Anas platyrhynchos -- Linnaeus, 1758ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAECommon names: Mallard; Canard colvert; Common Mallard; Northern Mallard

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)EU27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

At both European and EU27 scales this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The population trend appears to be stable, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (30% decline over ten years or three generations).

For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern within both Europe and the EU27.

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Faroe Islands (to DK); Greenland (to DK); Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Canary Is. (to ES); Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United KingdomVagrant:Svalbard and Jan Mayen (to NO); Gibraltar (to UK)

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 2,850,000-4,610,000 pairs, which equates to 5,700,000-9,220,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,700,000-2,910,000 pairs, which equates to 3,400,000-5,830,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be stable. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThe species occurs in almost every wetland type, although it generally avoids fast-flowing, oligotrophic (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), deep, exposed, rough, rockbound waters and hard unvegetated areas such as rocky ground, sand dunes and artificial surfacing (Snow and Perrins 1998). It requires water less than 1 m deep for foraging (Snow and Perrins 1998) and shows a preference for freshwater habitats (Madge and Burn 1988). Habitats commonly frequented include flooded swampy woodlands, seasonal floodlands (Snow and Perrins 1998), wet grassy swamps and meadows, oxbow lakes (Flint et al. 1984), open waters with mudflats, banks or spits, irrigation networks, reservoirs, ornamental waters (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), canals and sewage farms (Snow and Perrins 1998). During the winter the species may also be found in saline habitats

along the coast (Madge and Burn 1988) where water is shallow, fairly sheltered and within sight of land (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species breeds between March and June although the exact timing varies with latitude (Madge and Burn 1988). The nest is a shallow depression (Snow and Perrins 1998) or bowl of vegetation that can be situated in many different locations such as within vegetation on the ground, in natural tree cavities (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), under fallen dead wood, on tree stumps and even in abandoned nests of other species (Flint et al. 1984). Clutch size is generally nine to thirteen eggs. The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, feeding on seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants, as well as terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates such as insects, molluscs, crustaceans, worms and occasionally amphibians and fish (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). In temperate regions breeding populations of this species are sedentary or dispersive, often making local movements during severe weather (Scott and Rose 1996). Other populations are fully migratory (Kear 2005).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceArtificial/Aquatic - Aquaculture Ponds suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Aquaculture Ponds suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Irrigated Land (includes irrigation channels) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Irrigated Land (includes irrigation channels) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Wastewater Treatment Areas suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Wastewater Treatment Areas suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools

suitable breeding

Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools

suitable non-breeding

Altitude max. 1000 m Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsThe species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from pollution (e.g. petroleum (Grishanov 2006) and pesticide pollution (Kwon et al. 2004)), wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reedbeds (Grishanov 2006). The species also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (e.g. in Spain (Mateo et al. 1999) and France (Mondain-Monval et al. 2002)). It is also susceptible to duck virus enteritis (DVE) (Friend 2006), avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006) and avian botulism (Rocke 2006) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (although it may be able to withstand sporadic losses due to its high reproductive potential) (Rocke 2006). The species is predated by American Mink (Neovison vison) (Opermanis et al. 2001). The species is hunted throughout its range (Kear 2005) mainly for sport (Evans and Day 2002, Bregnballe et al. 2006, Mondain-Monval et al. 2006, Sorrenti et al. 2006). The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979).

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional use - species is the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

American Mink (Neovison vison)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Avian Influenza Virus (H subtype)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Likely to Return

Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Clostridium botulinum

Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Likely to Return

Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Duck Plague or Duck Viral Enteritis

Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Likely to Return

Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Natural system modifications

Abstraction of ground water (agricultural use)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation

Natural system modifications

Other ecosystem modifications

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation

Pollution Herbicides and pesticides

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Pollution Oil spills Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Species mortality

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayCMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. Studies have revealed some of the species's requirements. Extensive grazing of wetland grasslands (c. 0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005). Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity (Bregnballe et al. 2004). The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the U.K. resulted in an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes, which in turn led to an increased use of the habitat for brood rearing by the species (Giles 1994). The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994). However, no

conservation measures are currently targeted at this species.

Conservation Actions ProposedThe species is not threatened and does not require any immediate conservation action but is likely to benefit for conservation measures implemented for other wetland species.

BibliographyBaldi, A., Batary, B. and Erdos, S. 2005. Effects of grazing intensity on bird assemblages and populations of Hungarian grasslands. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 108: 251-263.Bregnballe, T., Madsen, J. and Rasmussen, P.A.F. 2004. Effects of temporal and spatial hunting control in waterbird reserves. Biological Conservation 119: 93-104.Bregnballe, T., Noer, H., Christensen, T.K., Clausen, P., Asferg, T., Fox, A.D. and Delany, S. 2006. Sustainable hunting of migratory waterbirds: the Danish approach. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 854-860. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Carboneras, C. and Kirwan, G.M. 2014. Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52875 on 3 March 2015).Evans, D.M. and Day, K.R. 2002. Hunting disturbance on a large shallow lake: the effectiveness of waterfowl refuges. Ibis 144(1): 2-8.Flint, V.E., Boehme, R.L., Kostin, Y.V. and Kuznetsov, A.A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Friend, M. 2006. Evolving changes in diseases of waterbirds. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 412-417. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Giles, N. 1994. Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) habitat use and brood survival increases after fish removal from gravel pit lakes. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 387-392.Grishanov, D. 2006. Conservation problems of migratory waterfowl and shorebirds and their habitats in the Kaliningrad region of Russia. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 356. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Gudmundsson, F. 1979. The past status and exploitation of the Myvatn waterfowl populations. Oikos 32: 232-249.Johnsgard, P.A. 1978. Ducks, geese and swans of the World. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London.Kear, J. 2005. Ducks, geese and swans volume 2: species accounts (Cairina to Mergus). Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.Kwon, Y.K., Wee, S.H. and Kim, J.H. 2004. Pesticide Poisoning Events in Wild Birds in Korea from 1998 to 2002. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 40(4): 737-740.Madge, S. and Burn, H. 1988. Wildfowl. Christopher Helm, London.Mateo, R., Belliure, J., Dolz, J.C., Aguilar-Serrano, J.M. and Guitart, R. 1998. High prevalences of lead poisoning in wintering waterfowl in Spain. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35: 342-347.Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Mondain-Monval, J.Y., Defos du Rau, P., Mathon, N., Olivier, A. and Desnouhes, L. 2006. The monitoring of hunting bags and hunting effort in the Camargue, France. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 862-863. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Mondain-Monval, J.Y., Desnouhes, L. and Taris, J.P. 2002. Lead shot ingestion in waterbirds in the Camargue, (France). Game and Wildlife Science 19(3): 237-246.Opermanis, O., Mednis, A. and Bauga, I. 2001. Duck nests and predators: interaction, specialisation and possible management. Wildlife Biology 7(2): 87-96.Rocke, T.E. 2006. The global importance of avian botulism. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 422-426. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.Scott, D.A. and Rose, P.M. 1996. Atlas of Anatidae populations in Africa and western Eurasia. Wetlands International, Wageningen, Netherlands.

BibliographySnow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Sorrenti, M., Carnacina, L., Radice, D. and Costato, A. 2006. Duck harvest in the Po delta, Italy. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 864-865. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, U.K.

Map (see overleaf)