Antoine Lavoisier 1

Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine Lavoisier

Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly

Born 26 August 1743Paris, France

Died 8 May 1794 (aged 50)Paris, France

Fields biologist, chemist

Influences Guillaume-François Rouelle

Signature

Lavoisier's Laboratory, Musée des Arts etMétiers, Paris.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after theFrench Revolution; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794; French pronunciation: 

[ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje]), the "father of modern chemistry,"[1] was aFrench nobleman prominent in the histories of chemistry andbiology.[2] He named both oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) andpredicted silicon (1778). He helped construct the metric system, puttogether the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reformchemical nomenclature. He was also the first to establish that sulfurwas an element (1777) rather than a compound.[3] He discovered that,although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remainsthe same.

He was an administrator of the Ferme Générale and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic councils.All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the FrenchRevolution, he was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling adulterated tobacco, and of other crimes and waseventually guillotined a year after Marat's death. Benjamin Franklin was familiar with Antoine, as they were bothmembers of the "Benjamin Franklin inquiries" into Mesmer and animal magnetism.[4][5]

Antoine Lavoisier 2

Early life

Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and hiswife by Jacques-Louis David, ca. 1788

Born to a wealthy family in Paris, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier inheriteda large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother.[6] Hewas educated at the Collège des Quatre-Nations (also known asCollège Mazarin) from 1754 to 1761, studying chemistry, botany,astronomy, and mathematics. He was expected to follow in his father'sfootsteps and even obtained his license to practice law in 1764 beforeturning to a life of science. His education was filled with the ideals ofthe French Enlightenment of the time, and he was fascinated by PierreMacquer's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures in the naturalsciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry were largelyinfluenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. Incollaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological surveyof Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. At the age of 25, he was elected amember of the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elitescientific society, for an essay on street lighting and in recognition ofhis earlier research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map ofFrance.[7]

In 1771, at the age of 28, Lavoisier married 13-year-old Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter of a co-owner ofthe Ferme générale. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated Englishdocuments for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. She createdmany sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She editedand published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown asof today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.[8]

Contributions to chemistry

Research on gases, water, and combustion

Antoine Lavoisier's famous phlogistonexperiment. Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in the1780s taken from Traité élémentaire de chimie

(Elementary treatise on chemistry)

Lavoisier demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal, aswell as oxygen's role in animal and plant respiration. Working withPierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier conducted experiments that showedthat respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic materialusing inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion disprovedthe phlogiston theory, which postulated that materials released asubstance called phlogiston when they burned.

Lavoisier discovered that Henry Cavendish's "inflammable air," whichLavoisier had termed hydrogen (Greek for "water-former"), combinedwith oxygen to produce a dew which, as Joseph Priestley had reported,appeared to be water. In "Mémoire sur la combustion en général" ("OnCombustion in General," 1777)[9] and "Considérations générales sur lanature des acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids,"

Antoine Lavoisier 3

The work of Lavoisier was translatedin Japan in the 1840s, through the

process of Rangaku. Page fromUdagawa Yōan's 1840 Seimi Kaisō

1778),[10] he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also thesource of acidity. In 1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for"becoming sharp" because he claimed that the sharp taste of acids came fromoxygen), and the other "azote" (Greek "no life"). In "Réflexions sur lephlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed thephlogiston theory to be inconsistent. But Priestley refused to believe Lavoisier'sresults before his death.

Pioneer of stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemicalexperiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products in a chemicalreaction, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showedthat, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass ofmatter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus,for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remainsunchanged. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass,which he was the first to state,[2] although Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideasin 1748 and proved them in experiments. Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey(1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).

Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclatureLavoisier investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He determinedthat the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen andoxygen. With the French chemists Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisierdevised a systematic chemical nomenclature. He described it in Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method ofChemical Nomenclature, 1787). This system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of differentbackgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites.Lavoisier's Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, 1789, translated into English byScotsman Robert Kerr) is considered to be the first modern chemistry textbook. It presented a unified view of newtheories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence ofphlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any knownmethod of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds fromelements.While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité élémentaire as atextbook in Edinburgh was sufficient to merit translation into English within about a year of its Frenchpublication.[11] In any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.

Antoine Lavoisier 4

Combustion generated by focusing sunlight overflammable materials using lenses, an experiment

conducted by Lavoisier in the 1770s Detail of picture of a combustion experiment

Constant pressurecalorimeter, engraving

made by madame Lavoisierfor thermochemistry

experiments

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort tofit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistentuse of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, anddeveloped a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was anessential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier alsodid early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments withLaplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxideproduced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating thatanimals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by statingthe radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemicalprocess, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility ofallotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form ofcarbon.

However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier discovered no new substances,devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved methods of preparation.

He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the capacity of taking over experimental work that others hadcarried out—without always adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced byhis own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black,Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.

Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physicsand mathematics during the 18th century.[12]

Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s

Contributions to biology

Lavoisier used a calorimeter to measure heatproduction as a result of respiration in a guinea pig.The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed withsnow, which melted to maintain a constant temperatureof 0 °C around an inner shell filled with ice. The guineapig in the center of the chamber produced heat whichmelted the ice. The water that flowed out of thecalorimeter was collected and weighed. Lavoisier used

Antoine Lavoisier 5

this measurement to estimate the heat produced by the guinea pig's metabolism. Lavoisier concluded, "la respirationest donc une combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.[13]

Law and politicsLavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. He did becomeinterested in French politics, and at the age of 26 he obtained a position as a tax collector in the Ferme Générale, atax farming company, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to helpthe peasants. While in government work, he helped develop the metric system to secure uniformity of weights andmeasures throughout France.

Final days, execution, and aftermath

Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel deVille, Paris

Lavoisier was a powerful figure in the deeply unpopular Ferme Générale, 28 feudaltax collectors who were known to profit immensely by exploiting their position. Hewas branded a traitor by the Assembly under Robespierre, during the Reign ofTerror, in 1794. He had also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-bornscientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, granting them exceptionto a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.[14] Lavoisier wastried, convicted, and guillotined on 8 May in Paris, at the age of 50.

Lavoisier was actually one of the few liberals in his position, although all taxcollectors were executed during the Revolution. According to a (probablyapocryphal) story, the appeal to spare his life so that he could continue hisexperiments was cut short by the judge: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants nide chimistes ; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic needsneither scientists nor chemists; the course of justice cannot be delayed.")[15]

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented thebeheading by saying: "Cela leur a pris seulement un instant pour lui couper la tête,mais la France pourrait ne pas en produire une autre pareille en un siècle." ("Ittook them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce anothersuch head in a century.")[16][17]

One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the Frenchgovernment. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief notewas included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted."About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It waslater discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for thestatue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de Condorcet, the Secretary of the

Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations from being made. Thestatue was melted down during the Second World War and has not since been replaced. However, one of the main"lycées" (high schools) in Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are named after Lavoisier, and statues of himare found on the Hôtel de Ville (photograph, left) and on the façade of the Cour Napoléon of the Louvre.

Lavoisier is listed among eminent Roman Catholic scientists (see List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists), and assuch he defended his faith against those who attempted to use science to attack it. Louis Edouard Grimaux, author ofthe standard French biography of Lavoisier, and the first biographer to obtain access to Lavoisier’s papers, writes thefollowing:

Antoine Lavoisier 6

Raised in a pious family which had given many priests to the Church, he had held to his beliefs. ToEdward King, an English author who had sent him a controversial work, he wrote, “You have done anoble thing in upholding revelation and the authenticity of the Holy Scripture, and it is remarkable thatyou are using for the defense precisely the same weapons which were once used for the attack.”[18]

Selected writings• Opuscules physiques et chimiques [19] (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801 [20])• L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres &

Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d’augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux,

Supplément à l’instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31mai 1785 (Instruction on the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing thesubsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with fodder,published by order of King on 31 May 1785).

• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de nomenclature chimique [21]

(Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et

moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. [22] (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes [23] (Paris:

Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presentedin a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here [24]

• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur [25]," Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences (1780),pp. 355–408.

• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace &A. K. Lavoisier [26] (1792)

• Mémoires de physique et de chimie (1805: posthumous)

In translation• Essays Physical and Chemical [27] (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd.,

1970) translation by Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et chimiques• The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and

approved by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos[28] of L'art de fabriquer le salinet la potasse

• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir on Heat:Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, 28 June 1783, by Messrs.Lavoisier & De La Place of the same Academy. (New York : Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans.by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la chaleur

• Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To AnInvestigation Of The Constitution Of Acids [29], trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects theseessays:

1.1. "Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air in passing through theirLungs." (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)

2.2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académiedes Sciences, 1777)

3.3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."4.4. "On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and recomposing that Acid."5.5. "On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."

Antoine Lavoisier 7

6.6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogisic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air inwhich the Pyrophorus was burned."

7.7. "On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."8.8. "General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they are composed."9.9. "On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation of Elastic Aëriform

Fluids."• Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and De Fourcroy

(1788) Dictionary [30]

• Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern Discoveries (Edinburgh: WilliamCreech, 1790; New York: Dover, 1965) translation by Robert Kerr of Traité élémentaire de chimie. ISBN978-0486646244 (Dover).• 1799 edition [31]

• 1802 edition: volume 1 [32], volume 2 [33]

• Some illustrations [34] from 1793 edition• Some more illustrations [35] from Othmer Library of Chemical History• More illustrations [36] (from Collected Works) at Othmer Library of Chemical History

References[1] ", He is also considered as the "Father of Modern Nutrition", as being the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body.

Lavoisier, Antoine. (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9369846)" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24July 2007.

[2] Schwinger, Julian (1986). Einstein's Legacy. New York: Scientific American Library. pp. 93. ISBN 0-7167-5011-2.[3] C.Michael Hogan. 2011. Sulfur. Encyclopedia of Earth, eds. A.Jorgensen and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the

environment, Washington DC (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Sulfur?topic=49557)[4] Ihde, Aaron (1964). The Development of Modern Chemistry. Harper & Row. p. 86.[5] Moore, F. J. (1918). A History of Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ROQIAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA47& dq=history+ chemistry+

moore+ lavoisier). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 47. .[6] "Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.[7] "Antoine Lavoisier" (http:/ / www. famousscientists. org/ antoine-lavoisier/ ). FamousScientists.org. . Retrieved 2011-12-15.[8] Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry" (http:/ / www. springerlink.

com/ content/ x14v35m5n8822v42/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). The Chemical Educator 3 (5): 1 – 18. doi:10.1007/s00897980249a. . Retrieved 14December 2007.

[9] in French (http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr/ ice/ ice_page_detail. php?lang=fr& type=text& bdd=lavosier& table=Lavoisier& bookId=26&typeofbookDes=Memoires& pageOrder=1& facsimile=off& search=no) and Memoir on Combustion in General (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/~giunta/ lavoisier1. html) (English translation)

[10] in French (http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr/ ice/ ice_page_detail. php?lang=fr& type=text& bdd=lavosier& table=Lavoisier& bookId=31&typeofbookDes=& pageOrder=1& facsimile=off& search=no)

[11] See the "Advertisement," p. vi of Kerr's translation, and pp. xxvi–xxvii, xxviii of Douglas McKie's introduction to the Dover edition.[12] Charles C. Gillespie, Foreword to Lavoisier by Jean-Pierre Poirier, University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition, 1996.[13] Is a Calorie a Calorie? (http:/ / www. ajcn. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 79/ 5/ 899S) American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 79, No. 5,

899S–906S, May 2004[14] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (26 September 2006). "Lagrange Biography" (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/

Biographies/ Lagrange. html). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060502072418/ http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/Biographies/ Lagrange. html) from the original on 2 May 2006. . Retrieved 20 April 2006. "In September 1793 a law was passed ordering thearrest of all foreigners born in enemy countries and all their property to be confiscated. Lavoisier intervened on behalf of Lagrange, whocertainly fell under the terms of the law, and he was granted an exception. On 8 May 1794, after a trial that lasted less than a day, arevolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier, who had saved Lagrange from arrest, and 27 others to death. Lagrange said on the death ofLavoisier, who was guillotined on the afternoon of the day of his trial"

[15] Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain thatit was never uttered." For Duveen's evidence, see the following: Duveen, Denis I. (February 1954). "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and the FrenchRevolution". Journal of Chemical Education 31 (2): 60 – 65. Bibcode 1954JChEd..31...60D. doi:10.1021/ed031p60..

[16] Delambre, Jean-Baptiste (1867). "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le Comte J.-L. Lagrange". In Serret, J. A.. Œuvres de Lagrande. 1.pp. xl.

[17] Guerlac, Henry (1973). Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier — Chemist and Revolutionary. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 130.

Antoine Lavoisier 8

[18] Grimaux, Edouard. Lavoisier 1743-1794. (Paris, 1888; 2nd ed., 1896; 3rd ed., 1899), page 53.[19] http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ File:Lavoisier_-_Opuscules_physiques_et_chimiques. djvu[20] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ExkAAAAAQAAJ[21] http:/ / imgbase-scd-ulp. u-strasbg. fr/ displayimage. php?album=692& pos=3[22] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-bM5AAAAcAAJ[23] http:/ / isnature. org/ Files/ Lavoisier1789-Traite_elementaire_de_chimie. htm[24] http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr/ ice/ ice_book_detail-fr-text-lavosier-Lavoisier-89-6. html[25] http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr/ ice/ ice_page_detail. php?lang=fr& type=text& bdd=lavosier& table=Lavoisier&

typeofbookDes=Memoires& bookId=38& pageChapter=M%E9moire%20sur%20la%20chaleur& pageOrder=1& facsimile=off& search=no&num=& nav=1

[26] http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr/ ice/ ice_page_detail. php?lang=fr& type=text& bdd=lavosier& table=Lavoisier&typeofbookDes=Memoires& bookId=65&pageChapter=Premier%20m%E9moire%20contenant%20les%20exp%E9riences%20faites%20sur%20la%20chaleur,%20pendant%20l%27hiver%20de%201783%20%E0%201784,%20par%20P.S. %20de%20Laplace%20et%20A. L. %20%20Lavoisier& pageOrder=1& facsimile=off& search=no& num=& nav=1

[27] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HxMAAAAAQAAJ[28] See Denis I. Duveen and Herbert S. Klickstein, " The "American" Edition of Lavoisier's L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse (http:/ /

www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1917020)," The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series 13:4 (Oct. 1956), 493–498.[29] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-pQQAAAAIAAJ[30] http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ nomenclature. html[31] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=adYKAAAAIAAJ[32] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ elementschemist01lavogoog[33] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ elementschemist00lavogoog[34] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ btv1b21000856. r=lavoisier. langEN[35] http:/ / othmerlib. chemheritage. org/ record=b1034183~S2[36] http:/ / othmerlib. chemheritage. org/ record=b1034193~S2

Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).

"Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.

Antoine Lavoisier 9

Further reading

Lavoisier, by Jacques-LéonardMaillet, ca 1853, among culture

heroes in the Louvre's CourNapoléon

• Berthelot, M. (1890). La révolution chimique: Lavoisier. Paris: Alcan.• Catalogue of Printed Works by and Memorabilia of Antoine Laurent

Lavoisier, 1743–1794... Exhibited at the Grolier Club (New York, 1952).• Daumas, M. (1955). Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur. Paris: Presses

Universitaires de France.• Donovan, Arthur (1993). Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and

Revolution. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.• Duveen, D. I. and H. S. Klickstein, A Bibliography of the Works of Antoine

Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794 (London, 1954)• Grey, Vivian (1982). The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine

Lavoisier. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc..• Gribbin, John (2003). Science: A History 1543–2001,. Gardners Books.

ISBN 0-14-029741-3.• Guerlac, Henry (1961). Lavoisier — The Crucial Year. Ithaca, New York:

Cornell University Press.• Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (1985). Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life.

Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.• Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (1998). Antoine Lavoisier — The Next Crucial

Year, or the Sources of his Quantitative Method in Chemistry. PrincetonUniversity Press.

• Jackson, Joe (2005). A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat And The Raceto Discover Oxygen. Viking.

• Johnson, Horton A. (2008). "Revolutionary Instruments, Lavoisier's Tools as Objets d'Art". Chemical Heritage 26(1): 30 – 35.

• Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03718-6.• McKie, Douglas (1935). Antoine Lavoisier: The Father of Modern Chemistry. Philadelphia: J. P. Lippincott

Company.• McKie, Douglas (1952). Antoine Lavoisier: Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer. New York: Henry Schuman.• Poirier, Jean-Pierre (1996, English edition). Lavoisier. University of Pennsylvania Press.• Scerri, Eric (2007). The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press.• Smartt Bell, Madison (2005). Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science in an Age of Revolution.

Atlas Books, W. W. Norton.

External links• Panopticon Lavoisier (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lavoisier/ ) a virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier• Antoine Lavoisier (http:/ / www. chemheritage. org/ classroom/ chemach/ forerunners/ lavoisier. html) Chemical

Achievers profile• Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (http:/ / www. philiplarson. com/ e1. shtml)• Works by Antoine Lavoisier (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Lavoisier_Antoine) at Project Gutenberg

Antoine Lavoisier 10

About his work• Location of Lavoisier's laboratory in Paris (http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?hl=en& ie=UTF8& msa=0&

msid=103015796427039682952. 00046ac5940f4335f749d& ll=48. 8528,2. 366459& spn=0. 007427,0. 016372&z=16)

• Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ history/ inourtime/inourtime_20071115. shtml) by the BBC

• Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"? (http:/ / antoine. frostburg. edu/ chem/ senese/ 101/matter/ faq/ who-defined-compounds. shtml) – Fred Senese

• Cornell University's Lavoisier collection (http:/ / rmc. library. cornell. edu/ collections/ lavoisier. html)

His writings• Bibliography (http:/ / moro. imss. fi. it/ lavoisier/ main. asp) at Panopticon Lavoisier• Les Œuvres de Lavoisier (http:/ / www. lavoisier. cnrs. fr) (The Complete Works of Lavoisier) edited by Pietro

Corsi (Oxford University) and Patrice Bret (CNRS) (French)

• Oeuvres de Lavoisier (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ Search?ArianeWireIndex=index& q="Oeuvres+ de+ Lavoisier"&p=1& lang=en) (Works of Lavoisier) at Gallica BnF in six volumes. (French)

• Works of Lavoisier (http:/ / www. archive. org/ search. php?query=creator:"Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent,1743-1794") at Internet Archive

• WorldCat author page (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ wcidentities/ lccn-n50-39793)• Elements of Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. de/ books?hl=de& lr=& id=yS_m3PrVbpgC) – Google books

version of the 1965 Dover reprint (limited preview)

Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and ContributorsAntoine Lavoisier  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=524715265  Contributors: ..TTT.., 121a0012, 1exec1, 21655, 2607:FE50:0:851A:B84C:7EB9:8E46:7F5C,28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 4lex, 5 albert square, ABF, ASCIIn2Bme, AVIosad, Abrech, Ace099, Aeusoes1, Agleeson, AjaxSmack, Ajrocke, Ak539, Akubhai, Alangstone, Alansohn, Aldaron,Ale jrb, Aleichem, Alex Middleton, Alex.muller, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, Alexsparks, Alexwcovington, Allens, Allissonn, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Alphachimp, Ams80, Anaxial, Andre2398,AndrewHowse, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Angusmclellan, Ann Stouter, Anoravkram, Antandrus, Anthere, Arctic Fox, ArmadilloFromHell, Asperal, Astrochemist, Attilios, AugPi, Averross, Awien,Awolf002, Baa, Babablacksheephaveyouanywool, Bart133, Battoe19, Bbsrock, Bcrowell, Bduke, Bean159, Beaumont, Ben davison, Bender235, BillFlis, Bishonen, Blanchardb, BlueCaper, BobBurkhardt, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bradv, Brutannica, Bryan Derksen, Btilm, Bubbles0234, Bucketsofg, Bullzeye, Bwalko, CIreland, Calder87, Call me Bubba, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,Canglesea, Capricorn42, Captain-tucker, Cdang, Cerealkiller13, Charles Sturm, Christine1107, Christopher1968, Chuunen Baka, Closedmouth, Codingmasters, Colonies Chris, ComicParty,Compag, Computerjoe, Comrade Tux, Conny, Conversion script, Crazycomputers, Cremepuff222, Cricket2002, Crosbiesmith, Curps, Curtangel, Curvecake, Cutler, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,DMG413, DMacks, DR04, DVdm, Da Joe, Damnreds, Danielaustinhall12, Dasa00, DaughterofSun, David Kernow, David Latapie, David N Pearl, David.Monniaux, DeadEyeArrow, Decltype,Deconstructhis, Delldot, DeltaCommand, Deltabeignet, Deon, DerHexer, Didactohedron, Dirac66, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Dlabtot, Docu, Dodiad, Dogpooppy, Dom Wiki, DonSiano, Dr. Dan,Drohn, Dureo, ELDRAS, ESkog, Earthlyreason, Eastlaw, Edal, Edgar181, Edison, Enfantsduparadis, Eog1916, Epbr123, Epfr, Equendil, EricArbour, Erik the Red 2, Erkcan, Esanchez7587,FF2010, Fabiform, Falconer, Farbodebrahimi, Fatla00, Favonian, Fdt, FeanorStar7, FelisLeo, Finell, Fischer.sebastian, FlorianMarquardt, Fluffernutter, ForestH2, Frania Wisniewska,Freakmighty, Freakofnurture, Frehley, Fyyer, Fæ, G N Frykman, GCarty, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gakmo, Gamekid12, Ganymead, Gdude222, Gentgeen, Genuinekale, GeoGreg, GeoWPC,Ggnore, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Giovanni-P, Glass Sword, Golbez, Good Olfactory, Gordonrox24, Graham87, Grayshi, Grunt, Gurch, Guyzero, Gwernol, H-Vergilius, Haber, Hahafumofo,Hans Dunkelberg, HappyApple, Harryboyles, Harryzilber, Hede2000, Hemmingsen, HexaChord, Hmains, Homepride197, Hu12, Husond, I dream of horses, Icairns, Icarus3, Ilovejohan,Imboredman, InNuedo, Independent2100, Innotata, Inwind, Iphthime, Iridescent, IrisKawling, Island, It Is Me Here, Itub, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JKeck, JSoules, JaGa, Jab843, Jak123,JamesBWatson, JamesLacoeur, Jamesontai, Jan1nad, Javierito92, Jazzy1011, Jcwf, Jeff G., Jez, Jfmantis, Jimaginator, Jimbreed, Jimmy415, Jj137, Jmabel, Jncraton, JoanneB, John, JohnCD,Johnpacklambert, Joshua Scott, Joshuaqweasd, Jprg1966, Judicatus, Kablammo, Kaciemarie4, KaizenIT, Keilana, Ken the chemist, Kesla, Kf4bdy, Kgrad, Kiddo27, Kingpin13, Kinkreet,KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Koolio191919, Kowey, Krawi, Kraxler, Kuru, Kuyan, Kwertii, Kylu, Kzollman, L Kensington, LOL, Lacrimosus, Larry_Sanger, LeaveSleaves, Lee Daniel Crocker,LeilaniLad, Lenin and McCarthy, Lesgles, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Lilclaireclaire, LinDrug, Lo2u, Lord Hawk, Loren.wilton, LouisPhilippeCharles, Luk, Lupo, Lupogun, M1ss1ontomars2k4,MER-C, Macaddct1984, Magnus Manske, Malo, Mandarax, Marcdeguzman, Marek69, Mariadelcarmen101, Materialscientist, Matsjoyce, Mav, McSly, Megaboz, MelbourneStar, Mets501,Michael Devore, Michealkelly, Midnightguy, Mike.lifeguard, Minesweeper, Mion, Mishuletz, Misza13, Modest Genius, Moe Epsilon, Mohawkjohn, Monegasque, Monty845, Moocow121,Mooncow, Moralis, Morgankevinj huggle, Moto Perpetuo, Mpatel, Mr Stephen, Mschel, Mudwater, Munita Prasad, Myanw, Myscrnnm, Mythrandir 77, N1RK4UDSK714, NCurse,NHRHS2010, Natadev, NathanSmith, NawlinWiki, Ndsg, Ne0pets22, Neddyseagoon, Neelix, Neilc, Nergaal, Netalarm, Neutrality, Night Gyr, Nihil novi, Nimetapoeg, Non-dropframe, Nsaa,Ntnon, Oblivious, Odedee, OfTheGreen, Ohbabybabybaby, Ohconfucius, Olivier, Omnipaedista, OrbitOne, Ori, Orijok, OwenBlacker, Oxymoron83, PBS, Pajz, Palica, Partypenpal, Pedro,Pepsidrinka, Per Honor et Gloria, Perfectblue97, PeterHuntington, Pgr94, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Phoebe, Pigman, Pigsonthewing, Piledhigheranddeeper, Piniricc65, Pishogue,Plasticup, Platonicmaria, Pleasantville, Plucas58, Pmsyyz, Politepunk, Ponyo, Puckerup, Quadell, R0gWi11, RJaguar3, Radon210, Ragesoss, Raven4x4x, Raymondwinn, Rdsmith4, RedHillian,Reggg23, Rektide, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Richwales, Roastytoast, Rob Hooft, RobertG, Robertonb, RodC, Ronhjones, Rothorpe, Rrburke, Rubberbandman200,RudyB, Rugbyhelp, 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Tremblot, Triona, Tsja, Turgan, Twthmoses,Ukexpat, Urahara, Userresuuser, Vald, Vanished User 0001, Versus22, Vikingchild, Vnvnfls, Vojvodaen, Vsmith, Vssun, Wadewitz, Walkerma, Walton One, Waltpohl, Wangsta89, Waprap,Weird0strangeone, Wetman, Wiki alf, Wikigi, Wikipelli, Willking1979, WilyD, Wimvandorst, Wooyi, WriterListener, XJamRastafire, Xezbeth, Xsanda, Zachary, Zaez, Zeality, ZenerV, Zero R,Zotel, Zymurgy, ^demon, Александър, 1605 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Antoine lavoisier color.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, afterBoillyFile:Antoine Lavoisier Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antoine_Lavoisier_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Antoine-Laurent deLavoisier Created in vector format by ScewingFile:Laboratoire-de-Lavoisier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laboratoire-de-Lavoisier.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Edal Anton LefterovFile:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Badzil, Bohème, Churchh, Cybershot800i, Didactohedron, Diligent, Ecummenic, Elian, FxJ, Jastrow, Kilom691, Kirtap, Mattes, Mutter Erde, Natl1,Pierpao, QWerk, Serge Lachinov, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Slomox, Soerfm, Svencb, Urban, Zolo, 2 anonymous editsFile:Lavoisier decomposition air.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavoisier_decomposition_air.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: derivative work: Cdang(talk) Hidrogenexp2.gif: Mme Lavoisier, uploaded by User:HappyAppleFile:SeimiKaisouChemistry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeimiKaisouChemistry.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Tora, World Imaging, 丁File:Lentilles ardentes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lentilles_ardentes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gan Luo, HappyAppleFile:Zoom lunette ardente.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -File:Calorimeter.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calorimeter.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gan Luo, HappyAppleFile:Lavoisier humanexp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavoisier_humanexp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FSII, Felistoria, Florian Jesse,HappyApple, Kilom691, Mutter ErdeFile:Lavoisier-statue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavoisier-statue.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:ThbzFile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur,Rocket000File:Lavoisier cour Napoleon Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lavoisier_cour_Napoleon_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Jastrow

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