Arab British Museum

8/18/2019 Arab British Museum

1/61

DISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD

Supported byNote: these resources contain religious text.Please treat them with respect.

Arab people have had a huge impact

on the shaping of the modern world,

from helping to introduce Islam to

the Middle East, North Africa and

beyond, to fostering important

scientific and cultural achievements.However, the Arab world is often

seen in stereotypical terms and is

in danger of being misunderstood.

Discover the Arab World uses objects

from the British Museum’s unique

collection to explore many aspects

of this diverse, complex and

fascinating region. These resources

are designed to highlight importantkey themes, providing a platform for

students to research, debate and

discover the Arab world for themselves.

Front: Mosque lamp. Enamelled glass. Mamluk dynasty. Cairo,

Egypt, about AD 1350–55. Above: Chant Avedissian, Umm

Kulthum. Print on paper. Egypt, AD 1990s. © Chant Avedissian.


2/61

P a g e s f r om t h e

Q ur ’ a n

D I S C O V E R T HE A R A B

W OR L D


3/61

ObjectPages fromthe Qur’an

DescriptionInk on parchment. Egypt

or Syria, 14th century AD.

GlossaryAramaic: important

Middle Eastern language

in use between 1200 BC

and the 7th century AD

Nabateans: ancient

inhabitants of Petra

(now in Jordan) from

100 BC to AD 100

NoteThis card contains

religious text. Please

treat it with respect.

InformationThe Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, was revealed to the Prophet

Muhammad in the Arabic language and later written down in the

Arabic script. Because it is seen as the language of God, Arabic has

always been highly respected by Muslims. As a result, when the

Qur’an is copied the writing should be as beautiful as possible.

From the late 7th century AD, Muslim calligraphers developed a series

of scripts or lettering styles to copy the Qur’an. These styles were

then used on documents, coins, gravestones, textiles and buildings.

Until the 6th century AD, Arabic was a spoken language only. It was

the language of Arab tribal kingdoms in central Arabia, southern Iraq

and Syria. The writing used for Arabic from the 6th century onwards

is a form of Aramaic script used by the Nabatean people. Aramaic

was the official language of the western Persian empire that included

parts of Arabia. The use of written Arabic greatly increased with the

spread of Islam as people wanted to preserve what had been revealed

to the Prophet Muhammad.

The Arabic alphabet is written and read from right to left and consists

of 28 letters created from 17 different letter shapes. The alphabet

has been used and developed to write a variety of other languages,

including Persian, Urdu, Dari and Turkish (up to 1928), and, until

recently, the languages of Indonesia and Malaysia. Because of the

importance of Arabic in Islam, all Muslims are expected to read the

Qur’an in its original language. Today, Arabic is one of the most

widely used languages in the world with millions of speakers and

many Arabic words used in other languages.

Key questions and activities

1. Look closely at the picture and the text. Why do you think

that Arabic use spread so quickly?

2. Search the internet, then on an outline map of the Arab

world shade:

a) the countries where Arabic was first spoken in red

b) the countries where Arabic is spoken today in green

3. How is Arabic used in Britain today? Create a small bookletof evidence by collecting:

a) images of Arabic calligraphy used in mosque decoration

b) examples of printed Arabic, used on packaging and newspapers

c) examples of Arabic words and letters in modern art and design

d) examples of Arabic words used in English


1


4/61

Page from The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of ExistenceDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


5/61

ObjectPage from TheWonders ofCreation andthe Oddities ofExistence

DescriptionA page from a manuscript,

The archangel Israfil.

Baghdad, Iraq,

15th century AD.

GlossaryHadith: the sayings of

the Prophet Muhammad,which form one of the

major sources of Islamic law

Judgement Day: the

day when God will judge

everybody according to

their behaviour in life

InformationIn Islam, Israfil (Raphael) is one of the four archangels which also

include Jibra’il (Gabriel), Mikail (Michael), and Azra’il (Azrael).

According to the Hadith, Israfil is the angel responsible for signalling

the coming of Judgement Day by blowing a trumpet and sending

out a ‘Blast of Truth’. In the illustration Israfil is shown standing on

a cloud in a blaze of colour, wings and trailing sashes.

This page comes from The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities

of Existence written in AD 1270 by Zakariya Al-Qazwini, a judgeliving in Wasit in Iraq. It is an illustrated collection, which describes

many amazing and mysterious things in the universe. The book covers

geography, astronomy, astrology and natural history, through fact and

myth. The sections on natural history were partly based on the tall

tales of travellers returning from distant regions. Al-Qazwini divided

the universe into three spheres: the Heavens (which included stars,

planets and angels), Water (consisting of the seas, fish, the distant

islands and their strange inhabitants) and the Earth (composed of

animals, vegetables and minerals).

From the 9th century AD onwards there was an increase in the use

and manufacture of paper in the Arab and Islamic world. This meant

that books could be made more easily and more quickly. Authors

dictated their books to a scribe (writer) who then might pass them

to an illustrator. The author then listened to or read the book to

check its accuracy and gave it a certificate of authorisation. The

scribe then had the right to authorise new copies. Popular books

like The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence were

copied by hand again and again over hundreds of years.


1. Look at the picture and describe the angel. According to the

text, why do you think people wanted to know about angels?

2. Why were more Arab and Muslim people reading during the

medieval period?

3. Books like The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence

were written to share what Arab and Muslim scholars knewabout the world. Do some research on the methods we use to

communicate knowledge today and compare these with the

approaches followed in the medieval Arab world.


2


6/61

Astrolabe quadrantDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


7/61

ObjectAstrolabequadrant

DescriptionBrass. Damascus, Syria,

AD 1333–34.

Below: Astrolabe, silver

inlaid brass, Syria, 13th

century AD.

GlossaryFive Pillars: five

essential duties in the

life of a Muslim

Makka: birthplace of theProphet Muhammad, focus

of annual pilgrimage and

holiest city in Islam

InformationAccording to the Five Pillars of Islam, Muslims need to pray five times

a day facing Makka (Mecca) in Saudi Arabia. These times depend on

the position of the sun as prayers are at dawn, midday, afternoon,

sunset and evening. Therefore Muslims need to know the time and

the direction of Makka, known as the Qiblah, from anywhere around

the world.

Astrolabes, which were invented in the early 1st century AD, are flat

maps of the sky that are particularly useful to calculate the time andto find the Qiblah. By moving the sighting device on the back to find

the height of the sun and then using this information to set the rete

(web-like plate) on the front to the correct position, the time could

be read off the rim of the astrolabe. The location of Makka could be

found by using the features on the back of the astrolabe.

The astrolabe was introduced to Christian Europe in the 10th century

AD from Islamic Spain. Europeans were travelling to the Arab world

at this time and brought back translations of books on mathematics

and astronomy. As this knowledge spread, the use of the astrolabe

became common.

Astrolabe quadrants were first designed in the 11th and 12th

centuries AD. They combine all the functions of an astrolabe but

in a quarter of the space. These instruments proved useful for

hundreds of years.

The quadrant in the main picture belonged to Muhammad ibn

Ahmad al-Mizzi, the time-keeper of the Great Mosque in Damascus,

Syria in the early 14th century AD.


1. Why do you think that Al-Mizzi in particular would need

an astrolabe?

2. Why was the astrolabe quadrant such a useful instrument?

3. Do some research on the contribution to astronomy of

Al-Battani (c. AD 858–929), Al-Biruni (AD 973–1048)

or Al-Zarqali (AD 1028–1087).


3


8/61

Page from De Materia Medica in ArabicDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


9/61

ObjectPage fromDe MateriaMedica in Arabic

DescriptionA page from a manuscript,

A discussion betweentwo doctors and a student.

Possibly from Baghdad,

Iraq, AD 1224.

GlossaryGalen: influential Greek

physician c. AD 129–216

who worked for Romanemperors

Hippocrates: important

Greek physician

c. 460–370 BC whose ideas

revolutionised medicine

InformationArab people have always been very interested in the world around

them. As their empire grew, Arab scholars and scientists collected

information and learnt from other cultures. Rulers encouraged this

and libraries were set up in Baghdad in the 9th century AD at the

‘House of Wisdom’ and then in Cairo in the 11th century AD at the

‘House of Learning’. At these and other institutions, books from

ancient Greece and Rome, Persia and India were translated into

Arabic and copied for Arab and Muslim scholars to use.

As a result, doctors and scientists in the Middle East were able to

read the works of ancient Greek and Roman doctors like Hippocrates,

Dioscorides and Galen. This had an important impact on the study

of anatomy and physiology, medicine and pharmacy.

Pedanius Dioscorides was a doctor in the Roman army in the

1st century AD. His book De Materia Medica was translated at the

House of Wisdom in the 9th century AD. It describes how to make

medicine from up to 500 plants, explaining where to find each plant,

how to harvest it, how to prepare it as a drug, and which medical

problems it will cure.

In the picture, two doctors sit on low couches, listening to the

young apprentice seated on the floor between them. The book on

the x-shaped bookstand beside the doctor on the left may be a

medical handbook. The inscription on the page translates as:

‘...vinegar mixed with salt water will help if poured on malignant

ulcers, putrid or musty sores, dog bites and the bites of poisonous

insects…’


1. Using the picture, describe how Arab and Muslim students learnt

how to practice medicine.

2. Why do you think that Muslim scholars translated Greek and

Latin books into Arabic?

3. What impact did books by Arab and Muslim scholars have on

medicine over time? Do some research on Al-Razi (AD 865–925),

Al-Biruni (AD 973–1048) and Ibn Sina (AD 980–1037).


4


10/61

Jar ( albarello) with lustre decorationDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


11/61

Object Jar (albarello)with lustredecoration

DescriptionLustre painted tin-glaze

earthenware. Spain,14th–15th century AD.

Below: Lustre tile by William

de Morgan. England,

19th century AD.

GlossaryAlbarello: a cylindrical

pottery jar used to store

spices, medicines and

precious goods

Majolica: a style of

pottery made in Italy

from the15th century AD

onwards that uses lustre

InformationIn the 19th century AD, the ceramic artist William de Morgan

successfully reinvented a technique for decorating pottery which

gave it the appearance of precious metal, especially gold or silver.

The quality of this work was extremely high and his tiles, plates and

pots were popular with wealthy and artistic Victorians. Inspired by

pottery from the Middle East, de Morgan had revived a complicated

process that had been invented and developed by Arab potters in

Iraq as early as the 9th century AD.

Considerable knowledge of chemistry and experimentation was

needed to create this lustreware. Firstly, an earthenware pot was

dipped in glaze made with tin oxide and fired in a kiln. Then a mixture

of sulphur, silver or copper compounds, and ochre suspended in

vinegar or grape juice was painted on to the glazed surface and fixed

by firing the pot again. This left a thin layer of metal on the pot

creating a beautiful lustrous or shiny effect.

The pottery was so popular that from the 10th century AD its

production spread to Egypt, Syria, Iran and Muslim-ruled Spain.

It is likely that craftsmen took the ‘lustre secret’ with them as

they travelled on to these new places.

By the late 13th century AD, lustreware was being made in

Spain at Malaga and Valencia. It became so fashionable that large

quantities were exported across Christian Europe. Later, in Italy,

rich and powerful families like the Medici ordered Spanish

lustreware specially decorated with their own coats of arms.

In the 15th century AD, the technique was adapted at the Deruta

and Gubbio potteries in Italy. The resulting style became knownas maiolica or majolica.


1. Describe the colours and decoration used on the jar from Spain.

Why do you think the albarello was decorated with lustre?

2. Look at how lustre pottery was made. What does this tell us

about Arab understanding of chemistry at this time?

3. How have Arab and Muslim craftspeople influenced potters in

Christian Europe? Do some research on Italian majolica and

the work of William de Morgan and sketch out your own

designs for a lustreware pot.


5


12/61

Appliqué hanging for the doorway of a tentDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


13/61

ObjectAppliqué hangingfor the doorwayof a tent

DescriptionCairo, Egypt, early

20th century AD.

GlossaryBedouin: traditionally,

Arab nomads and

animal herders

Day of Judgement: the

day when God will judge

everybody according totheir behaviour in life

Khiyamiya: traditional

tent-makers in Egypt

InformationAs the Arabs carried Islam into the Middle East from the early

7th century AD, they adopted art-forms and designs that they

found and combined them with their own. In time, Islam itself was

to become an increasingly important influence on art across the new

empire. Some Muslim artists followed very strictly the views of the

Prophet Muhammad about representing people, ‘Those who make

these pictures will be punished on the Day of Judgement by being

told: Make alive what you have created’. As a result, representation

of living creatures was discouraged because it was felt that the artistswere trying to take on the creative powers of God. Instead, artists

developed other designs, using geometric patterns, plant-forms and

Arabic to create beautiful work.

For thousands of years, tents have been used by Bedouin and Berber

nomads when travelling with their animals in the desert fringes of

the Arab world and North Africa. Their tents are often made from

dark brown or black animal hair and white cotton. More colourfully

decorated tents are used in cities like Cairo to accommodate people

at important events like wedding celebrations.

The craft of tent-making in Egypt is a family business. The older

master craftsmen draw and trace the design onto the canvas base

using paper templates. The young apprentices sew coloured cotton

pieces over the resulting lines to create specific patterns.

Since the late 1920s, tent-makers or khiyamiya have also applied

their skills to making souvenirs for local people and tourists visiting

Cairo. Wall-hangings, cushion covers and bedspreads are made with

patterns inspired by ancient Egypt or daily life, or include the buyer’s

name in Arabic.


1. Look closely at the picture and describe the patterns used on the

tent hanging.

2. Why do you think the tent-makers decided to use these patterns?

3. Do some research on the history of tourism in Egypt and findout what kind of souvenirs have been produced. How do you

think that tourism has changed traditional crafts, like

tent-making, in Cairo?


6


14/61

Oriental sceneDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


15/61

ObjectOriental scene

DescriptionDia al-Azzawi.

Mixed media, acrylic

and foam board. Iraq/UK,

AD 1986. © Dia al-Azzawi.

GlossarySuq: Arabic word for market

InformationThis sculpture is one of a series of artworks by Dia al-Azzawi that

explores the arrangement of Arabic letters in an abstract way.

In these works the letters do not have any meaning in themselves

but are used for the beautiful impression they create. They become,

in his own words, ‘like Baghdad streets and narrow alleys’. In this way

the different word-shapes are used together to create an identity

for the sculpture. Another feature of al-Azzawi’s work is the rich

colour that he uses. He believes that colour affects the way that

we see and think about things; for example, black has been used forthe background of the sculpture to represent the tragedies of Iraqi

culture over time. For him, Iraq’s history and ancient civilisations are

a constant source of inspiration.

Baghdad, the capital of modern Iraq, is situated on the banks of the

river Tigris. The city is divided into two main districts, Rusafa and

Karkh. In Rusafa is Al-Rashid Street with its old townhouses and suqs,

which runs between North Gate and South Gate. For centuries, Iraqis

have walked from here to the Coppersmiths’ Suq, the Clothiers’ Suq

and Shorjah Market to do their shopping. Although the city has beendamaged by bombing since 2003, important historic buildings like

the Abbasid Palace and the Caliph’s Mosque can still be seen nearby.

Dia al-Azzawi was born in Iraq in 1939. He studied in Baghdad,

graduating in Archaeology in 1962 and then in Fine Arts in 1964.

His work includes paintings, sculptures, prints and drawings, as well

as books which combine visual art with poetry and prose. He has

exhibited in the Middle East, North Africa, the USA, India, Brazil and

Europe and has received many awards for his art. Al-Azzawi lives and

works in London.


1. Look at Oriental scene and describe the elements that make

up the sculpture, such as shapes, colour and materials.

2. Why do you think that history and ancient civilisations play

such an important part in Dia al-Azzawi’s artwork?

3. Research the appearance, layout and landscape of Damascus,Beirut, Amman or Cairo. Using a range of materials, create

your own abstract impression of a city in the Arab world.


7


16/61

M ur a l


W OR L D


17/61

ObjectMural

DescriptionMohammed al-Shammarey.

Book, 9 silkscreens. Iraq,

AD 2005. © Mohammed

al-Shammarey.

GlossaryPLO: Palestine Liberation

Organisation – group

of organisations originally

formed to free Palestinian

lands from occupation

InformationSince ancient times, the people of the Arab world have treated their

dead carefully because many of them believe in the afterlife. In Islam

and most sects of Christianity, human spirits or souls either spend

eternity in a place of happiness like Heaven or torment like Hell.

Both Christians and Muslims believe that before reaching the afterlife

there will be a day when all humans will be judged by God according

to their actions in life. On this Day of Judgement or Last Day, people

will then be sent to Heaven or Hell. In Jewish tradition the souls of

the dead, whether good or evil, go to a place called Gehenna to be judged. Some Jews believe that the souls will leave Gehenna when

they have been purified.

The images form parts of a book of loose pages presented in a

special wooden box. The book contains parts of the poem Mural,

written by Mahmoud Darwish in 1999 after he suffered a near-

fatal illness. Formerly a senior member of the PLO, Darwish is now

the leading Palestinian poet and is famous throughout the Arab

world. Although this is a very personal poem, his work is often

read as expressing the feelings of the Palestinian people. For theartist Mohammed Al-Shammarey, who created the book, Darwish’s

questioning of life and death is similar to his own feelings.

Mohammed Al-Shammarey was born Baghdad in 1962 and is

a self-taught artist. His work comprises book art, paintings and

sculptures. He has won several awards and his work has been

exhibited in the Middle East, North Africa and Europe.

Key questions and activities1. Describe the design of the book. Does anything surprise you

about it?

2. Looking at the text, what inspired Mahmoud Darwish to

write the poem Mural?

3. Research the patterns and decoration used in the Arab world

and design your own cover and page for the poem.


8


18/61

Cairo FacesDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


19/61

ObjectCairo Faces

DescriptionSabah Naim. Painted

photograph on canvas and

newspaper. Egypt, AD 2005.

© Sabah Naim.

InformationModern Cairo is the largest city in the Arab world and has a

population of over 17 million. Most people living there have

Arab or African heritage and follow Sunni Islam, but at least 6%

are part of the Coptic Christian community. Over the centuries,

medieval mosques, covered markets and modern office blocks have

developed over the city which is accessible by road, river, rail and

the underground. Many people take a black and white taxi as they

travel to college, work or the shops. When relaxing, young Egyptians

often sit in a café, go to the cinema or watch football at CairoInternational Stadium.

When looking at Cairo Faces, Egyptian artist Sabah Naim would

like us to think about the big difference between the international

world of TV, newspapers and politicians, and the everyday world of

ordinary people. For her, the daily struggle of getting through life in

Egypt has taken the place of political struggles. At the same time,

people now wait for things to happen rather than making things

happen. Cairo in her work is neither rich nor poor, neither old nor

new, but something in between, with its people making their waythrough the city, focused on their own lives. Although on first view

the people and places look ‘ordinary’, Naim gives them character

and importance by painting on to them.

Sabah Naim was born in Cairo, Egypt in 1967. She studied Fine Art

at the College of Art Education in Cairo, focusing on the human body

in contemporary art. Her work has been exhibited in Egypt, Cuba

and Europe. Naim lives and works in Cairo.


1. Describe the people that you can see inCairo Faces. Who else

would you expect to see if you visited the city of Cairo?

2. Why do you think that Sabah Naim used newspapers in her

picture?

3. Choose and research another capital city in the Arab world.

Using the internet, Arabic newspapers and magazines, and other

materials, create a collage that shows everyday life for thepeople living there.


9


20/61

Poster of Yasser ArafatDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


21/61

ObjectPoster ofYasser Arafat

DescriptionPaper. Maghreb-Editions,

possibly from Tunisia,

c. AD 1990.

GlossaryBedouin: traditionally,

Arab nomads and

animal herders

Fatah: The Palestine

National Liberation

Movement

Keffiyeh: headcloth

traditionally worn by

Arab men

PLO: Palestine Liberation

Organisation – group of

organisations originally

formed to free Palestinian

lands from occupation

Six Day War: war fought

from 5 to 10 June 1967between Israel, Syria,

Egypt and Jordan

InformationThroughout his life, Yasser Arafat (1929–2004) worked to defend

the rights of the Palestinian people. During the late 1950s, he helped

create Fatah and later commanded its military wing which he led

in the 1967 Six Day War. Two years later, due to his reputation as a

leader, he became the Chairman of the PLO. After publicly rejecting

violence, Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize with Yitzak Rabin and

Shimon Peres of Israel, for negotiating the 1993 Oslo Peace Accord.

He was elected President of the Palestinian National Authority in

1996 and governed the Palestinian Territories until his death in 2004.Arafat became an icon for many Arabs and Palestinians and was

rarely seen on posters, TV or in newspapers without his distinctive

black and white headcloth.

Until the 1920s, the Bedouin were distinguished from Arab villagers

and townspeople by their headcloths or keffiyeh. There are many

different ways of wearing the keffiyeh, including across the face to

shield it from sand or the sun, or even over the shoulders. In the late

1930s, headcloths were adopted by many villagers and townspeople

as an expression of Arab nationalism. Photographs show that manyheadcloths were white, but later black and white and red and white

checked patterns became popular. After the war of 1967 and the

Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, the black and white

keffiyeh became a symbol of Palestinian national identity. Young Arab

men wore it to show their allegiance, and since then it has become

a popular element on posters, paintings and cartoons. Today it is also

worn by foreign soldiers and student protestors, and it can be bought

in clothes shops in the West in a variety of bright colours.


1. Look at the poster and describe your impressions of Yasser Arafat.

2. Originally, who wore the keffiyeh? Why did they wear it?

3. Using the keffiyeh pattern, design your own poster to

highlight the United Nations’ work with Palestinian refugees

in the Arab world. Do some research into the UN on the internet

to help you plan this.


10


22/61

P a i n t i n g of a b a

t t l e b en e a t h t h e w a l l s of a t o wn


W OR L D


23/61

ObjectPainting of abattle beneath thewalls of a town

DescriptionPainting on paper. Cairo,

Egypt, late 12th to early13th century AD.

Below: Detail from the

Blacas ewer. Brass with

silver and copper inlay.

Mosul, Iraq, AD 1232.

GlossaryAnsar: soldiers or helpers of

the Prophet Muhammad

Caliph: successor to the

Prophet Muhammad as

leader of Islamic lands

and community

Fatimids: Muslim dynasty

which ruled in Egypt and

Syria from AD 969 to 1171

InformationDuring the 7th century AD, Muslim Arab armies took control of

Arabia and then created a huge empire in a short period of time.

Devoted to and inspired by God, the early Arab warriors, called the

Ansar , fought under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad,

the first caliphs and experienced commanders. They fought in tribal

groups and so were loyal to each other and their leaders. Units were

identified by their own flags which could also be used as a rallying

point in battle.

Arab soldiers rode to battle on camels or horses and were very well

equipped. Some wore helmets, shields and armour made from chain-

mail or small metal plates for protection. They fought with spears,

short swords and bows, which they used to devastating effect.

Early Arab armies used traditional ‘hit and run’ tactics learned in

Arabia. Later, these cavalry raids were used to weaken the enemy

before a larger force of infantry attacked from strong positions,

firing off arrows and then advancing in ranks or lines of soldiers.

At the beginning of the 7th century AD, the Byzantine and Persianempires were continuously at war with each other. Weakened by

years of fighting, their forces could not hold back the Arab armies.

Some experts believe that the painting shows a battle between

Christian Crusaders and Muslims in the 1160s, when King Amalric,

the Christian ruler of Jerusalem, led an expedition against the Fatimid

dynasty in Egypt. In the picture, infantry and cavalry can be seen

fighting around the walls of a town or fortress.


1. Look at the battle scene and try to identify three different

weapons being used.

2. How did the Arabs go into battle? Using the picture and the text,

describe the tactics and methods that the Arab forces adopted.

3. Do some research into why early Arab armies were so successful.

Imagine you are a member of the Ansar and write a letter to your

family in Arabia telling them about your experiences and victories.


11


24/61

T i l e s s h o wi n g S a l a d i n a n d R i c h a r d I


W OR L D


25/61

ObjectTiles showingSaladin andRichard I

DescriptionLead-glazed earthenware.

Chertsey, England,AD 1250–60.

GlossaryPhilip II: King of France

from AD 1179 to 1223 and

known as Philip Augustus

Richard I: King of England

from AD 1189 to 1199and known as Richard

the Lionheart

Saladin: Kurdish

commander and founder

of Ayyubid dynasty in

Egypt and Syria in the late

12th century AD

InformationThe region of the Middle East consisting of the Palestinian Territories,

Syria, Israel and Lebanon is often called the Holy Land. This is because

many places important to Judaism, Christianity and Islam are located

there. Between the 11th and 13th centuries AD, Christians and

Muslims fought to control the area and so protect their holy sites.

At the same time, parts of the region had fertile land, valuable

resources and access to important trade routes with the

Mediterranean, Africa and Asia.

Arab Muslim forces had taken Jerusalem from Byzantine Christians in

AD 639. Over 400 years later, a combined force of western Europeans

invaded the Middle East, captured Jerusalem in 1099, and divided up

the Holy Land into new kingdoms. This campaign is now known as

the First Crusade.

By 1187, Saladin (Salah al-Din in Arabic), a dynamic Muslim

leader from what is now northern Iraq, had retaken control of the

region. During the Third Crusade (1189–92), Philip II of France and

Richard I of England led another army to recapture Jerusalem for

the Christians. Although enemies, Saladin and Richard seemed to

respect each other due to their positions of power, bravery and

achievements. They exchanged gifts and Saladin’s brother al-Adil and

Richard developed a good relationship. At key stages of the Crusade,

the fighting stopped as both sides tried to find a peaceful way to get

what they wanted. Finally, with Richard sick and both armies severely

weakened, discussions took place in summer 1192. Among the

conditions of the truce that followed, Jerusalem was to stay under

Muslim control but would be open for Christian pilgrims.

The following year, Saladin died peacefully, after an illness in Syria.Richard, his old rival, died in 1199 as a result of wounds received

during a siege in France. The two men had never met.


1. Look closely at the picture. If the two leaders never met,

why do you think the tiles show Richard defeating Saladin?

2. Use the text to explain why the Muslim and Christian armiesstopped fighting during the Third Crusade.

3. Using the internet and other sources of information, do some

research to investigate how the Crusades influenced technology,

language, food and architecture in Europe.


12


26/61

S t on er e l i ef of t

h e s i e g e of L a c h i s h


W OR L D


27/61

ObjectStone relief of thesiege of Lachish

DescriptionFrom the South-West

Palace of Sennacherib.

The siege and capture ofLachish in 701 BC. Assyrian,

Nineveh, northern Iraq,

about 700–681 BC.

GlossaryLachish: ancient city in

the kingdom of Judah

(site in modern Israel)

Nineveh: ancient

capital city of Assyria

(site in modern Iraq)

Philistia: region of south

west ancient Palestine

Sennacherib: King of Assyria

from 705 to 681 BC with

capital at Nineveh

InformationThe Assyrian Empire developed in what is now northern Iraq from

about 1350 BC and spread into large parts of the Middle East.

Assyria had no natural frontiers and so the empire acted as a

protective ring around their fertile homeland. Conquering other

lands also brought booty, like valuable metals, wood and livestock,

and captives who could be put to work across the empire. In addition,

military victories created wealth through the control of trade routes.

In time, Assyrian armies used good organisation, innovative tactics

and state-of-the-art technology to create a huge empire.

The Assyrians faced rebellions by people who resented being ruled

by foreigners. One revolt began in Philistia during the reign of King

Sennacherib. The king sent in the troops and little by little they

stamped Assyrian authority over all the rebel cities except Lachish

which resisted and refused to pay tribute. For this, the city was

besieged, attacked and eventually captured by the Assyrians in

701 BC. This event is mentioned in the Bible, supported by

archaeological evidence and commemorated in a series of stone

panels from Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh.

In this panel, the Assyrian soldiers continue the attack on Lachish.

They are also shown carrying away a throne, a chariot and other loot

from the palace of the defeated governor. In front and below, some

of the people of Lachish, taking what goods they can salvage, make

their way through a rocky landscape with vines, fig and olive trees.

Some of the prisoners may have been resettled and put to work on

agricultural and building projects. Sennacherib records that as a result

of the whole campaign he deported 200,150 people. Not all captives

were so lucky though, as other panels show people being tortured

and executed.


1. Use the picture and the text to identify all the different reasons

why the Assyrians went to war.

2. Look closely at the picture. What can you see that shows the

impact of warfare on the people of Lachish?

3. Do some research on the Assyrian Empire. Find out how long

it lasted and which modern Arab states occupy the area today.


13


28/61

Uncle Najib’s suitcaseDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


29/61

ObjectUncle Najib’s

suitcase

DescriptionSaïd Farhan. Mixed media

on canvas. Iraq/Switzerland,

AD 1999. © Saïd Farhan.

Below: Anti-war badge.

Better Badges, UK, AD 2003.

GlossaryBaath Party: Iraqi political

party founded in AD 1951

and led by Saddam Hussein

from 1979Coalition: group of armies

that invaded and then

occupied Iraq from 2003

Mesopotamia: ancient

Greek word for the

land between the Tigris

and Euphrates rivers,

now called Iraq

InformationDuring the First World War, British and Indian forces fought Turkish

armies in Mesopotamia and suffered thousands of casualties. In

1920 Britain was given responsibility for governing the emerging

state of Iraq but faced rebellion. After defeating the rebellion, the

British installed King Faisal on the throne. Oil was discovered in 1927

in northern Iraq and a British company was given control, and kept

it even after independence in 1932. The monarchy was violently

overthrown in 1958 and Iraq became a republic. The Baath party

came to power in the 1960s leading to the dictatorship of SaddamHussein. Under his regime thousands of Iraqis left the country to

settle in other parts of the world, especially Europe.

On 15 February 2003, millions of people marched through London

and other cities across the world in the biggest anti-war protest in

history. They were trying to stop the invasion of Iraq aimed at the

removal of Saddam Hussein by the US-led coalition, which included

Britain. Despite the protests the invasion took place and, in the

following years, an estimated two million Iraqis fled to neighbouring

countries, particularly Syria and Jordan.

Saïd Farhan was born in Baghdad in 1955. He studied and then

settled in Switzerland, teaching visual arts. His work includes

paintings, drawings and prints. When he left Iraq, Farhan took only

a suitcase containing his most treasured possessions, which years

later inspired him to create a series of ‘suitcases’. These represent

exile – his own and that of countless others who have left their

homeland. They contain familiar objects that provide comfort

when there is nothing else. The signs marked on the cases have no

alphabetical meaning but represent memories.


1. Look at and carefully describe Saïd Farhan’s suitcase.

Compared with other bags, does anything surprise you about it?

2. Why do you think that so many Iraqis like Saïd Farhan left

their home country?

3. Do some research on Britain and Iraq’s shared history.How has Britain been involved in Iraq since 1914?


14


30/61

Bronze figure of Baal; Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer;Stone relief of a protective spirit



31/61

ObjectsBronze figureof Baal

Papyrus from theBook of theDead of Hunefer

Stone relief of aprotective spirit

DescriptionCanaanite, Syria, about

1400–1200 BC.

From Thebes, Egypt, 19th

dynasty, about 1275 BC.

Nimrud (ancient Kalhu),

northern Iraq, Neo-Assyrian,

883–859 BC.

GlossaryAncient Egyptians:

civilisation that developed

in the Nile Valley from the

late 4th millennium BCCanaanites: indigenous

people of the southern

Levant (present-day Israel,

Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and

the Palestinian Territories)

Mesopotamia: ancient

Greek word for the land

between the Tigris and

Euphrates rivers, now

part of Iraq

InformationUntil the idea of One God was widely accepted in the Arab world

and Middle East, most people worshipped a variety of gods and

goddesses. They were thought to influence all parts of daily life.

Some of what we know comes from a large number of clay tablets

found in Syria. These mention the supreme god, El, the ‘father of

mankind’, who lived in the heavens. He had more than 70 children,

including the god Baal and goddess Astarte.

Many different gods and goddesses were worshipped in the landsthat were eventually conquered by the Muslim Arabs from the

7th century AD. Although most people became Muslims, the Jews

and Christians, who also followed one God, continued to worship

in the Middle East.

Baal was one of the major gods of the Canaanites and, later,

Phoenicians in the ancient Middle East and represented royal power

and authority. He is often shown as a warrior brandishing a weapon,

but the figure in the picture may have held a thunderbolt. Canaanite

gods and goddesses were worshipped in temples wherever the people

settled across the Mediterranean.

The ancient Egyptians followed many gods, often depicting them as

half human and half animal. The picture is from the Book of the Dead ,

a papyrus of spells which formed a guide to the afterlife that was

placed in the tomb. This section shows the judging of the heart. If the

dead person survived this, he or she could become a blessed spirit.

The people of ancient Mesopotamia thought that the universe

was controlled by gods who had to be worshipped with prayers and

offerings. They also believed in evil demons and placed carvings andstatues of good spirits to protect the entrances to towns, houses

and rooms with magic.


1. Using the pictures and the text, try to identify some of the

evidence we have for religion in the ancient Middle East.

2. Why do you think that the people of the ancient Middle Eastworshipped so many different gods and goddesses?

3. How did religion change in the Arab world when Islam was

revealed and spread? Research this topic using these objects,

the internet and other sources you can find.


15


32/61

Mosque lampDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


33/61

ObjectMosque lamp

DescriptionEnamelled glass.

Mamluk dynasty. Cairo,

Egypt, about AD 1350–55.

GlossaryAmir: Muslim prince,

governor or military

commander

Five Pillars: five essential

duties in the life of a Muslim

Mamluks: dynasty of

slave-soldiers who ruled

Egypt and Syria from

AD 1250 to 1517

Minaret: a tower from

which Muslims are called

to prayer

NoteThis card contains

religious text. Pleasetreat it with respect.

InformationIslam was introduced to the world in Arabia, after the Qur’an was

revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in the early 7th century AD.

Within 20 years of his death, Muslim Arab armies had helped to

spread Islam, making it the dominant religion in the Middle East

and North Africa. Today, most Arab people are Muslims.

According to the Five Pillars of Islam, Muslims should pray at five

fixed times every day, facing Makka (Mecca). Muslims can pray

anywhere, even in the desert. The Prophet Muhammad’s house inMadina is thought to have been the model for the first mosque.

Later buildings were sometimes very simple while others, like the

Great Mosque in Damascus, were heavily ornamented with mosaics,

marble columns, Arabic inscriptions, domes and minarets.

Enamelled and gilded glass lamps like the one in the picture were

made in large numbers to light the many mosques built in Cairo

by Mamluk rulers between AD 1250 and 1517. A small glass

container for oil with a floating wick would have been placed

inside the lamp, and the lamp itself would have been suspended

by chains from the ceiling.

This lamp is decorated with verses from the Qur’an and an inscription

containing the name and titles of Amir Sayf al-Din Shaykhu al-Nasiri,

and his heraldic badge, a red cup. Like other Mamluk commanders,

Shaykhu spent a lot on art and architecture. This lamp was probably

made for his mosque near the Citadel in Cairo which was completed

in 1349 and was considered to be one of the finest of its time.

Key questions and activities1. Look closely at the picture and read the text. Why do you think

the lamp was made from glass?

2. Why might Muslim Mamluk sultans and amirs like Shaykhu have

spent so much money on building and decorating mosques?

3. What evidence do we have from the medieval period that proves

Arab people were devoted to following Islam? Research examples

of the written word, art and architecture.


16


34/61

P r i n t of t h eD om

e of t h eR o c k on t h eT em p l eM o un t i n J er u s a l em


W OR L D


35/61

ObjectPrint of the Domeof the Rock on theTemple Mount in Jerusalem

DescriptionLouis Haghe. Print basedon a watercolour by David

Roberts. London, England,

published AD 1842.

GlossaryKa’ba: cube-like shrine in

Makka, Saudi Arabia, towards

which all Muslims pray andthe destination of annual

pilgrimage or hajj

Umayyads: Arab Muslim

rulers (AD 661–750 in Syria

and AD 756–1031 in Spain)

InformationThe Old City of Jerusalem is sacred to three religions: Judaism, Islam

and Christianity. In its history, Jerusalem has been under the control

of each faith, being both a religious centre and a place of economic

and political power.

Jerusalem is one of the holiest cities in Islam. Early in the Prophet

Muhammad’s preaching, he identified it as a holy city. The direction

of prayer was first towards Jerusalem before it was changed to

Makka (Mecca).

Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad was miraculously

transported one night from Makka to Jerusalem, from where he

rose up to Heaven to meet earlier prophets. The Qur’an says that

the destination of the journey was al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque.

It is traditionally thought that one of Islam’s most important

buildings was constructed on the Temple Mount to commemorate

this event – the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the stone

from which the Prophet Muhammad is said to have ascended.

Jerusalem was captured by Arab Muslim forces in AD 639. Some timeafterwards, the Umayyad caliph, Abd al-Malik ordered the Dome to

be built. Completed in about AD 692, it is the oldest Islamic building

to survive in its original form. Its circular dome sits on an octagonal

base and is supported by 12 pillars and 4 piers. The outside of the

dome is covered in gold leaf, and inside it is decorated with mosaic

tiles. The building has been renovated and redecorated many times.

Today, it is a place of pilgrimage rather than a place of daily worship.

Scottish artist David Roberts travelled to the Middle East in 1838 to

paint landscape scenes. When Roberts got home, Louis Haghe madeprints of the paintings and these were published in a book, The Holy

Land , in 1842. The book proved very popular.


1. Looking at the picture and the text, why do you think people in

Victorian Britain were so keen to buy David Roberts’ book?

2. Why do you think the Dome of the Rock has been renovatedand redecorated many times?

3. Research the life of the Prophet Muhammad. Describe the

Night Journey and the Ascension and explain why the events

are so important in Islam.


17


36/61

Model of the Church of the Holy SepulchreDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


37/61

ObjectModel of theChurch of theHoly Sepulchre

DescriptionOlive wood.

Made in Bethlehem,Palestine, late

17th century AD.

GlossaryBible: Christian holy book

containing the Old and

New Testaments

Sepulchre: a tomb orburial chamber





Jerusalem is important to Christians because of its role in the events

recorded in the Bible. For example, according to the New Testament,

Jesus was brought to the city not long after his birth. Later in his life

he cleared the moneychangers from the Temple. The room believedto be the site of Jesus’ Last Supper is located on Mount Zion in the

same building that houses the so-called Tomb of King David. Also,

the area below the Mount of Olives is thought to be the Garden of

Gethsemane where Jesus was betrayed by Judas Iscariot and arrested.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was built by the

Roman emperor Constantine I in AD 325. It is believed to contain

the site of the Crucifixion and the Tomb of Jesus. The building was

beautifully decorated with marble walls and a ceiling painted in gold.

After the discovery and excavation of these holy sites, Jerusalembecame a place of pilgrimage for Christians. Many churches,

monasteries and hospices were built to shelter the thousands

of pilgrims that came. The business that the pilgrims brought

to Jerusalem and the Holy Land became very important to the

local people.

The model in the picture is an example of a souvenir made for

pilgrims to buy in the 17th century AD. It is made of olive wood

inlaid with ebony, ivory and engraved mother-of-pearl. Expensive

souvenirs like this were collected by royal and rich people in Europe.


1. Use the text to make a list of the reasons why Jerusalem is

important to Christians. Find out more about the events

on your list.

2. What do you think the different reasons are for why people buy

souvenirs? Why would someone buy this particular souvenir?

3. Research Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land and describe

the things pilgrims do and the places they visit. You could

write this up like a travel guide.


18


38/61

T h eP r o ph e c y

o f A m

o s ( W ai l i n g W a l l N o2

)


W OR L D


39/61

ObjectThe Prophecy of

Amos (WailingWall No 2)

DescriptionLouis Lozowick. Lithograph

with stencilled hand-colouring. USA, AD 1970.

© Lee Lozowick.

GlossaryHoly Ark: ornamental

cupboard in a synagogue

that contains the

Torah scrollsNebuchadnezzar II:

king of Babylon from

604 to 562 BC

Wailing Wall: name

sometimes used for

the Western Wall, referring

to Jewish sadness at

destruction of the Temple





Jerusalem is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible over 600 times.

Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy

Ark facing Jerusalem. According to Jewish law, daily prayers should

be recited towards Jerusalem and many Jews around the world have‘Mizrach’ plaques that show its direction.

According to tradition, King David conquered Jerusalem in about

1000 BC. He brought the Ark of the Covenant to the city, and it

became the political and spiritual centre for the Jewish people. Some

believe that David’s son Solomon built the First Temple at the place

where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac . Inside was the

‘Holy of Holies’, the most sacred site in Judaism. In 586 BC the city

was invaded by the Babylonians. At the order of King Nebuchadnezzar II

the city was set on fire, the Temple destroyed, and the people taken

into exile. The Second Temple was built from 516 BC but this too was

razed to the ground by the Romans in AD 70.

The Western Wall is sacred to Jewish people because, of the Temple’s

surviving walls, it is located closest to the original site of the Holy

of Holies. Jews have prayed at the Western Wall for centuries,

believing that God’s presence rests on it and that the gate of Heaven

is situated above it. When visiting, many Jews place a prayer written

on a small piece of paper into a crack in the Wall.


1. Look closely at the picture. Do you think that the Wall looks

ancient? Describe how the artist has achieved this effect.

2. Read through the text. Why is the Western Wall so important to

Jewish people?

3. Research Amos 7:9 in the Bible, the Temple of Jerusalem and

Judaism in the 20th century. Why do you think Lozowick chosethe Wailing Wall to represent the prophecy? What was he trying

to say about the experiences of Jews in modern times?


19


40/61

Stone marker for GhalilatDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


41/61

ObjectStone markerfor Ghalilat

DescriptionCalcite-alabaster.

Kingdom of Saba,

possibly Marib, Yemen,1st century AD.

Below: Incense burner,

Shabwa, Yemen,

about 3rd century AD.

GlossaryAthtar: ancient

South Arabian godof thunderstorms

South Arabia: area

covered by modern

Yemen and Oman

InformationBefore Islam, ancient South Arabia was divided into five kingdoms,

one of which was Saba. Archaeological excavation and the translation

of thousands of inscriptions have provided evidence of a wealthy

region. These kingdoms were rich because they controlled the trade

in frankincense and myrrh, tree resins that were burnt in religious

ceremonies in the ancient world. The resins were taken by sea

to Egypt or overland by camel to cities like Gaza (in the modern

Palestinian Territories) and Petra (in modern Jordan). South Arabians

used their profits to pay for luxuries in their homes, temples to thegods and expensive burials.

In about the 1st century AD, this carved stone was made for a

tomb. Its inscription reads ‘Image of Ghalilat, daughter of Mafaddat

and may Athtar destroy he who breaks it.’ Ghalilat is probably the

figure on the top half of the stone. She is seated on a large chair

with a footstool and is playing a lyre, a stringed instrument like

a harp. The H-shaped and square panels decorating her robes are

also found on Roman clothes at this time. The lower part shows

a servant standing and a woman lying on a couch.

Rich South Arabian women were often commemorated in this way.

We can learn about their appearance and importance from these

tombs and inscriptions. They are shown wearing full- or calf-length

robes and sandals with thick soles. Their hair is sometimes braided

and hangs down their backs in a plait. Many different types of

jewellery can be seen, including armlets, anklets and collar necklaces,

and gold earrings, necklace beads and finger rings have been found

by archaeologists.


1. Using the picture of Ghalilat and the text, write a paragraph

to describe what women wore in South Arabia.

2. Why do you think the Romans called ancient South Arabia

‘Arabia Felix’ or ‘lucky Arabia’?

3. Do some research to find out how Christians, Muslims and

Jews use incense today.


20


42/61

Stone memorial for TammaDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


43/61

ObjectStone memorialfor Tamma

DescriptionLimestone. Palmyra, Syria,

about AD 100–150.

GlossaryAramaic: important Middle

Eastern language in use

between 1200 BC and the

7th century AD

InformationBefore Islam, the Arabs were divided into two groups, those living in

northern Arabia and beyond it in Syria, and those living in southern

Arabia. The ancient oasis city of Palmyra (in modern Syria), with its

mixed populations of Arabs, Aramaeans, Parthians and Phoenicians,

stood at the crossroads of important trade routes which linked

South Arabia, the Gulf, the Mediterranean and the Far East. Palmyra

became famous for its wealth which was spent on temples, theatres,

colonnaded streets, baths and monumental tombs. By the end of the

first century AD, the city was part of the Roman Empire.

In AD 267 the ruler of Palmyra, Septimius Odainat, was assassinated

with his eldest son. Zenobia, his wife, took control, declared her

young son ‘Augustus’, and set off with her armies to conquer Egypt

and Asia Minor (now Turkey). However, the Roman Emperor, Aurelian,

defeated her forces and captured Zenobia and Palmyra in AD 272.

Although the city was destroyed the following year after another

rebellion, Zenobia’s fame lived on and ancient writers described her

beauty, leadership, language skills and passion for hunting.

According to the Aramaic inscription, the woman carved on this stone

is Tamma, daughter of Samsiqeram, son of Maliku, son of Nassum.

Tamma was buried in the cemetery at Palmyra, where different

types of tombs were built for rich citizens. The tombs contained

compartments for the dead which were sealed with a stone portrait.

Tamma has been carved holding her veil open, revealing her face,

hair, intricate jewellery and fine clothes. Surrounded by her worldly

possessions, evidence of her success in life, Tamma also holds a

spindle and distaff used for spinning thread, which may be symbols

of her household position.


1. Why do you think that the Romans wanted to keep control

of Palmyra?

2. Look at the portrait of Tamma. What evidence can you find that

suggests she was from a wealthy family?

3. Research the life of Zenobia. Use your information to describethe role of women in ancient Palmyra.


21


44/61

D e t a i l s f r om t h eB l a c a s e w er


W OR L D


45/61

ObjectDetails from theBlacas ewer

DescriptionBrass with silver and copper

inlay. Mosul, Iraq, AD 1232.

Below: the Blacas ewer

GlossaryBadr al-Din Lu’lu:

ruler of Mosul for the

Zengid dynasty and

then independently

Blacas: the French Duc

de Blacas owned theewer until 1866 when

it came to the Museum

Ewer: a jug for water

or wine

InformationIn April AD 1232, Shuja’ ibn Man’a put the finishing touches to this

ewer in his workshop in the city of Mosul. Now in modern Iraq,

Mosul was an important administrative and trading centre during

the medieval period. Situated in fertile land on the banks of the river

Tigris, it also produced flour for Baghdad, among other things. When

the ewer was made Mosul was ruled by Badr al-Din Lu’lu. Five brass

vessels inscribed with his name have survived from this time. Objects

like these were sometimes given as presents to neighbouring rulers.

Medieval Arab rulers spent a lot of time receiving visitors and

listening to their requests. They also held important meetings with

those officials who helped them to govern. Guests were often

entertained with music and dancing. Banquets gave rulers and

courtiers an important chance to relax from the pressures of life.

Leisure time might also be spent listening to poets and storytellers.

Sometimes an Arab lord would leave the capital to visit his lands.

There, noblemen might go hunting with their courtiers. They rode

horses and used spears or bows to attack animals like deer and hares.

Trained dogs and falcons were often used in the hunt.

The Blacas ewer is covered with action scenes of rulers’ lives created

from silver and copper wire. Male courtiers are shown hunting, riding,

fighting and feasting. Women also appear in several scenes: a lady

admires herself in a hand mirror of polished metal while her maid

holds a jewel casket; female musicians play the lute, flute, harp and

tambourine; and a wealthy woman is shown travelling on a camel

attended by two servants.


1. Look at picture and the text. How do we know that metalwork

was popular in Iraq during the 13th century AD?

2. Using the pictures, describe the evidence that we have for the

lives of women in medieval Iraq.

3. Research everyday life of kings and lords in medieval Britain

What similarities and differences were there between the lives

of European and Arab rulers at this time?


22


46/61

Hands of FatimaDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


47/61

ObjectHands of Fatima

DescriptionLaila Shawa. Oil and acrylic

on canvas. Palestinian

Territories/UK, AD 1989.

© Laila Shawa.

GlossaryHenna: plant dye used

to stain beautiful patterns

on to hands and feet in

the Middle East

InformationDuring the 1980s, artist Laila Shawa created paintings focusing

on women and the veil. This painting was the first of a series called

Women and Magic. Colourfully dressed women hold up their hennaed

hands that have been transformed into banners carrying the ‘Hand

of Fatima’. The Arabic words ma sha’a Allah (‘as God wills’) appear

on some hands. As the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, Fatima

is greatly respected across the Islamic world. The hand symbol, also

known as khamsa (‘five’ in Arabic) is used on necklaces and even car

stickers across the Arab and Islamic worlds to protect people againstthe ‘evil eye’ and bad luck. Brides, pregnant women and children are

seen as particularly at risk and often wear amulets or charms in this

shape. Shawa’s interest in magic comes from her direct personal

experiences when growing up in the Middle East.

Laila Shawa was born in Gaza, Palestine in 1940. She studied in Cairo,

Rome and Salzburg in the 1950s and early 1960s, graduating in

Fine Arts and later, Plastic and Decorative Arts. She uses a variety of

media, including oils on canvas, photographs and silkscreens, and also

designs stained glass windows. She has had solo exhibitions in Europeand the Middle East and participated in the exhibition Dialogue of

the Present, the Work of 18 Arab Women Artists in the UK . She lives and

works in London.


1. Describe the figures that you can see in the painting. Why do

you think that Laila Shawa decided to paint the veiled women in

such colourful clothes?

2. Looking at the text, explain why the ‘Hand of Fatima’ is worn

to protect brides, pregnant women and children.

3. Do some research on other protective amulets or charms that

are worn across the world. If you wear one yourself try to

describe it in your answer.


23


48/61

Embroidered dressDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


49/61

ObjectEmbroidered dress

DescriptionCotton and silk.

Southern plain of Palestine,

AD 1920s.

GlossaryKeffiyeh: headcloth

traditionally worn by

Arab men

Six Day War: war fought

from 5 to10 June 1967

between Israel, Syria,

Egypt and Jordan

InformationThis dress was made in the 1920s when Britain governed Palestine.

Its style is typical of southern Palestine. Most of the dress is made

from hand-woven cotton that has been dyed blue with indigo.

Cotton with silk stripes and taffeta and silk cloth has been stitched

on to this and the dress has been decorated with silk embroidery.

Heavily embroidered dresses were particularly made for celebrations,

especially weddings. Before 1948, the different styles and colours of

embroidery and other features of women’s costumes also showed

which part of Palestine the person wearing it came from.

When British forces left Palestine in 1948, over 500,000 people fled

or were driven from their homes in the territory that became Israel.

Many of these refugees have since lived in camps in the West Bank,

Gaza, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria, while other Palestinians are widely

spread throughout the Arab world and in Africa, Europe and the

Americas. A second major wave of Palestinian refugees was created

by the Six Day War in 1967. In that year, Israel took control of the

Golan Heights, West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Today, many Palestinian women wear western-style clothes but on

special occasions put on traditional embroidered dresses. For them,

this reflects their background, age, status and fashion consciousness.

For others, these dresses have become a symbol of their Palestinian

identity, and now are sometimes decorated with the red, black, white

and green of the Palestinian flag and worn with the black and white

keffiyeh headcloth.

Key questions and activities1. What do you wear when you are going to a party or celebrating

something special? Compare your clothes with the dress in the

picture. Describe the colours, materials and style.

2. The Palestinian dress was made and embroidered by hand.

Why do you think that so much effort went into making it?

3. Research the impact of conflict on the Palestinian people from

1948. What effect do you think this has had on traditional

Palestinian weaving and dressmaking?


24


50/61

UmmK

u l t h um


W OR L D


51/61

ObjectUmm Kulthum

DescriptionChant Avedissian. Print

on paper. Egypt, AD 1990s.

© Chant Avedissian.

GlossaryImam: head of a Muslim

community and leader of

daily prayers in the mosque

InformationThe Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum, known to her fans as Kawkab

al-sharq, ‘star of the east’, was one of the most famous and popular

women in the Arab world. When she died in AD 1975 over 1 million

people joined her funeral procession through the streets of Cairo.

Even today her music is heard throughout the region. Songs like

‘You are my life’, ‘I see you are refusing to cry’ and ‘A thousand and

one nights’ were sung in Arabic and were about love, patriotism,

religion and specific events. During her life Umm Kulthum was often

photographed wearing dark glasses.

Born in 1898, Umm Kulthum grew up in the Nile Delta of Egypt. Her

father was the village imam who also sang at weddings and festivals,

and took his daughter to sing with him when he discovered how

strong her voice was. She dressed as a boy because people did not

think it was right for girls to sing in public. The family moved to Cairo

in the early 1920s and Umm Kulthum developed her singing style

by learning from experienced performers. By 1930 she was already

extremely popular and one of the best-paid musicians in the city.

Born in Cairo, Egypt in 1951, Chant Avedissian studied Fine Art

and Printmaking in Canada and France before returning home to

work in Architecture. From this time he developed a strong interest

in traditional arts and local materials, which he uses in many of

his works. He has worked with a wide range of media, including

photography and textiles, and since 1990 has been using stencils

on cardboard. The main theme of these recent images is the

glamorous era of Egypt of the 1940s and 1950s which has been

shown in many exhibitions around the world.


1. Looking at the picture, what distinctive features has the

artist given Umm Kulthum?

2. Artists often use oil paints or photography to create portraits

of famous people. Why do you think that Avedissian used stencils?

3. Do some research on Umm Kulthum. Compare her life,

work and look with that of other Arab women.


25


52/61

Brooch with coin of the emperor Philip IDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


53/61

ObjectBrooch with coinof the emperorPhilip I

DescriptionGold coin (aureus).

Roman Empire, mid to late3rd century AD.

GlossaryHadrian’s Wall: fortification

built by the Romans in

northern England between

AD 122 and 130

Palmyra: wealthytrading city from 200 BC

(in modern Syria)

InformationIn the first two centuries AD, Rome conquered large parts of what

is now the Arab world. The empire’s eastern provinces included Judea,

Arabia Petraea, Mesopotamia and Syria. Control of the region’s

markets, like Palmyra, gave Rome considerable influence over the

trade in luxury goods such as purple dye, incense, spices and silks,

and a direct link to the important trade routes with South Arabia,

the Indian subcontinent and China. Rome could tax this trade and

use the revenue to fund the empire.

Philip I, sometimes called ‘Philip the Arab’, was emperor of Rome

from AD 244 to 249. He was born near Damascus in south-west Syria

and had a successful career in the Roman army. In 243, he challenged

and defeated the existing emperor, the teenage Gordian III. During

Philip’s reign, there were many military campaigns. In the east, he

made peace with the Persian king, Shapur I, by agreeing to pay him

large sums of money every year. He then fought against Germanic

tribes who had crossed the river Danube, and finally against his own

generals on the northern frontiers of the empire. He was eventually

murdered in 249 by Decius, the leader of one of these rebel armies.

Over 2,000 miles from Syria, Britain was also part of the Roman

Empire. Rome’s occupation had begun after the emperor Claudius’

invasion in AD 43. When Britain was brought into Rome’s huge

empire, people from Syria and the eastern provinces came to

Britain as soldiers (a unit of Syrian archers was based near Hadrian’s

Wall) and as traders (a gravestone to Barathes from Palmyra who

sold military flags and standards has been found at Corbridge in

Northumberland). They also brought their religions, building altars

and temples to their gods, like Astarte and Virgo Caelestis.


1. Look closely at the portrait of ‘Philip the Arab’ on the coin.

Describe how he looks as a Roman emperor.

2. Reading through the text, why do you think the Romans

occupied the eastern provinces?

3. Research the relationship between the Middle East and RomanBritain. You could investigate the Roman army, trade goods and

religion from the eastern provinces.


26


54/61

I mi t a t i on

d i n ar of Of f a


W OR L D


55/61

ObjectImitation dinar of Offa

DescriptionGold. England, AD 773–96.

GlossaryAbbasids: Arab clan

descended from

the Prophet Muhammad’s

uncle, al-Abbas

Al-Mansur: Abbasid caliph

of the Islamic world from

AD 754 to 775

Mercia: Anglo-Saxon

kingdom in the Midlands

of England from the 6th to

the 10th centuries AD

Offa: king of the Anglo-

Saxon kingdom of Mercia in

England from AD 757 to 796

InformationShortly after the Arab Abbasid dynasty took control of the Islamic

empire in AD 750, its leader Caliph al-Mansur started building a

new capital at Baghdad in what is now modern Iraq. He did this for

many reasons but particularly because the site was at the crossroads

of several important overland trade routes. It was also close to the

Tigris and Euphrates rivers which connected to the Persian Gulf and

Indian Ocean. The high quality of Abbasid gold coins known as dinars

attracted many merchants to Baghdad and the city became a rich

trading centre, with goods arriving from as far away as China, Indiaand East Africa. Islamic silver coins known as dirhams found in Britain

and Scandinavia show that trade between the Arab world and Europe

was also developing from this time.

At the same time, Offa became ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of

Mercia in England. Famous today for the earth wall known as Offa’s

Dyke built between England and Wales, he held on to power by

winning battles, making alliances, encouraging trade, and propaganda.

By designing coins with his portrait or royal title, he tried to show

people in Mercia, England and Europe that he was powerful. He wasthe first to make silver pennies in England and his wife even had her

own coins. Perhaps the most amazing example is the unique ‘Offa

coin’. This looks just like the dinars of Caliph al-Mansur made in

AD 773–4 in what is now Iraq.

Although the inscription is not copied perfectly and the Latin is

upside down in relation to the Arabic, you can clearly read OFFA REX

(King Offa) on the coin.


1. The Arabic is not correctly written on the Offa coin. What does

this tell you about the person who made the coin?

2. Why do you think Offa had a coin made to look like an

Abbasid dinar ?

3. Do some research to find out about trade between Europe

and the Middle East in this period. Investigate goods, money,

markets, transport and trade routes.


27


56/61

Treasure from Salcombe Cannon SiteDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


57/61

ObjectTreasure fromSalcombeCannon Site

DescriptionMorocco, 16th–17th

century AD.

Below: Gold dinar of

Muhammad al-Walid bin

Zaydan al Nasir, minted in

Marrakesh, Morrocco in AH

1040 / AD 1631. Found in a

shipwreck in Salcombe Bay,

Devon, England.

GlossaryBarbary: North African

region, not including Egypt

Dinar: gold coins used for

trade in and with the Arab

and Islamic worlds

Levant: region including

modern Lebanon, Syria,

Jordan, the Palestinian

Territories, and Israel

Sharif: Muslim ruler

claiming descent from the

Prophet Muhammad

InformationIn AD 1999, the British Museum acquired a group of over 400 gold

coins, broken pieces of gold jewellery and ingots, as well as pewter,

pottery sherds and a merchant’s seal. The objects were brought

up from the seabed by divers in Salcombe Bay in Devon. Many of

the coins were made for the Sa’dian dynasty, who ruled Morocco

during the 16th and 17th centuries AD and are famous for their

wealth in West African gold and their palace in Marrakesh. The latest

coin found was made for Sharif al-Walid in AD 1631. The ship the

treasure came from has not yet been identified.

While the Sa’dians reigned in north-west Africa, the Tudors and

Stuarts were ruling in Britain and Ireland. Under these monarchs

there was increased maritime exploration and trade, and Elizabeth I

and Charles II actively encouraged expeditions, companies and

trading settlements. England particularly expanded its trade with

southern Europe and the Mediterranean coast, Turkey and the Levant.

English merchants exported cloth, fish, timber and guns, and by about

1650 increasing quantities of goods from the colonies like pepper,

tobacco and sugar. In return, England imported Levantine silks,Spanish wool, Italian wine and leather and horses from Morocco.

Pirates from the North African or Barbary coast had occasionally

captured English ships before 1600. However, when James I made

peace with Philip III of Spain the attacks increased as Christian

England then became the enemy of Ottoman Turkey and other

Muslim powers around the Mediterranean. Between 1600 and the

early 1640s, Barbary pirates seized over 800 English, Scottish, Welsh

and Irish trading vessels in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, taking

their cargoes and selling the crews into slavery. They even raidedports in Ireland, the Channel Islands and the south-west of England,

carrying off hundreds of men, women and children into captivity.


1. Look at the picture and the text and describe the treasure that

was found at Salcombe. How old were the coins and where did

they come from?

2. Read the text again. How do you think the treasure got to Devon?

3. The British Empire was beginning to develop from the 17th

century. Do some research into the British settlements of Virginia,

Barbados and Tangier. Find out when and why they were set up

and what impact they had on Britain and the local people.


28


58/61

B a t ai l l e d e s P yr ami d e s


W OR L D


59/61

ObjectBataille desPyramides

DescriptionPrint on paper.

France, AD 1830.

GlossaryAcre: city now known

as Akko in modern Israel

Mamluks: slave-soldiers

who ruled Egypt and Syria

independently from

AD 1250 to 1517 and

governed Egypt for the

Ottoman Turks until 1811

Rosetta Stone: important

ancient Egyptian object

from el-Rashid (Rosetta)

in the Nile Delta used in

deciphering hieroglyphs

InformationIn May 1798, Napoleon landed with 38,000 troops in Egypt, then

a province in the Ottoman Turkish Empire run by the Mamluks.

He aimed to cut off Britain from the overland route to India. If that

was achieved, he would march to India and expel the British. The

invasion was popular with the supporters of the French Revolution

who thought that liberty could be brought to the tyrannised

Egyptians, and also with French imperialists who wanted to

humiliate Britain and develop French trade.

After capturing Alexandria, Napoleon’s army was marching towards

Cairo in July when it met the Egyptian forces between the Pyramids

at Giza and the capital. The Mamluks had well-trained cavalry,

and with the Turkish infantry they heavily outnumbered the French.

However, Napoleon’s infantry and artillery formed squares and

gradually brought down the enemy cavalry as it charged. The Turkish

infantry were then defeated.

Despite this, the French conquest greatly slowed down when their

navy was defeated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August

1798 and the army failed to capture Acre in 1799. Shortly afterwards,

Napoleon decided to return to France. When their remaining forces

were surrounded and besieged, the French signed the Treaty of

Alexandria in 1801 and pulled out of Egypt.

Napoleon’s expedition had included a large group of scholars,

engineers, architects and artists. They collected a huge amount of

information about ancient Egyptian culture, and their publication,

The Description of Egypt , was to provide the basis for the future study

of ancient Egypt in Europe and America. This, along with the objects

brought back by the French and British, like the Rosetta Stone,created huge interest among the educated and rich. ‘Egyptian style’

became very popular and was used by artists, craftspeople, designers

and architects throughout Europe.


1. Look closely at the picture of the battle and describe what

is happening.

2. Why do you think Napoleon decided to invade Egypt in 1798?

3. Research Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt. Find out about the work

of the scholars and artists during the French occupation and the

effect that this was to have on art and architecture in Europe.


29


60/61

Excavations at Tell es-Sa’idiyehDISCOVER THE ARAB WORLD


61/61

ObjectExcavations atTell es-Sa’idiyeh

DescriptionPhotograph. Jordan,

AD 1989.

GlossaryDeir ‘Alla: village in Jordan

near the excavation site

at Tell es-Sa’idiyeh

InformationSince it opened in 1753, the British Museum has displayed objects

from the Arab world. As Britain’s empire grew, diplomats, soldiers

and traders collected and gave things to the Museum, including

objects from ancient Egypt and the Middle East. Experts at the

Museum became curious and travelled to collect, excavate and learn

for themselves. In the 20th century this research became more

scientific. After the First World War, Britain was given responsibility

for governing parts of the Middle East, making more research

possible. At this time, Museum staff helped to create some of the firstmuseums in the Arab world.

Today, the British Museum continues to work closely with people

from the Arab world to investigate and protect their history and

culture. Every year, curators, education officers and conservators from

the region visit London to share specialist skills and experience with

staff at the Museum. Objects are regularly loaned to museums in the

Middle East and the British Museum has organised exhibitions such

as Word into Art: artists of the Modern Middle East in London.

A team from the British Museum has been excavating the ancient

site of Tell es-Sa’idiyeh in Jordan since 1985. Before each season,

the excavation director applies to the Jordanian Department of

Antiquities for permission to work. The Department also sends

two representatives to work on and help supervise the dig. About

100 local villagers are hired to dig, shovel and remove the earth in

baskets. Over the years, some have become experts in excavating

human remains. A cook, housekeeper, driver and maintenance man

support the team at their base in Deir ‘Alla.


1. Look at the picture and try to identify the type of people and

their jobs on the excavation at Tell es-Sa’idiyeh.

2 Use the text to explain why the British Museum’s collections from


Documents

Arab British Museum