climate change & severe weather

Temperature extremes

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Unknown Unknown Unknown

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Species disturbance

Energy production & mining

Mining & quarrying Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Species disturbance

Energy production & mining

Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Causing/Could

cause fluctuationsLow Impact

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Species mortality; Species disturbance

Human intrusions & disturbance

Recreational activities

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Unknown Unknown Unknown

StressesSpecies disturbance

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could

cause fluctuationsMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality; Reduced reproductive success

Pollution Oil spills Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Likely to Return

Unknown Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Species mortality

Transportation & service corridors

Shipping lanes Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) No decline Low Impact

StressesSpecies disturbance

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayThe species is listed on the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. There are 91 Important Bird Areas across the region for this species. Within the EU there are 91 Special Protected Areas for this species, recognised as a regularly occurring migratory species. The species is considered in the Nordic Action Plan for seabirds in Western-Nordic areas.

Conservation Actions ProposedFurther identification of important sites for this species, particularly in offshore regions and designation as marine protected areas; Identify the risks of different activities on seabirds, and locations sensitive to seabirds.

Continue eradication of invasive predators from breeding colonies. Management of fisheries to ensure long term sustainability of key stocks (e.g. sand eels). Establish observer schemes for bycatch and prepare National/European Community plans of action on seabird bycatch. Develop codes-of-conduct for more organised activities (e.g. tourism). Ensure that appropriate protection (national laws and international agreements) applies to new areas and times in case of changes in seabird migration routes and times.

BibliographyBradbury, G., Trinder, M., Furness, B., Banks, A.N., Caldow, R.W.G. and Hume, D. 2014. Mapping Seabird Sensitivity to Offshore Wind Farms. PLoS ONE 9 (9): e106366. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106366.Furness, R.W., Wade, H.M. and Masden, E.A. 2013. Assessing Vulnerability of Marine Bird Populations to Offshore Wind Farms. Journal of Environmental Management 119 (April):56–66.García-Barcelona S. and Murcia F.J. 2010. Incidencia de las redes de pesca en los álcidos. Observatorio. Quercus 295: 50-53.ICES. 2010. Report of the Working Group on Seabird Ecology (WGSE). 15–19 March 2010, Copenhagen, Denmark. ICES CM 2010/SSGEF:10. 83pp.Mendel, B., Sonntag, N., Wahl, J., Schwemmer, P., Dries, H., Guse, N., Müller, S. and S. Garthe. 2008. Artensteckbriefe von See- und Wasservögeln der deutschen Nord- und Ostsee – Verbreitung, Ökologie und Empfindlichkeiten gegenüber Eingriffen in ihren marinen Lebensraum. Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt 59, Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn.Nettleship, D.N. 1996. Razorbill (Alca torda). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.Nordiska Ministerrådet 2010. Action Plan for Seabirds in Western-Nordic Areas - Report from a Workshop in Malmö, Sweden, 4-5 May 2010. Nordic Council of Ministers' publishing house. Copenhagen. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10570195.Sandvik, H., Erikstad, K.E., Barrett, R.T. and Yoccoz, N.G. 2005. The Effect of Climate on Adult Survival in Five Species of North Atlantic Seabirds. Journal of Animal Ecology 74 (5): 817–31.Skov, H., Heinänen, S., Žydelis, R., Bellebaum, J., Bzoma, S., Dagys, M., Durinck, J., Garthe, S., Grishanov, G., Hario, M., Kieckbusch, J.J., Kube, J., Kuresoo, A., Larsson, K., Luigujoe, L., Meissner, W., Nehls, H.W., Nilsson, L., Petersen, I.K., Roos, M.M., Pihl, S., Sonntag, N., Stock, A., Stipniece, A., Wahl, J. 2011. Waterbird Populations and Pressures in the Baltic Sea. TemaNord, Copenhagen.Sonntag, N., Schwemmer, H., Fock, H., Bellebaum, J. and Garthe, S. 2012. Seabirds, set nets and conservation management: assessment of conflict potential and vulnerability of birds to bycatch in gill nets. ICES Journal of Marine Science 69(4): 578–589.Hammer, S. Jensen, J-K., Petersen, K.T. and Thorup, D.B.K. 2014. Færøsk Trækfugleatlas. The Faroese Bird Migration Atlas. Tórshavn: Faroe University Press.Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge.Underwood, L.A. and Stowe, T.J. 1984. Massive wreck of seabirds in eastern Britain, 1983. Bird Study 31(2):79-88.Žydelis, R., Small, C. and French, G. 2013. The incidental catch of seabirds in gillnet fisheries: A global review. Biological Conservation 162: 76–88.

Map (see overleaf)