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Application of nuclear and subnuclear physics
Energetic application
1) Radionuclide sources2) Classical nuclear reactors 3) Fast (breeder) reactors4) Accelerator driven transmutors5) Thermonuclear reactors
Medical application 1) Diagnostics ndash using of signed atom method 2) Positron emission tomography 3) Radiation therapy 4) Irradiation using particles or nuclei
Industrial application and application in other science disciplines
1) Activation analysis2) Surface studies3) Implantation atoms4) Radioactive dating5) Conservation by irradiation
Radiation safety 1) Natural and artificial radiation sources 2) Radioactive waste handling
Nuclear power station Darlington
Radiation department of clinic at Heidelberg
Radionuclide sources
Principle Decay of radioactive nuclei heat is produced (for example isotopes with suitable decay times 90Sr ndash 288 y 137Cs ndash 301 y 210Po ndash 038 y and 238Pu ndash 877 y)Thermoelectric cell transforms heat to electricity ( Sebeck phenomena - U T efficiency 5 ndash 10)
Pioneer 10 Advantages
Independent on sun light ndash possibility to use in every place Long and stable function also in hard conditions of vacuum and strong electric and magnetic fieldsSimplicity reliability
Disadvantage
Possibility of ecology danger during probe accident
Casini probe working near Saturn is supplied by radionuclide sources
Radionuclide cells of Nimbus B-1 probe on see ground after accident of booster rocket (1968)
Installation of SNAP-27
Used by outer planet probes landing modules working long time without sun light
Probe accidents (without danger) up to year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source burning down at atmosphereafter year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source impact in compact form (PuO2 ndash ceramic material graphite and iridium cover) Nimbus B-1 SNAP-27 Apollo 13 Mars 8 (1996)
Launch of Ulysses probe from space shuttle deck
Classical nuclear reactors
Fission reactions ndash nuclear fission spontaneous or after energy obtaining - usually energy of neutron capture is delivered - accompanied by production of neutrons with energy in MeV range ( 2 - 3 neutrons per fission)
Fission chain reaction
Fission of 235U and 239Pu nuclides by neutron capture
235U 85 - fission 15 - photon emission
Very high values of cross sections of small neutron energies (10-2 eV)
Necessity of neutron moderation - moderator
Fission ndash creation of fission products Capture photon emission beta decay ndash transuranium production
Delayed neutrons ndash emitted by fission products (neutron excess) - mean lifetime 88 s
Multiplication factor k ndash number of neutrons of future generation produced per one neutron of present generation
k lt 1 subcritical systemk = 1 critical systemk gt 1 supercritical system
Nuclear power station Indian point (USA)
Reactor regulation
Compensation rods - worsening of neutron balance during operation is compensated by their gradual removal Control rods ndash regulation of immediate changes of outputSafety shut-down rods - fast reactor stopping
Fuel 1) natural uranium ndash consisted of 238U and only 072 of 235U 2) enriched uranium ndash increasing of 235U content on 3-4 (clasreactor)
mostly in the form of UO2
Power station Diablo Canyon USA Nuclear reactor Reactor inside during fuel exchange
435 energetic reactors power 370 GWe rarr production of 16 of electricity
total operating experience gt 10 000 reactoryears
Year 2006 (MAAE source)
Important is heat removal (water)
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Radionuclide sources
Principle Decay of radioactive nuclei heat is produced (for example isotopes with suitable decay times 90Sr ndash 288 y 137Cs ndash 301 y 210Po ndash 038 y and 238Pu ndash 877 y)Thermoelectric cell transforms heat to electricity ( Sebeck phenomena - U T efficiency 5 ndash 10)
Pioneer 10 Advantages
Independent on sun light ndash possibility to use in every place Long and stable function also in hard conditions of vacuum and strong electric and magnetic fieldsSimplicity reliability
Disadvantage
Possibility of ecology danger during probe accident
Casini probe working near Saturn is supplied by radionuclide sources
Radionuclide cells of Nimbus B-1 probe on see ground after accident of booster rocket (1968)
Installation of SNAP-27
Used by outer planet probes landing modules working long time without sun light
Probe accidents (without danger) up to year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source burning down at atmosphereafter year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source impact in compact form (PuO2 ndash ceramic material graphite and iridium cover) Nimbus B-1 SNAP-27 Apollo 13 Mars 8 (1996)
Launch of Ulysses probe from space shuttle deck
Classical nuclear reactors
Fission reactions ndash nuclear fission spontaneous or after energy obtaining - usually energy of neutron capture is delivered - accompanied by production of neutrons with energy in MeV range ( 2 - 3 neutrons per fission)
Fission chain reaction
Fission of 235U and 239Pu nuclides by neutron capture
235U 85 - fission 15 - photon emission
Very high values of cross sections of small neutron energies (10-2 eV)
Necessity of neutron moderation - moderator
Fission ndash creation of fission products Capture photon emission beta decay ndash transuranium production
Delayed neutrons ndash emitted by fission products (neutron excess) - mean lifetime 88 s
Multiplication factor k ndash number of neutrons of future generation produced per one neutron of present generation
k lt 1 subcritical systemk = 1 critical systemk gt 1 supercritical system
Nuclear power station Indian point (USA)
Reactor regulation
Compensation rods - worsening of neutron balance during operation is compensated by their gradual removal Control rods ndash regulation of immediate changes of outputSafety shut-down rods - fast reactor stopping
Fuel 1) natural uranium ndash consisted of 238U and only 072 of 235U 2) enriched uranium ndash increasing of 235U content on 3-4 (clasreactor)
mostly in the form of UO2
Power station Diablo Canyon USA Nuclear reactor Reactor inside during fuel exchange
435 energetic reactors power 370 GWe rarr production of 16 of electricity
total operating experience gt 10 000 reactoryears
Year 2006 (MAAE source)
Important is heat removal (water)
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Radionuclide cells of Nimbus B-1 probe on see ground after accident of booster rocket (1968)
Installation of SNAP-27
Used by outer planet probes landing modules working long time without sun light
Probe accidents (without danger) up to year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source burning down at atmosphereafter year 1964 ndash construction ensure of source impact in compact form (PuO2 ndash ceramic material graphite and iridium cover) Nimbus B-1 SNAP-27 Apollo 13 Mars 8 (1996)
Launch of Ulysses probe from space shuttle deck
Classical nuclear reactors
Fission reactions ndash nuclear fission spontaneous or after energy obtaining - usually energy of neutron capture is delivered - accompanied by production of neutrons with energy in MeV range ( 2 - 3 neutrons per fission)
Fission chain reaction
Fission of 235U and 239Pu nuclides by neutron capture
235U 85 - fission 15 - photon emission
Very high values of cross sections of small neutron energies (10-2 eV)
Necessity of neutron moderation - moderator
Fission ndash creation of fission products Capture photon emission beta decay ndash transuranium production
Delayed neutrons ndash emitted by fission products (neutron excess) - mean lifetime 88 s
Multiplication factor k ndash number of neutrons of future generation produced per one neutron of present generation
k lt 1 subcritical systemk = 1 critical systemk gt 1 supercritical system
Nuclear power station Indian point (USA)
Reactor regulation
Compensation rods - worsening of neutron balance during operation is compensated by their gradual removal Control rods ndash regulation of immediate changes of outputSafety shut-down rods - fast reactor stopping
Fuel 1) natural uranium ndash consisted of 238U and only 072 of 235U 2) enriched uranium ndash increasing of 235U content on 3-4 (clasreactor)
mostly in the form of UO2
Power station Diablo Canyon USA Nuclear reactor Reactor inside during fuel exchange
435 energetic reactors power 370 GWe rarr production of 16 of electricity
total operating experience gt 10 000 reactoryears
Year 2006 (MAAE source)
Important is heat removal (water)
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Classical nuclear reactors
Fission reactions ndash nuclear fission spontaneous or after energy obtaining - usually energy of neutron capture is delivered - accompanied by production of neutrons with energy in MeV range ( 2 - 3 neutrons per fission)
Fission chain reaction
Fission of 235U and 239Pu nuclides by neutron capture
235U 85 - fission 15 - photon emission
Very high values of cross sections of small neutron energies (10-2 eV)
Necessity of neutron moderation - moderator
Fission ndash creation of fission products Capture photon emission beta decay ndash transuranium production
Delayed neutrons ndash emitted by fission products (neutron excess) - mean lifetime 88 s
Multiplication factor k ndash number of neutrons of future generation produced per one neutron of present generation
k lt 1 subcritical systemk = 1 critical systemk gt 1 supercritical system
Nuclear power station Indian point (USA)
Reactor regulation
Compensation rods - worsening of neutron balance during operation is compensated by their gradual removal Control rods ndash regulation of immediate changes of outputSafety shut-down rods - fast reactor stopping
Fuel 1) natural uranium ndash consisted of 238U and only 072 of 235U 2) enriched uranium ndash increasing of 235U content on 3-4 (clasreactor)
mostly in the form of UO2
Power station Diablo Canyon USA Nuclear reactor Reactor inside during fuel exchange
435 energetic reactors power 370 GWe rarr production of 16 of electricity
total operating experience gt 10 000 reactoryears
Year 2006 (MAAE source)
Important is heat removal (water)
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Reactor regulation
Compensation rods - worsening of neutron balance during operation is compensated by their gradual removal Control rods ndash regulation of immediate changes of outputSafety shut-down rods - fast reactor stopping
Fuel 1) natural uranium ndash consisted of 238U and only 072 of 235U 2) enriched uranium ndash increasing of 235U content on 3-4 (clasreactor)
mostly in the form of UO2
Power station Diablo Canyon USA Nuclear reactor Reactor inside during fuel exchange
435 energetic reactors power 370 GWe rarr production of 16 of electricity
total operating experience gt 10 000 reactoryears
Year 2006 (MAAE source)
Important is heat removal (water)
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Fast (breeder) reactors
Nonmoderated neutrons rarr necessity of high enrichment of uranium 20 - 50 of 235U (or 239Pu)Production of 239Pu 238U + n rarr 239U(β-) + γ rarr 239Ne (β-)rarr239Pu
More neutrons from 239Pu (3 per one fission) rarr production of more plutonium than is burned up (breeding zone)
High enrichment rarr high heat production rarr necessity of powerful cooling rarr molten natrium (temperature of 550 oC)
Lifetime of fast neutron generation is very short rarr bigger role of delayed neutrons during regulation
Power stations Phenix - 250 MWe and Superphenix 1200 MWe (France)
Fast breeder reactor at Monju (Japan) - 280 MWe
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
It consists of
1) Proton accelerator - energies in the range 100 - 1000 MeV2) Target - lead tungsten hellip3) Vessel containing system of nuclear waste moderator
Necessity of separation of stable and shortlived isotopes
Basic properties
1) Usage of spallation reactions2) Very high neutron density rarr effective transmutation3) Subcritical behavior4) Production of neutrons with very wide energy range
Conception scheme of accelerator driven nuclear transmutor
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Concrete proposition of nuclear transmutor
Proton accelerator E = 100 MeV - 2 GeV I = 20 - 100 mA
Problems necessity of stable trouble-free operation during very long time
Target tungsten liquid lead uranium and transuranium Neutron density ~1020 m-2s-1 (reactor ~1017 - 1018 m-2s-1)
Problems removal of great amount of heat
Subcritical blanket
Problems necessity of continuous separation efficient transport and neutron moderation
Scheme of concrete accelerator driven transmutation system
Energy production as at classical nuclear power station its part supplies accelerator
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Thermonuclear reactors Fusion of light nuclei energy production
Practical use 2H + 3H 4He + n + 1758 MeV
High temperature (107 - 109 K) nuclear reactions thermonuclear reactions
Lawson criterion ndash necessary condition for production of more thermonuclear energy than it is consumed for fuel heating
For DT reaction τρ ge 3∙1020 s∙m-3
τ ndash time of hot plasma maintenance ρ ndash density of plasma nuclei
Temperature 108 - 109 K
Experimental thermonuclear reactors of Tokamak type
Ring chamber - ring magnetic field(chamber height 2 - 4 m B = 2 - 5 T currents 2∙106 A)
Important - high vacuum and strong magnetic field plasma maintenance
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) Princeton (USA)
TFTR at Princeton worked between years 1987 -97 maximal power was 10 MW general view and inside view on ring
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
JET (Joint European Torus) Culham near Oxford Great BritainUp to 16 MW in pulls and 4 MW during 5 s 65 usage of delivered energy
Experimental device JET at Culhamu (height 12 m diameter 15 m)
JT-60 (JAERI Tokamak 60) Naka Japan
ITER - international thermonuclear experimental reactor
Goal Building of future thermonuclear reactor prototype
Neutron and gamma ray shielding created helium off takeLithium envelope ndash tritium production 6Li(n)3H 7Li(nn)3H
Precursor of JT-60 device was JTF-2M device
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Diagnostics ndash usage of labeled atom method
Stable isotopes in compounds should be changed by radioactive ones( 197Au 198Au 12C 11C 127I 123I)
Advantage is very short lifetime rarr radioactivity quickly vanishes
1) Investigation of function and states of different organs and tissues2) Localization of malignancies
Radiopharmaceutics ndash labeled compounds at medicine ndash wide assortment of compounds for different organs investigation is very important
Examples of other used radionuclides32P 57Co 58Co 51Cr 18F 67Ga 75Se 89Sr 99mTc 111In 133Xe 153Sm 197Hg 201Th 203Hg
Detection of radiation by system of gamma detectors (NaI(Tl) is mainly used) harr organ scintigrams
Metabolism of different elements and compounds is studied
Labeled compounds are used in many further fields ecology hydrology chemistry biology and industry
Preparation of radiopharmaceutics lead glass protection (company Radiopharmacy Inc ndash Indiana USA)
Record of radioactivity distribution in investigated organs - scintigrams
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive isotopes with positron decay rarr positron annihilation in rest rarr creation of two photons (gamma ray quanta) flying in opposite directions rarr their detection and annihilation position determination
Used radioisotopes 11C 13N 15O 18F
Insertion of radioactive isotope to compound subsides at studied organ (accurate diagnostics and medical research)
1) Determination of position and sizes of cancer tumor 2) Efficiency of irradiation using heavy ions (10C 11C) 3) Identification well and bad perfused parts4) Identification of intensively working brain parts
Heart damaged by heart attack Healthy heart
Very good spatial resolution ( 2 mm ) still new chemical compounds for PET chambers (systems of Positron Emission Tomography)
Typical PET chamber and commercial cyclotron IBA cyklone 103
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Radiation therapy
Cancer cells are more sensitive to radiation rarr radiation is used for destruction of cancer cells and elimination of tumors
External radiation therapy
Irradiation by external radiation source ndash mostly X or gamma rays - cobalt or cesium emitters use 60Co and 137Cs
Cobalt emitter of Faculty Hospital at Ostrava
Internal radiation therapy
1) Small capsule with emitter (for example iridium thin wires for treatment of skin cancer) is transported to proximity of tumor inside body
2) Radioactive compound is injected inside body and it is concentrated in organ affected by tumor
Boron neutron capture therapy
Compound containing 10B is injected to body rarr it is cumulated in cancer cells healthy cells do not drop boron inside rarr irradiation by thermal and epithermal neutrons from reactor rarr energy from reaction 10B(nα)7Li destroys cancer cells
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Heavy ion irradiation
Usage of ionization energy losses dependency on charged particle velocity
Larger charge (heavier ion) rarr larger part of energy is deposited on the end of trajectory
Possibility to place destructive energy to tumor without damages of neighboring tissue
Heavy ion accelerator
Test system uses accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt (100 MeV - 1 GeV)
Part of heavy ion accelerator SIS at GSI Darmstadt
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Possibility of accurate setting of position (given by beam direction) and depth (ion energy)
Three-dimensional irradiation
1) Models in water2) Plan of irradiation and result is controlled by positron emission tomography (PET) (radioactive ions are accelerated ndash positron emitter)
Suitable for brain tumor or spine tumor (incoparable smaller damage of neighboring tissue than for surgical operation)
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Higher sensitivity of cancer cells against radiation damage
Some dozens of patients were successfully irradiated at GSI from 1997 year
Model of specially projected device for hospital at Heidelberg Radiation table at GSI Darmstadt(perfect fixation of patient is important)
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Activation analysis
X-ray-fluorescence activation analysis ndash irradiation by X-ray or gamma ray source rarr photoeffect rarr characteristic X-rays
Neutron activation analysis ndash sample is irradiated by known neutron flux with known energy spectrum mostly from reactor Radionuclides are created during irradiation rarr characteristic gamma lines rarr their intensities are given by amount of original isotope
Advantages 1) Very small sample is necessary 2) Very small element contents should be determined (10-12 g of element in 1g of sample) 3) Sample is not damaged ndash very advantageous for archeology
Wide use in ecology biology archeology historiography geology astrophysics hellip
Particle flux can be determined using known material of used foils by activation analysis (determination of neutron flux in reactor or accelerator proton flux)
Semiconductor HPGe detectors are mainly used for gamma ray measurements (example of detector at JINR Dubna and obtained spectra)
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Surface studies
Studies of composition and structure of surface layers
A) Using of neutrons (mainly from reactor)
Neutron scattering - neutron diffraction (diffraction and interferometry)
Difractometer SPN-100
NPI ASCR
Neutron interferometer
B) Using of accelerated light ion ndash nuclear analytical methods
1) Rutheford backscattering (RBS)2) X-ray emission induced by particles (PIXE)3) Gamma ray emission induced by particles
(PIGE)
Example of RBS method use for study of surface with lubricated layer of aluminum oxide (NPI of ASCR)
Radiation defectoscopy
Mostly using gamma rays but also neutrons or charged particles (many imaging methods)
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Ion implantation
Use of ions accelerated on energies within the keV ndash MeV range implanted to materials
Modification of surface properties of different materials (metals semiconductors)
Use mainly but not only at electronic industry ndash production of microchips and others semiconductor components
Industry surface modification ndash harder materials resisting against corrosion
Crystal modification ndash change of atoms
Enrichment of surface by impurity in the amount of only single atoms
Nuclear filters ndash ionizing traces after passage of ionizing particle through material rarr chemical etching rarr very small holes rarr very fine filters
Implantator TECVAC 221
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Radioactive dating Use of different radioactive nucleus decay time We study ratio between stable and radioactive isotopes mother and daughter nucleiArcheology
radioactive carbon 14C (T12 = 5730 years) produced by cosmic ray interaction at atmosphere organism absorbed it by breathing ndash death rarr isotope 14C is decaying The ratio 14C13C12C determines age of remnantsProblem ndash background small activities change of production of 14C and 12C (burning of fossil carbon and nuclear tests)
Range 20 000 ndash 25 000 years only for organic materials
Wider range thanks accelerator mass spectroscopy ~50000 years
Mass spectrometer for 14C dating on University at Aarhus (Sweden)Geology and cosmogony
Potassium-argon method 40K (T12 = 128 billion years) After freezing created 40Ar can not escape rarr age can be determined Dating of rocks minerals and objects created from melted material
Measurement of exposing time of meteoritesIsotope 39Ar 26Al 10Be 53Mn T12 [year] 269 74105 151106 374106
Cosmology Very long-life isotopes ratio between radioactive and stable ndash creation time of elements in different space regions ndash use of spectroscopy
Accelerator mass spectrometer
Moraacutevka meteorit
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Conservation by irradiation
Conservation of historical artifacts
Use of biological effects of ionizing radiation on insect and microorganisms
Mostly gamma rays are used mainly 60Co source
Radiation preservative workplace at Central Bohemia museum at RoztokyGenesis ndash emitter for food conservation Gray Star Company uses 60Co radioactive source
Food conservation Elimination of danger pathogens ndash more healthy and durable food store
Sterilization of medical material
Surgical and other medical material implantats (joint substitutes hellip) Changes of some polymer features are used
Advantages 1) High efficiency2) It does not damage and change features of conserved material3) It can change features of some polymers positively4) It does not leave harmful or toxic remains
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Natural and artificial radiation sources
Quantities describing ionizing radiation and its biological effect
Activity A [Bq = s-1] ndash number of decays Rate [Bq = s-1] ndash number of detected particles
Imparted energy Dose D [Gy = Jkg-1] - total energy imparted to tissue or organDose rate [Gy s-1]
Radiation biological effect depends on type of tissue and radiation
Dose equivalent H = QD [Sv] Q - quality factor - relative biological effect of given radiation on tissue
Equivalent dose HT = wRDT [Sv] DT ndash dose absorbed by tissue Radiation weighting factor wR quality factor estimating biological risk of radiation
Type of radiation wR
Photons and electrons of all energies 1
Neutrons with energy 10 keV 5
Neutrons with energy 10 - 100 keV 10
Neutrons with energy 01 - 2 MeV 20
Neutrons with energy 2 - 20 MeV 10
α rays 20
Every organ or tissue are differently sensitive
Effective dose ndash sum of equivalent doses weighted with the respect to radiation sensitivity of organs and tissues of whole human body
Biological effects of ionizing radiation
Non-stochastic ndash are threshold dose is sufficient to create observable damage during relatively short time
Stochastic effects - dose does not create observable damage during short time but it is some probability of its later appearance
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Radiation sources to which population is exposed
Radiation source Ĥ [μSv year-1] Fraction []
Cosmic rays 380 125
Natural radionuclide 702 229
Radon and its transformation products 1300 431
Mining industry 24 075
Nuclear power supply 8 02
Radionuclide production 08 002
Medical application 660 206
125
229
431
07
02
00
206 Cosmic Rays
Natural radionuclides
Radon
Mining
Nuclear Power
Radionuclide production
Medical Aplication
Ĥ - annual average equivalent dose
External irradiation ndash external radioactivity sources
Internal irradiation ndash radionuclides inside body
Radiotoxicity ndash degree of radionuclide harmful effects
Five classes of radionuclide recklessness ndash the most danger is first (60Co 134Cs 137Cs 210Pb 226Ra 239Pu 241Am)
Basic limits ordinary man 1 mSvyear worker with radiation 50 mSvyear
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Nuclear waste ndash spent fuelComposition 96 uranium (~1 235U) 1 transuranium 3 fission products (stable short-live long-live)
Some long-life radioactive fission products 99Tc (21105 years) 129I (157107 years) 135Cs (23106 years) Long-life transurans 237Np (23106 years) 239Pu (23106 years) 240Pu (66103 years) 244Pu (76107 years) 243Am (795103 years)
Tests of spent fuel (Monju) Reactor inside and fuel exchange in one from USA reactor
Year production of nuclear waste at France (75 energy)
High activity (1000 Mbqg) 100 m3 Mean activity (1 Mbqg) 10000 m3
Temporary reposition ndash heat removal is very important during starting stage (water tank)
Reprocessing of spent fuel Processing and imposition of nuclear waste
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
Modification and processing of nuclear waste
a) Cementation - mixing with cement mixtureb) Bitumenation - mixing with molten asphalt bitumenc) Vitrification - mixing with molten glass
Manipulation with high activity waste Vitrification
Different types of radioactive waste transport
Pictures mainly from Sweden program of radioactive waste handling
