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Analysis of Classroom Discipline-Related Content in Elementary Education JournalsAuthor(s): Elizabeth L. Hardman and Stephen W. SmithSource: Behavioral Disorders, Vol. 28, No. 2 (February 2003), pp. 173-186Published by: Council for Exceptional ChildrenStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23889164

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FORUMFORUM ^

Martha Coutinho and Maureen Conroy, EditorsMartha Coutinho and Maureen Conroy, Editors

Analysis of Classroom Discipline-Related Content

in Elementary Education Journals

Elizabeth L. Hardman and Stephen W. Smith

University of Florida

ABSTRACT: For most elementary teachers, maintaining classroom discipline is a daily concern, one

that can be rewarding and at the same time a source of frustration. The inclusion of students with

emotional or behavioral disorders and other students with behavioral problems can strain even the

most competent classroom teachers and may add to the already increasing demands to maintain

discipline in today's classrooms. Because maintaining positive classroom discipline is one of the

foremost concerns of teachers and other education professionals, we analyzed the discipline

related content of a purposively selected sample of 13 elementary education journals published over

a 10-year period, determining the number and type of articles published and the articles' thematic

content. We found that only I % of the articles were about classroom discipline, and the content

often failed to define specifically and substantively the teacher's role in identifying and mediating

behavior problems. We argue that the attention to classroom discipline in elementary education

journals is not commensurate with teachers' level of concern about classroom discipline and that

scholars in elementary education may not perceive this topic to be an important curriculum issue

and/or a primary responsibility of the classroom teacher.

| The inclusion of students with emotional or

behavioral disorders (E/BD) has created a con

tentious discussion among education profes

sionals. The 1997 discipline amendments to

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA) require general education teachers to

intensify their inclusion efforts by affording all

students with disabilities supplementary aids

and services specific to their behavioral and

social needs, thereby acknowledging the rela

tionship between student behavior and learn

ing (Cable, 1999; Yell, 1998). The elementary

years provide the context for the inclusion of

most students with disabilities (U.S. Depart

ment of Education, 1998), but students with

E/BD are far more likely to be placed in the

most restrictive educational settings (Kauffman,

2001). Perhaps this differential treatment in

placement occurs because elementary teachers

believe that misbehaving students create addi

tional burdens on their efforts to maintain a

safe, harmonious learning environment (Lang

don, 1997). Indeed, even researchers predict

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

that the inclusion of students with E/BD in the

general education classroom may create a set

ting event for disciplinary action (e.g., Katsi

yannis & Maag, 1998). In as much as 3% to

6% of the school-aged population exhibits

maladaptive behavior that is severe, pervasive,

and chronic enough to warrant special servic

es, the inclusion of students with E/BD will tax

the most competent of classroom teachers

(Kauffman, Lloyd, Baker, & Riedel, 1995) and

will significantly impact teachers' efforts to

maintain classroom discipline (Katsyiannis &

Maag).

Discipline is already one of the most uni

versal and troubling problems facing elemen

tary teachers (Bender & Mathes, 1995;

Langdon, 1997; Reed, 1989; Veenman, 1984),

and over the past 32 years, Gallup polls have

consistently documented public concerns

about the need for improved classroom disci

pline (e.g., Rose & Gallup, 2000). In a Phi

Kappa Delta poll, 58% of teachers reported

that students are frequently disruptive, and

February 2003 / 173


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50% reported disobedience as a concern

(Langdon, 1997). Moreover, Tulley and Chiu

(1 995) analyzed the discipline problems expe

rienced by 135 student teachers and estimated

that 15% of students break rules on a regular

basis and an additional 5% are chronic rule

breakers who are out of control most of the

time. Disruption, defiance, and inattention

seem to represent the most frequent forms of

misbehavior; serious behavior problems (e.g.,

theft by force, carrying weapons, drinking

alcohol, taking drugs) are occurring at less fre

quent but still alarming rates (Langdon, 1997;

Menacker, Weldon, & Hurwitz, 1989). For

example, Menacker and colleagues found that

more than 50% of the sixth- and eighth-grade

students they surveyed reported that money,

clothing, or personal property was stolen from

them at least once during the school year. In

addition, 35% indicated that they had been

victims of theft more than once, 32% reported

that they had carried a weapon to school at

least once, and 14% said they had done so

more than once. More recently, Moeller

(2001) disclosed that during the 1990s an

increase occurred in the number of guns

brought to school as well as theft, tardiness, lit

tering, violating rules, cursing, and being dis

ruptive. As a result, Moeller stated that student

antisocial behavior and aggression are far too

common in our nation's schools.

Some professionals point to an increasing

number of students at risk for school failure as

a major contributor to educators' frustrations

about guaranteeing a safe and orderly school

environment. Davis and McCaul (1990) esti

mated that at least 30% of the student popula

tion is at risk for school failure and warned that

these students frequently engage in substance

abuse and dangerous sexual practices and

exhibit a variety of emotional/behavioral and

medical/physical problems. Although the

intensity of their maladaptive behavior may

range from mild to severe (Mulkerne, 1992), it

will likely lead to the development of undesir

able outcomes such as ineffective student

teacher interactions, insufficient student serv

ices, and a negative school climate (Davis &

McCaul). According to Moeller (2001), the

negative relationship between academic

achievement and later antisocial behavior and

aggression seems due primarily to a common

set of variables present at the time these chil

dren enter school that affect behavior and aca

demic performance in complicated ways.

174 / February 2003

Inappropriate behavior, noncompliance,

and conflict can occur in the most positively

structured classrooms. Unfortunately, students

who consistently break rules and cause dis

ruption change a relaxed and caring atmos

phere into a guarded and anxious one (Bacon,

1990) where few social and academic gains

are made (Colvin, 2002). Conversely, effective

discipline maintains a classroom as a harmo

nious and highly efficient place for learning

and may be the ultimate determinant of a

teacher's effectiveness in meeting the educa

tional goals set forth for students (Carlson &

ParshalI, 1996; Reilly, 1990). Therefore, the

inclusion of students with E/BD and the

increasing number of students at risk for

school failure are sources of heightened con

cern about maintaining classroom discipline

and academic excellence in elementary class

rooms. As a result, teachers are actively seek

ing information about effective methods of

classroom discipline. For example, the results

of a poll of teachers indicated that the most

requested topics of information are classroom

behavior, disruptive behavior, and discipline

("Information Needs Survey," 1997).

In 1992, Evertson and Harris suggested

that to find solutions to discipline problems

researchers should assess present methods of

classroom discipline. We maintain, however,

that researchers have evaluated classroom dis

cipline, consistently finding that teachers

rarely use positive reinforcement—especially

when addressing social behavior—frequently

reinforce inappropriate behavior, and often

ignore opportunities to use positive reinforce

ment for those who need it (e.g., Maag, 2001 ;

Strain, Lambert, Kerr, Stagg, & Lenkner, 1983;

White, 1975). As a result, we believe that a dif

ferent kind of analysis is needed. To develop a

more comprehensive assessment of what

teachers are doing to address discipline prob

lems and why, perhaps researchers should

examine the dialogue among teacher educa

tors and other education professionals about

classroom discipline. Professional journals

provide a highly accessible forum for scholars

to communicate solutions to unresolved prob

lems in schools and are an accessible resource

for dialogue about important curricular issues.

Interestingly, in 1985, Schloss and

Maxymuik reported the results of an analysis

of discipline-related articles found in five ele

mentary education journals between the years

1962 and 1982 and concluded that their data

"offers a pessimistic view of discipline related





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literature. . (p. 66). Specifically, they found

that the ratio of databased articles dropped

over the 20-year period, calculating a percent

age of 57.5 for the first 10 years and a per

centage of 27.9 for the final 10-year period.

Moreover, using liberal criteria for article

selection as discipline-related, these authors

reported a low of 0 articles published in 1967

and a high of 13 in 1978. Since 1985, howev

er, concerns about school violence and disci

pline problems have continued to increase

(Moeller, 2001). Therefore, we set out to con

duct our own analysis of discipline-related

content published in elementary education

journals over a 10-year period. Specifically,

we examined the amount and content of

scholarly writing in a purposively selected

sample of 13 peer-reviewed education jour

nals to determine the number and general type

of articles (i.e., research or descriptive) and the

articles' thematic content.

Method

Journal Selection

Our objective was to develop a list of journals

that publish authoritative information about

best practice in elementary education and

might also be information-rich sources of

scholarly dialogue about classroom discipline.

To accomplish our goal, we queried national

ly prominent professors in elementary educa

tion and conducted a search of the literature

base to find information about classroom dis

cipline. We developed the following criteria to

define the term authoritative: the journal must

be (a) peer reviewed and (b) commended by

elementary scholars as an important source of

information on best practice. With the help of

two elementary education professors at our

university, we generated a list of 12 nationally

known academics whom we believed were

significant and influential figures in the field of

elementary education. To generate an initial

journal list that was authoritative, we agreed

that responses from six of those listed would

be adequate.

We mailed a request to these six professors

asking each one to return a list of 10 to 15

journals that, in their estimation, are the most

prominent journals in elementary education.

Our objective was to determine a sample of

journals teacher educators considered to be

influential sources of scholarly discourse on

important issues in elementary education, so


we did not specifically ask our respondents for

journals that might include discipline-related

articles. All six professors responded, with a

total of 29 journals. We decided, a priori, to

include only those journals nominated by two

professors or more because we wanted to use

some confirmatory factor rather than just gen

erate a list. Thus, we selected 14 of the 29

nominated journals to examine further.

We then examined each of the 14 journals

to confirm whether it was peer reviewed and a

possible source of discipline-related articles.

We reasoned that 4 of the 14 journals,

Language Arts, The Reading Teacher, Reading

Research Quarterly, and Social Studies, are

focused on specific academic topics and may

not be likely sources for discipline-related arti

cles. A subsequent search of the contents of

each journal supported our supposition, so we

eliminated these journals from the list. We also

eliminated Teaching and Teacher Education

because it has a broad international focus, per

haps examining student and classroom disci

pline beyond our own relevant domestic con

cerns. We searched the table of contents of

Teaching and Teacher Education, however,

and found only one discipline-related article

over a 10-year period. We eliminated Instruc

tor because it is a teacher magazine that focus

es on teachers' perspectives and did not meet

our authoritative criteria. Our refining process

reduced the preliminary list to eight journals

whose content contains scholarly dialogue

about important elementary education issues

and whose scope did not preclude the topic of

elementary classroom discipline: Elementary

School Journal; Phi Delta Kappan; Harvard

Educational Review; Journal of Teacher Educa

tion; Young Children; Childhood Education;

Educational Leadership; and Action in Teacher

Education.

Our next step was to expand the prelimi

nary list. We obtained an exhaustive list of

education-related periodicals included in the

collection of a state university library system

and then reduced this list of 1,176 journals by

applying a series of filters. First, we eliminated

any journal no longer in circulation. Then we

examined titles and eliminated journals not

specifically focused on elementary education,

such as special education, international, or

secondary or higher education journals (e.g.,

Exceptional Children, International Journal of

Education Development, Journal of Higher

Education). We also eliminated journals that

focus on a particular academic area in ele

February 2003 / 175




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mentary education (e.g., Music Teacher, The

Journal of Social Studies Education), and those

that were not peer reviewed. This process pro

duced a list of 80 journals that potentially

could include articles relevant to classroom

discipline.

We searched the Educational Resources

Information Center (1988 to 1999) using the

key words ADHD behavior management,

behavior management discipline, and elemen

tary classroom discipline to identify which of

the 80 journals would be the best sources of

information on discipline. We created a fre

quency and ranked the 80 journals from high

est to lowest according to the number of arti

cles each contained from the ERIC search. We

then eliminated any journal with fewer than

two discipline-related articles in the last 10

years, yielding a list of 11 journals: Elementary

School Journal; Phi Delta Kappan; Action in

Teacher Education; Teaching Education; Con

temporary Education; Journal of Educational

Research; American Educational Research

Journal; Young Children; Childhood Educa

tion; Educational Leadership; and the Journal

of Research and Development in Education.

Our final step was to work with both lists

to identify a sample of journals that were

authoritative and were likely sources of infor

mation about classroom discipline. We select

ed from the ERIC search those that were peer

reviewed and not in our original list, including

Teaching Education, Contemporary Education,

Journal of Educational Research, American

Educational Research Journal, and the Journal

of Research and Development in Education,

because they proved to be the most likely

sources for discipline-related articles. The final

list included 13 journals: Teaching Education;

Action In Teacher Education; Contemporary

Education; Journal of Educational Research;

Phi Delta Kappan; Elementary School Journal;

American Educational Research Journal;

Harvard Educational Review; The Journal of

Teacher Education; Young Children; Child

hood Education; Educational Leadership; and

the Journal of Research and Development in

Education.

Article Selection

We hand-searched each journal's table of con

tents for discipline-related articles published

between January 1989 and December 1998.

In most cases, we determined the appropriate

ness of the article by reading the title, abstract,

176 / February 2003

and major descriptors. When necessary, how

ever, we read the article to determine whether

it met our selection criteria. We selected any

article for analysis if it was applicable to ele

mentary classrooms, addressed a student

behavior problem, and offered a solution that

could be implemented by the teacher. Finally,

we made a list of selected articles by journal,

including volume and issue number, title, and

page number.

We evaluated the reliability of our article

selection method by asking 26 preservice

teachers to review one volume of an assigned

journal using our selection criteria that it: (a)

was applicable to elementary classrooms; (b)

addressed a student behavior problem; and (c)

offered a solution that could be implemented

by the teacher. We calculated reliability by

dividing the number of agreements by the sum

of disagreements and agreements, obtaining

an interrater agreement of .99.

Content Analysis

We read each of the discipline-related articles,

marking phrases and words that identified the

behavior problem, the solution, and specific

references to the teacher's role in addressing

discipline problems. We then created a table

using the following headers: Title, Date, and

Journal Name; Type of Article (e.g., research or

descriptive); Problem Behavior; Solution; and

Teacher's Role, and a clerical assistant tran

scribed marked information from each article's

text to the corresponding table column (i.e.,

Behavior Problem, Solution, and Teacher's

Role). The first author subsequently coded the

text contained in each category to identify pat

terns and themes pertinent to each category.

Results

Number of Articles

We found a total of 6,785 feature articles pub

lished in the 13 journals from 1989 up to

1999. Only 77 articles met our criterion as

discipline-related, establishing an overall per

centage of discipline-related articles at 1%

(.011). Educational Leadership published the

most discipline-related articles over the 10

year period, with a total of 25, and Childhood

Education published the highest percentage of

discipline-related articles (2.6%). We did not

find any discipline-related articles in The

Journal of Teacher Education and Harvard

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 1 73-186




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TABLE 3

Number of Discipline-Related Research Articles by Journal (1989-1999)

Journal

Total

Number

of Articles

Number of

Discipline

Related

Articles (%)

Research Topics

American Education Research

Journal

303

2 (0.7)

Conflict resolution

Recess timing

Elementary School Journal

322

5 (1.6)

Prereferral interventions

Problem behavior

Inattentive/disruptive

behavior

Comprehensive

management system

Social integration/mild

disability

Journal of Educational Research

386

5 (1.3)

Conflict management

Functional analysis

Task completion

Classroom behavior

Aggression

Journal of Research and

Development in Education

294

1 (0.3)

Social communication

Journal

Total

Number

of Articles

Number of

Discipline

Related

Articles (%)

Research Topics

American Education Research

Journal

303

2 (0.7)

Conflict resolution

Recess timing

Elementary School Journal

322

5 (1.6)

Prereferral interventions

Problem behavior

Inattentive/disruptive

behavior

Comprehensive

management system

Social integration/mild

disability

Journal of Educational Research

386

5 (1.3)

Conflict management

Functional analysis

Task completion

Classroom behavior

Aggression

Journal of Research and

Development in Education

294

1 (0.3)

Social communication

only 4 of the 13 journals published experi

mental studies about classroom discipline. We

did not find any examples of qualitative

research or single-subject research designs.

Behavior Problem

The behavior problems authors most often

addressed were disruption, inattention, aggres

sion, conflict, and antisocial behavior. We

found 14 articles in which authors discussed

emotional problems such as "depression . . .

regressive behavior. . . persistent tiredness and

anxiety . . . withdrawn" (e.g., Linehan, 1992,

pp. 62, 63), but only one author discussed

E/BD as a significant concern when discussing

classroom discipline (Kauffman et al., 1995)

Disruption and Inattention

Throughout 77 articles the most frequently dis

cussed behavior problem was classroom dis

ruption and student inattention. In 21 articles

authors described disruptive behavior using

phrases such as "disruptive children" (Dutt,

1995, p. 215), " classroom disturbance" (Finn,

Pannazzo, & Voelke, 1995, p. 425), or "dis

ruptive behaviors" (e.g., Divoky, 1989, p. 603;

178 / February 2003

Storey, Lawry, Ashworth, Danko, & Strain,

1994, p. 362) to define the behavior problem.

Some described disruptive behavior with

terms such as "trouble . . . bad . . . playful"

(Fachin, 1996, p. 438) or "hell-raising . . . ram

bunctious" (Divoky, pp. 599, 600), and one

author cited specific behaviors such as

"singing" or "making loud noises" (Fachin, p.

438).

We found inattention to be the focus in 13

articles. Authors usually described this as

"attention" or "inattention" problems (e.g.,

Linehan, 1992; Pellegrini, Huberty, & Jones,

1995). Sometimes the focus was more specifi

cally defined as "off-task" (Wasson, Beare, &

Wasson, 1990, p. 163), "poor time manage

ment, poor organization" or "incomplete/slop

py work" (Smith & Misra, 1992, p. 354). We

found 7 articles that defined hyperactivity as

the source of inattention and disruptive behav

ior (e.g., Brophy & McCaslin, 1992; Fachin,

1996).

Aggression and Conflict

We found 31 discipline-related articles in

which authors discussed aggression and 4 that

focused on conflict. In the 31 articles about





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aggression, authors used general terms such as

"aggression" or "violence" (e.g., Gable,

Manning, & Bullock, 1997; Piel, 1990), but

Johnson and his co-authors (1996) defined

aggression as "verbal force" and "verbal

insults" (p. 280). In 3 articles, authors

addressed fighting (cf. Cullinan, Sabornie, &

Crossland 1992; Gable et al.; Johnson et al.),

and Barone (1997) discussed the behavior of

bullies. We found 4 articles that discussed

conflict as a form of aggression (e.g., Johnson,

Johnson, Dudley, Ward, & Magnuson, 1995;

McLaughlin, 1994).

Antisocial Behavior

We found 22 discipline-related articles that

described antisocial behavior as the problem,

but the word "antisocial" occurred only once

(cf. Barone, 1997, p. 82). Authors typically

used a variety of terms to discuss antisocial

behavior. For example, within the scope of one

article, Smelter, Rasch, Fleming, Nazos, and

Baranowski (1996) described children's behav

ior as "behaviorally disordered . . . bad" (p.

430) and "socially unacceptable behaviors . . .

sneerjingj at the teacher. .. aberrant behavior"

(p. 431). Likewise, Trapani & Gettinger (1989)

defined the problem as children who are "less

accepted," exhibit "problems interacting . . .

problem behaviors. . . negative verbal interac

tions," and "misinterpret nonverbal communi

cations" (p. 1). Others described student

behavior as "hostile" (Kohn, 1991, p. 498), and

"distasteful" (Gronlund, 1993, p. 21).

Solutions

After defining the behavior problem to be

addressed, authors of all 77 articles included a

solution for the defined problem. These solu

tions generally prescribed methods of preven

tion, identification, and/or intervention in

addressing classroom discipline problems.

Intervention, however, was the most frequent

ly discussed solution, followed by prevention

and identification.

Intervention

In 44 of the 77 articles authors proposed a

variety of interventions including teaching

social skills, using positive reinforcement, and

modifying instruction to address student

behavior problems. In 4 articles, authors

advised the use of punishment to resolve

behavior problems (e.g., Harris, 1991; FHeston,


1991), and in 2 articles authors suggested

referral to special education (Fachin, 1996;

Heston). We found only 4 articles in which

authors stressed early intervention (e.g.,

Burgess & Streissguth, 1992; Finn et al., 1995).

We found 34 articles that recommended

social skills instruction, which occasionally

included the teaching of values. For example,

Kohn (1991) suggested that teaching social

skills should include "classroom-based pro

grams to help children develop a prosocial ori

entation," an examination of "values already

in place ... consider trading them in for a new

set" (p. 499), and teaching "them to care" (p.

500). In contrast, some evaluated the effective

ness of specific interventions such as peer

mediation (e.g., Johnson et al., 1995; Johnson

et al., 1996; McLaughlin, 1994), peer tutoring

(Fachin, 1996), and conflict resolution (e.g.,

Brendtro, 1995).

Authors advised the use of positive rein

forcement to address specific discipline prob

lems in 7 articles. For example, Linehan (1992)

proposed "incentives and rewards rather than

punishment" (p. 62), and others encouraged

implementing a token economy, using positive

reinforcement, and/or praise (e.g., Canter,

1989; Fachin, 1996; Smith & Misra, 1992).

The authors of 4 articles addressed modi

fying instruction to address discipline prob

lems. Wasson and colleagues (1990) recom

mended "drawing these students out and

focusing them on instructional tasks " (p. 165).

Gable and colleagues (1997) implied that the

solution to discipline problems might lie in a

teacher's ability to "make instructional and/or

environmental modifications for purposes of

prevention and intervention" (p. 41).

Prevention

The authors of 32 articles suggested that the

teacher's style of classroom management has a

significant influence on classroom discipline.

In 1 6 articles authors supported an authoritar

ian management style as most conducive to

obtaining desirable behavior. These authors

expressed a need for "tougher discipline" and

"improve[dJ. . . supervision efforts," and sug

gested that adults should "act as authority fig

ures" by "setting firm limits on unacceptable

behavior" (Barone, 1997, pp. 81, 82). In con

trast, the authors of 10 articles argued for dem

ocratically managed classrooms to prevent

behavior problems. For example, Beyer (1996)

described well-disciplined classrooms as

places where teachers demonstrate "demo

February 2003 / 179




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cratic teaching . . . sharing a pedagogical

power," places where teachers "wrestle with

their [children's] voicelessness" (p. 97), and

Doyle (1997) suggested that schools must

model democratic capitalism, honesty, for

bearance, toleration, respect for self and oth

ers, courage, and integrity.

In 14 articles authors recommended a nur

turing management style to prevent discipline

problems. Barone (1997) advised creating an

environment "characterized by warmth, posi

tive interest," where students experience

"involvement with adults" (p. 82). Carlile

(1991) advocated teacher training in ways to

make classrooms places to heal, and others

described teachers as reflective practitioners,

socially concerned, thoughtful, caring, and

committed people (e.g., Beyer, 1996; Watson,

1998).

We found 9 articles that focused on the

importance of good teaching to prevent disci

pline problems. For example, Harris (1991)

suggested that well-disciplined classrooms

should be organized to "maximize student

task engagement and success" (p. 157).

Pellegrini and colleagues (1995) examined the

effects of recess timing on children's behavior

and concluded that "children's efforts should

be distributed during the course of the day" (p.

860) and that children need "breaks from

demanding cognitive tasks" to facilitate learn

ing (p. 861).

Problem Identification

We found only 13 articles in which authors

advised describing and understanding behav

ior problems before determining solutions. In

these articles, authors recommended collabo

ration among professionals (e.g., Cable et al.,

1997; Lantieri, 1995; Sindelar, Griffin, Smith,

& Watanabe, 1992), consultation with experts

(e.g., Divoky, 1989; Sautter, 1992; Smelter et

al., 1996), and assessment (e.g., Brophy &

McCaslin, 1992; Lasley 1989; Storey et al.,

1994) as ways to identify and describe prob

lem behaviors.

Teacher's Role

We found 52 discipline-related articles that

defined the teacher's role, often introduced

using the words "the teacher should" and "the

teacher must." Authors defined the teacher's

role as preventer, mediator, and/or interpreter

of behavior problems. Most focused attention

on the teacher's role as the preventer of disci

180 / February 2003

pline problems. In fact, all 52 articles that dis

cussed the teacher's role suggested ways to

prevent behavior problems in the classroom.

Preventer

Authors advised teachers to teach social skills,

be authoritarian, provide effective instruction,

and provide a positive atmosphere to prevent

behavior problems from occurring. For exam

ple, in 29 articles authors suggested teaching

social skills and instilling values, advising that

teachers teach students "the procedures neces

sary to manage conflicts constructively . . . and

skills they need to develop socially, cognitive

ly, and morally" (Johnson et al., 1995, p. 842).

Teachers should "devise creative classroom

management schemes that effectively teach

appropriate behaviors and the values that

underlie them" (Wolfgang & Kelsay, 1991, p.

155). Some authors offered role playing as an

effective method of social skills instruction

(e.g., Atlas & Pepler, 1998), and in 6 articles

authors admonished teachers to teach appro

priate behavior by being models of appropriate

behavior themselves (e.g., Bernat, 1993;

Doescher & Sugawara, 1989).

In 25 articles authors advised teachers to

be authoritarian (22 articles) and/or democrat

ic (5 articles) in their teaching styles. Those

espousing authoritarian classrooms directed

teachers to be "firm" (Fachin, 1996, p. 438)

and provide "consistent standards" and

"enforce these standards" (Dutt, 1995, p. 215).

Others stressed the importance of a democrat

ically managed classroom, suggesting that a

teacher's top priority should be "to help stu

dents develop into principled and caring

members of a community or advocates for

social justice" (Kohn, 1997, p. 432). In a few

cases, we found a mix of both approaches (cf.

Linehan, 1 992).

In 16 articles authors urged teachers to

prevent student behavior problems by engag

ing students in effective and relevant instruc

tion. For example, Harris (1991) advised

teachers to set "up a physical environment

conducive to teacher instruction and student

on-task behavior" (p. 158) and Kohn (1997)

suggested ways to use literature to teach val

ues.

The authors of 9 articles encouraged

teachers to use positive reinforcement to set

the tone for prevention. For example, Chance

(1992) suggested that teachers "must supple

ment intrinsic rewards with extrinsic rewards"

(p. 206). Several authors directed teachers to





10/15

use token economies, positive reinforcement,

praise, and rewards to prevent discipline prob

lems (e.g., Canter, 1989; Fachin, 1996).


nurture children so they feel confident and

safe. For example, Flogan (1997) recommend

ed that teachers "recognize children's unique

qualities and make it clear that you think they

are special" (p. 158), and Bernat (1993) sug

gested that teachers "steady the children in

whatever way you can. Remind them that this

is a safe place for everyone only if everyone is

careful" (p. 37).

Mediator

We found 36 articles that addressed teachers'

roles as mediators of student behavior prob

lems. These authors suggested modifying

instruction (e.g., Kauffman et al., 1995;

Wasson et al., 1990), accommodating inap

propriate behavior (Smelter et al., 1996), dis

cussing and reflecting when problems occur

(e.g., Barone, 1997; Kohn, 1997), ignoring

inappropriate behavior (McLaughlin, 1994),

involving parents in behavior problems

(Barone; Fachin, 1996), involving problem stu

dents in school and classroom activities (e.g.,

Kohn), punishing inappropriate behavior (e.g.,

Canter, 1989), referring problem students (e.g.,

Fachin; Linehan, 1992), and modifying behav

ior (e.g., Fachin).

In 28 articles authors advised teachers to

mediate children's behavior problems by dis

cussing the problem and asking children to

reflect on their own behavior. For example,

Schickedanz (1994) recommended that teach

ers "describe a child's desirable behavior and

leave it at that. . . allow children to make their

own moral judgments" (p. 275). Carlsson

Paige and Levin (1992) suggested that "teach

ers can help children see that their problems

have two sides" and can guide them "toward

seeing the whole problem . . . and how their

behavior contributed to it" (p. 8).


involve parents (e.g., Brendtro, 1995) and

peers (Lowenthal, 1996) in mediating prob

lematic behavior and to involve misbehaving

children in school activities (2 articles). For

example, Watson (1998) suggested that teach

ers should "seek ways for students to personal

ly take responsibility for contributing to the

welfare of their classroom, school, communi

ty, and the wider world" (p. 64).

In 8 articles authors suggested ways teach

ers could modify instruction to mediate prob


lern behaviors. In these articles they made sug

gestions such as, "prompt and cue unengaged,

inattentive learners ... do not embarrass

them" (Wasson et al., 1990, p. 165) and

"design instruction carefully, so as to avoid

those situations in which failure to use the

skills has serious negative consequences"

(Kauffman et al., 1995, p. 544).

Interpreter

In 4 articles authors focused on problem iden

tification as part of the teacher's role. They

advised teachers to collaborate with others to

define behavior problems (Hogan, 1997) and

to make sure children have access to all the

educational services to which they are entitled

(Linehan, 1992). Storey and colleagues (1994)

advised against interventions that are "arbitrar

ily selected and implemented" and directed

teachers to use a functional assessment that

"links assessment to intervention" (p. 367),

and Doescher and Sugawara (1989) recom

mended that teachers examine how prosocial

behavior is enhanced or hindered by the class

room environment.

Discussion

In our sample of 13 journals, we found that

only 77 of 6,785 articles (.011%) addressed

classroom discipline from 1989 to 1999. These

results suggest that classroom discipline was at

best underaddressed and might be described

as ignored during the targeted 10-year period.

Moreover, our results reveal what seems to be

a significant incongruity between teachers'

level of concern about discipline and the level

of concern expressed by those who guide the

development of teacher education programs.

As a result, our analysis seem to indicate that

scholars in elementary education do not con

sider classroom discipline an important cur

riculum issue, perhaps because they envision

behavior management as someone else's

responsibility and not a legitimate domain of

the elementary curriculum.

Is Discipline Important?

We found that when scholars discussed class

room discipline, they most likely wrote about

common behavior problems such as disrup

tion, defiance, and inattention and only occa

sionally discussed more serious behavior

problems such as aggression, conflict, and

February 2003 / 181




11/15

antisocial behavior. We contend that commit

ting a share of 1% of total articles over a 10

year period is not enough to address these

complex and sometimes chronic discipline

problems and does not seem to match the

level of concern that teachers voice about

these same problems. For example, aggression

in the classroom is one of the most troubling

problems teachers face (Moeller, 2001;

Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995), yet we

found only 31 articles that addressed aggres

sion and only 4 that addressed conflict.

Moreover, antisocial behavior in early child

hood is known to be a powerful predictor of

more serious behavior problems in adoles

cence (Kamps & Tankersley, 1996; Webster

Stratton, 1997), but authors addressed this

important topic only indirectly, primarily in

articles that lacked focus on any specific

behavior problem. In fact, only one author

used the term antisocial, and none defined the

term, described antisocial behavior, or dis

cussed its consequences if left unchecked.

The inclusion of students with disabilities

who also exhibit serious behavior problems

has become a guiding educational philosophy

and represents a significant concern for gener

al education teachers; yet, we found that

authors devoted little attention to this topic.

For example, an inclusive general education

classroom will have at least one and possibly

two students with E/BD (Kauffman et al.,

1995), but we found only 1 article that

addressed E/BD and the additional responsi

bilities that will accompany the inclusion of

these students. Furthermore, estimates indi

cate that an inclusive general education class

room of 20 to 30 students may contain sever

al students with attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADF1D) (Bender & Mathes, 1995).

According to Barkley (1998), these students

are more likely to experience poor peer rela

tionships, to be involved in criminal activity,

and to engage in substance abuse. Yet, we

found only 7 articles that addressed ADHD,

perhaps the most common of all childhood

disabilities (e.g., Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank,

Smith, & Leal, 2002).

While scholars in education typically extol

the virtue of implementing methods that are

backed by rigorous research when discussing

reading, math, science, and social studies

(e.g., Farkas, Johnson, & Duffett, 1997), our

results indicate that they rarely conduct

research on methods of classroom discipline.

We found only 13 studies published over a 10

182 / February 2003

year period that fit our research criteria. In the

remaining 64 articles, the discourse seemed

polarized around authoritarian and democrat

ic classroom management styles as ideals, but

few offered demonstrations of specific proce

dures proven effective in elementary class

rooms.

Who Is Responsible?

In addition to concerns about the number of

articles and lack of research, our findings also

pose concerns about the advice scholars in

education may be giving teachers about disci

pline. Although authors most frequently dis

cussed intervention as the solution to disci

pline problems, only 36 of 77 articles defined

the teacher's role in implementing interven

tions, and authors' descriptions of the teacher's

role were usually vague and not specific

enough to be practical. For example, the most

frequently occurring suggestion (28 articles)

was for teachers to discuss problems with chil

dren and ask them to reflect on their behavior.

Perhaps this advice is helpful for some stu

dents, but without other, more substantive

treatment options, it seems shortsighted and

inadequate to meet the needs of today's class

rooms. Moreover, several authors suggested

the use of positive reinforcement by imple

menting a token economy. None, however,

offered details about planning, implementing,

or evaluating a token economy or reported

findings about the effectiveness of token

economies implemented in general education

classrooms. In fact, only 1 of the 36 articles

offered recommendations for practice as a

result of research conducted in an elementary

classroom. When communicating the results

of experimental research, authors should pro

vide clear definitions, well-defined proce

dures, and measures of effectiveness to facili

tate replication by others, including teachers.

We believe that the lack of specificity

when defining the teacher's role may be send

ing an implicit message that others are respon

sible for managing discipline problems.

According to Lambert (1976), teachers find it

difficult to generate solutions to behavior prob

lems because they lack skill in gathering infor

mation about the nature of a child's problems.

Furthermore, teachers believe interventions

designed by professionals outside the class

room are as appropriate as teacher-initiated

interventions. Our results indicate that schol

ars provide little information about the impor





12/15

tance of interpreting a behavior problem

before intervening (4 articles), perhaps sug

gesting that it is not the teacher's responsibili

ty to define the problem or generate solutions.

Furthermore, when authors do not conduct

experimental research in general education

classrooms with teacher involvement and do

not engage teachers in defining behavior prob

lems, they may be sending an implicit mes

sage that discipline problems should be

resolved in places other than the classroom.

More important, teachers may rely exclusively

on reprimands, penalties, detention, suspen

sion, and expulsions to address maladaptive

behavior (Kauffman & Wong, 1991) because

they feel these are their only option.

Limitations

Our findings cannot be generalized to sources

of discipline-related information beyond those

included in the study. Results simply show that

across 13 journals that included articles about

elementary education, little information exists

pertaining to classroom discipline. Moreover,

these results do not support the idea that ele

mentary teachers are lacking in information

related to discipline in the classroom. On the

contrary, teachers have a wide variety of

sources from which to access relevant infor

mation about classroom discipline, including

special education and psychology journals,

teacher-oriented magazines (e.g., Teacher,

Teaching K-8, Instructor), and texts (e.g.,

Brophy, 1996; Charles, 1996; Curwin &

Mendier, 1999; Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham,

2000; Levin & Nolan, 2000; Nelson, Lott, &

Glenn, 2000). Nevertheless, our results do

indicate that classroom discipline received lit

tle scholarly treatment between the years 1989

and 1999 in a purposively selected sample of

professional journals. Although our list of dis

cipline-related articles may not be exhaustive,

reliability estimates indicate that the addition

of any oversights would be few and would not

significantly affect our results.

Implications

Although they are not the exclusive domain of

academe, professional journals are typically

housed in and accessed by those engaged in

higher education and are purveyors of the

field's state of the art and current best practice.

Most often, professors of education are the

major journal contributors to professional jour


nais, using them to generate and apply new

knowledge about teachers and teaching in all

its facets. The omission or lack of a significant

focus on a critical and undeniable aspect of

day-to-day teaching such as classroom disci

pline is troubling. Indeed, the teacher's respon

sibility to provide a harmonious, efficient

learning environment for all learners is an

essential quality of good teaching.

Using journals to access information is a

conspicuous activity for preservice and inser

vice teachers and those who matriculate for

master's and doctoral degrees. Therefore, jour

nals are an important resource for profession

als who are interested in the most current

information about the advancement of knowl

edge and those who are seeking to solve prob

lems as they pursue teaching excellence. Our

investigation suggests that there may be a

paucity of volume and depth in the peer

reviewed articles in journals available to the

elementary education community about class

room discipline. This omission represents a

subtle yet deleterious attitude about the impor

tance of classroom discipline as a curricular

issue and the role of the teacher in addressing

classroom discipline problems. Therefore, we

conclude that the lack of prominence of disci

pline-related articles across many elementary

education-related journals may demonstrate a

lack of ownership of discipline as a curriculum

issue when in fact it is an indispensable part of

good teaching.

Conclusion

The advent of the inclusion of students with

significant behavior problems and teachers'

mounting concerns about discipline demand

increased attention to the management of

challenging behaviors in the elementary class

room. Social and emotional learning are con

comitants of academic learning inasmuch as

teachers and other education professionals are

obliged to create affirmative and long-lasting

change for students academically, socially,

and emotionally. Vet without critical commen

tary on the current practices as viewed

through the existing literature, scholars cannot

identify gaps and progress is thwarted. By

devoting only a 1% share to this important

topic, scholars may be sending the education

community the wrong message about the

importance of classroom discipline and may

be responding inadequately to teachers' exist

ing and future needs.

February 2003 / 183




13/15

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AUTHOR:

ELIZABETH L. HARDMAN is a Doctoral Can

didate; and STEPHEN W. SMITH is Professor,

Department of Special Education, University

of Florida, Gainesville. E-mail: elhardman

@simflex.com.

MANUSCRIPT:

Initial acceptance: 9/23/02

Final acceptance: 12/3/02

186 / February 2003 Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

Documents

Analysis of Classroom Discipline