AP Test ReviewUnit Two

The Reformations and Religious Wars

Ca. 1517-1648

The Protestant Reformation

Interconnected to the renaissance and spurred on by rise of the merchant/middle class, the growth of individualism, and more activity in Biblical scholarship from original texts.

Urged a return to a stronger and less ritualistic Christian faith

Underlying Causes: Religious

14th – 15th century Church Crises Babylonian Captivity Great Schism Failure of the Conciliar Movement Renaissance Popes “Secularism”

Underlying Causes: Religious

Corruption within the Catholic Church Simony: sale of church offices Pluralism: holding more than one office Absenteeism: an official not present within his

or her benefice Nepotism: favor of family members Immoral behavior of the clergy Clerical Ignorance Sale of indulgences

Underlying Causes: More Religious

Early Catholic Reformation John Wyclif – Lollards, Bible as sole authority John Hus – Vernacular translation of Bible Thomas A Kempis – Imitation of Christ

• Brethren of Common Life (Lay mysticism) Erasmus, In Praise of Folly

• Christian Humanism

Underlying Causes: Intellectual

Renaissance Humanism Liberal arts education could be used to root out

superstition and ignorance Textual criticism of humanist thinkers

undermined Catholic authority

Underlying Causes: Political Many political rulers saw the Church as a

foreign (Italian) imposition on their growing political control and hated the fact that the church had its own courts, owned much land, and was exempt from local taxes.

N. German princes saw religious reform as an excuse to pursue selfish desires to break away from the HRE.

Underlying Causes: Economic

Papal taxes were a hated burden on European nations and the rulers, the merchants, and the peasants all resented the payments. Thought they were getting very little for their

money.

Popes, Cardinals, and bishops lived lavishly at the expense of other Europeans.

Martin Luther & the 95 Theses Pope Leo X authorized Johan Tetzel to sell

indulgences to make money for the new St. Peter’s “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul

from purgatory springs.” October 31,1517: Martin Luther posted the 95

Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg Criticized the selling of indulgences and

questioned the pope’s authority to do so! The printing press soon spread his ideas all over

Germany.

Challenging Church and Imperial Authority

Leipzig Debates with Johann Eck in 1520 Denied the infallibility of the pope

Excommunication in 1520 Diet of Worms in 1521

“Here I stand, I can do no other.” Luther outlawed from HRE as a heretic! Protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony

Luther’s Theology of Reform

Salvation through faith alone Good works follow faith, but only faith brings salvation!

Bible was the sole authority! Translation into vernacular

Priesthood of All Believers Rejected monasticism and clerical celibacy

Only two sacraments were valid Baptism and Communion

Consubstantiation, not Transubstantiation Real presence, but not actual transformation of material

Argued for a primitive separation of church from state

Spread and Survival of Lutheranism

North German princes convert to Lutheranism Political motivated

Denmark and Sweden become Lutheran German Peasants Revolts (1524-5)

Used Lutheran teachings to demand an end to serfdom Luther refused to support the Peasants – he was

sympathetic to their complaints but believed in secular obedience

Charles V neglect of the HRE (1521-1530) At war with the Valois in Italy At war with the Turks in Eastern Europe

Religious Warfare

1530: council called at Augsburg by Charles V to reconcile Catholic and Lutheran differences. The Augsburg confession was the Lutheran

position, but it was rejected by the Catholics. Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League

for protection.

1546: War broke out between N. Protestant states and the Catholic HRE.

The Peace of Augsburg After a series of stalemates, the Peace of

Augsburg was signed in 1555. “cius regio, eius religio” only Lutheranism and Catholicism were

considered to be legal religions provided religious freedom only to the princes:

everyone else was forced to abide by the religion of the ruler.

*** denied Calivinism

Along with the Habsburg-Valois Wars, this prevents Charles V from unifying Germany!

The Spread of Protestantism

Anabaptism – Adult Baptism “Left wing” of Protestant Reformation

• Emphasized complete separation of church from state

Seizure and tragic fall of Munster in 1532• Institution of polygamy

Long term impact of Anabaptists Mennonites and Quakers

• Both advocated pacifism

Zwingli (1484 - 1531) Swiss Reformer, who established a theocracy in

Zurich Removed all artwork from churches Ended the veneration of the saints

Similarities with Luther “justification by faith alone” Bible is final authority, not the pope

Break with Luther Colloquy of Marburg

• Rejected “Real Presence” for a symbolic view of Eucharist

John Calvin (1509 - 1564)

Frenchman who was forced into exile in Geneva when his protestant ideas came into conflict with the catholic monarchy in France.

Main ideas were found in his book: Institutes of the Christian Religion.

Founder of Calvinism, the theological foundation of the religious practice of Puritanism.

Major Tenets of Calvinism Bible is the final authority Predestination: God has already decided

who will be saved (“the elect”) and who will not be (“the damned”). The elect will uphold God’s teachings and lead

exemplary lives. Their good works are only an outward sign of their salvation.

People are saved by the grace of God, not by faith and not by good works.

Purely symbolic communion

Theocracy in Geneva

New center of Reformation Europe by 1540 Militant puritanism develops in Geneva

Establishment of Protestant Work Ethic Hard work pleased God, and financial success was an

outward sign of election Church structure is lay-dominated

Consistory – Lay elders fused religious law and secular law Michael Servetus is key example of the fusion of

church and state in Geneva Executed for denying the Trinity

Spread of Calvinism

Calvin’s ideas spread to other locations and became popular in Europe:

France: Huguenots• Sets stage for the French Religious Wars

Scotland: John Knox founded the Presbyterian church• Sets stage for Charles I’s campaign against the Scots in late

1630s England: Puritanism

• Set stage for colonial expansion to New England as well as English Civil War

Holland: Dutch Reformed Church• Set stage for Dutch Revolt as well as Dutch economic success

The English Reformation English humanists and pre-reformers (such

as Huss and Wycliffe) called for an end to the materialism of the church. William Tyndale translates the Bible into

English

Many English nobles strongly resented papal dues and church controls.

England’s remote location gave it more independence in religious matters.

Henry VIII & the Reformation from Above

Henry sends Cardinal Wolsey to get him an annulment from the pope. The pope refused.(Charles V’s troops had sacked Rome in 1527, and the pope was under the control of Charles).

Henry arrested Wolsey for treason and appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new Archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer annulled the marriage.

Establishment of the Church of England

1534: Act of Supremacy: king replaces the pope as head of the English church and monasteries dissolved. Church lands were confiscated

1534: Act of Succession: Guaranteed the ability of Anne Boleyn’s offspring to succeed Henry as legitimate heirs to the throne

1539: Statute of the Six Articles Anglican Church was Catholic in practice but not in

name!!!

English Reformation Continued

Edward I Church becomes more protestant in practice

• Many Lutheran theological tenets are adopted in the new Book of Common Prayer written by Cranmer

Mary I – “Bloody Mary” Revoked the legislation of Henry and Edward Attempted to re-impose Catholicism

• Execution of hundreds of Protestants

“Elizabethan Settlement”

Elizabeth I – Politique 1559 – Act of Supremacy

• Recognizes Elizabeth as head of the church 1563 – Thirty-Nine Articles

• Established a middle ground between Catholics and Protestants within the Church of England

– All citizens required to attend church– Outward obedience required; inner conscience could not

be regulated

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563): Established by Pope Paul III Response to the gains of Protestantism as well

as the critics within the Church

Unsuccessful in stopping the reformation, but it is utilized to improve church discipline through a reaffirmation of existing doctrine

Components of Trent Confirmation of:

Equal validity of scripture, tradition, and writings of Church fathers

Faith and good works were both necessary for salvation Seven sacraments – including transubstantiation Monasticism, clerical celibacy, and purgatory

Established the Index of Forbidden Books Reforms:

Ended sale of indulgences Ended simony Reformed bishoprics Seminaries established to end ignorance

Formation of the Jesuits Ignatius Loyola

Absolute and militant obedience to Catholic doctrine and beliefs, but combined these ideas with the need for humanist education.

Goals Reform the church through education Spread gospel through missionary activity Defeat Protestantism

Achievements Oversaw the Spanish and Italian Inquisitions Contained Protestantism to Northern Europe Introduced Christianity to East Asia

Spain’s Catholic Crusade

Philip II (1556-98) Philip inherited a nation blessed with great wealth

in the form of gold and silver from the New World.

Goal: Reestablish Christendom! Result: He squandered his inheritance by:

spending huge amounts of resources by fighting religious wars to try to halt the spread of the Reformation;

purchasing luxury items from other nations to keep the Spanish nobility happy.

Spain’s “Golden Age”

El Escorial Philip’s new royal palace symbolized Spain’s

political dominance and commitment to Catholicism

Battle of Lepanto (1571) Spanish vessels defeated the Turkish navy off

the coast of Greece Ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean

The Dutch Revolt

Under the leadership of William of Orange (William the Silent), the Calvinist Dutch provinces united with the Catholic Dutch provinces to assert their independence from Spanish control Pacification of Ghent (1579)

Causes: The Calvinist provinces resented the Inquisition and all of the provinces resented the payment of taxes to Spain and high grain prices.

The Dutch, continued Philip, a intense and determined man, sent the

Duke of Alva to stop the revolt. His actions included the Council of Blood and the

sacking of Antwerp under Alexander Farnese. Following the sacking of Antwerp, the

Catholic provinces left the Dutch alliance and joined with the Spanish. The Catholic provinces eventually became

Belgium, while the Calvinist ones became the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic).

Spain vs England (Late 1500s)

Relations between the two nations had been deteriorating since the death of Mary I Elizabeth reversed Mary’s Catholic policies and refused

Philip’s hand in marriage Great rivalry existed between Spain and England over

control of the seas and control of new world wealth (Francis Drake and the Sea Dogs)

Execution of Mary Queen of Scots after several attempts failed to overthrow Elizabeth

Elizabeth supported the Dutch Republic! Philip decided to attack England in an attempt to

restore Catholicism to the nation in 1588.

The Spanish Armada (1588)

The English decisively defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, thus preventing any Spanish acquisition of England. Navy lay in ruins due to the Protestant Wind

Results: This defeat forever weakened Spain and led to

its decline in the next century. Signaled the rise of England as a world naval

power

The Dutch Republic

Secured de facto independence from Spain by the late 1500’s. This was made official in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia.

Golden Age of the Dutch Republic: early 1600’s due to political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.

THE FRENCH CIVIL WARS

Although France had only a small minority of Huguenots (approx. 9% in 1560), they had far more power than their numbers, because most protestants were upper middle class persons or members of the nobility. Many of these Huguenots became Calvinist as

an excuse to take a stand against the power of the Valois family.

Result: A resurgence of feudal disorder!

Francis I and Henry II Both of these kings were concerned about the

growing Protestant minority and actively persecuted the Calvinists.

Unfortunately, Henry II died while his sons were quite young, leaving Catherine de Medici as the queen mother. Catherine had a difficult time dealing with the various political and religious factions in France and her religious policies were disastrous for the nation.

Political and Religious Problems in France

Three political factions were competing to control France by 1560: Bourbons (Protestants) Guises (Catholics) Chatellions (Protestants)

Religious war broke out in 1562. Catherine would switch sides, for a time supporting the Protestants, then the Catholics, etc.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Cause: Marriage of Valois princess to Henry of Navarre Designed to reconcile differences between Catholic

government and Protestant nobles

St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572 Coligny (Prot. advisor) and several thousand Parisian

Protestants were killed by members of the Guise family at the orders of Catherine

This again ignited more warfare and led France into the “War of the Three Henry’s.”

The War of the Three Henry’s In this war, England helped the Protestant

forces, and Spain helped the Catholics. King Henry III (Cath.) and Henry of

Navarre (Prot.) vs. Henry Guise (Cath.) Henry III was killed, and Henry of Navarre

won a series of military victories which established him as King Henry IV and created a new ruling dynasty in France--the Bourbons.

King Henry IV (1589 - 1610) When he took over, France was in a state of

religious and political disorder, and the central government was severely weakened.

Henry rebuilt a devastated France with the help of his advisor, the Duke of Sully.

The Politique 1593: Henry became Catholic (“Paris is worth a

mass”).

Achievements of Henry IV

1598: Edict of Nantes: granted religious toleration to Protestants (1st legal recognition of Calvinism in any nation). Catholicism was still the national religion (The

religion of most Frenchmen) Protestants were given a number of liberties:

• Free to worship privately (in select cities)• Access to university and public office• Right to maintain fortified towns

More Achievements of Henry

Strengthened the power of the monarch by weakening the power of the nobility. Put France on a gradual course towards

absolutism

Began an extensive program for economic improvements--repairing and constructing roads, bridges and harbors, reclaiming marsh lands, fostering agriculture, and repairing the bankrupt government.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648)

Forever weakened the HRE and paved the way for French continental supremacy.

Approx. 1/3 of the population died and approx. 1/2 of the wealth of the German states was depleted. This decimation set the stage for the long-term

fragmentation of central Europe.

Underlying Cause: The Failure of the Peace of Augsburg!!

The Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625)

Cause: Defenestration of Prague Protestant, Frederick V of Bohemia demanded

more autonomy for Bohemia from Ferdinand II (HRE)

Catholic officials thrown out a window in response to greater restrictions placed on Protestant Bohemia

The Protestant forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of White Mountain and Frederick was deposed. Protestantism was eliminated in Bohemia

The Danish Phase (1625 - 1629) Danish King Christian IV stepped up to lead

the Protestants who were nearly wiped out after phase I.

The protestant forces experienced more losses at the hands of Albrecht von Wallenstein.

The Edict of Restitution forced protestants to restore to the Catholic church all lands that had been taken from it since 1552. This was a major defeat for the Protestants.

The Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635)

Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus and his army landed in Germany, starting phase III of the war. Liberated Protestant territory lost during the Danish

phase of the war Cardinal Richelieu of Catholic France supported

Gustavus and the Protestant forces in an attempt to control the power of the Hapsburgs. Result: Successful! Ended any real hope of the

Habsburgs imposing Catholicism on the HRE

Swedish Phase, continued

Many early protestant victories, but Gustavus was killed in the battle of Luetzen in 1632.

Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634.

Thus, this phase of the war was a costly one for both sides. But with the death of Adolphus, France feared a

Catholic revival during the next stage of the war!

The French, or International, Phase (1635 - 1648) France sent troops to support the Protestant

princes of the HRE Just as in the Habsburg-Valois Wars

Cath. France + Prot. Sweden vs. Cath. HRE + Prot. Denmark + Cath. Spain As one can see, this was no longer a religious

war…it was purely political!!!!

1645: Denmark surrendered 1648: Germans called for a truce.

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

E – End of Wars of Religion F – France emerges as #1 in Europe C – Calvinism added to Peace of Augsburg H – HRE made irrelevant I – Independence of Dutch and Swiss P – Prussia emerges as a new power

The Final Phase (1648 - 1659) Although the German states were no longer

involved as combatants in the war, Spain and France continued to war over their differences, fighting on German soil.

Both nations looted and pillaged the German lands, and the devastated Germans were helpless in stopping them.

This phase ended with the Treaty of the Pyranees.