Architectural Engineering and Design Management

Architectural Engineering and Design ManagementASPECTS OF BUILDING DESIGN MANAGEMENT

GUEST EDITOR Stephen Emmitt

Contents

EditorialStephen Emmitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

International Building Design Management and Project Performance:Case Study in So Paulo, BrazilLeonardo Grilo, Slvio Melhado, Srgio Alfredo Rosa Silva, Peter Edwardsand Cliff Hardcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Design Management from a Contractors Perspective: The Need for ClarityPatricia Tzortzopoulos and Rachel Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Forming Core Elements for Strategic Design Management: How to Define and DirectArchitectural Value in an Industrialized ContextAnne Beim and Kasper Vibk Jensen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Modelling Trade Contractor Information ProductionColin Gray and Salam Al-Bizri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Rules of Engagement: Testing the Attributes of Distant Outsourcing MarriagesPaolo Tombesi, Bharat Dave, Blair Gardiner and Peter Scriver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Building Stories Revisited: Unlocking the Knowledge Capital of Architectural PracticeAnn Heylighen, W. Mike Martin and Humberto Cavallin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Book reviewsStephen Emmitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

prelims 6/13/07 11:29 AM Page 1

This special edition of Architectural Engineering andDesign Management takes part of the journals title,design management, as the theme. The paperspublished here were originally submitted to aconference held at the Technical University ofDenmark, organized by the CIBs working groupW096 Architectural Management. A select number ofauthors were subsequently asked to revise andextend their papers for inclusion in this specialedition. Papers were selected to give a broad view ofdesign management and the variations in approachand style are indicative of the authors backgroundsand approach to their subject area. The work reportedalso has an international flavour with contributorsrepresenting Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark,England, Puerto Rico, Scotland and the US. It ishoped that in taking such a multi-faceted approach,the papers will stimulate debate and further researchinto this rapidly growing field.

In the first paper, Grilo et al provide a usefulinsight into design management and the performanceof construction projects from an internationalperspective. The case study from So Paulo, Brazil,helps to highlight the cultural differences withininternational design and project teams and thechallenges arising from such temporal configurations.Coordination and management of informationfeatures strongly, as does the implication of designchanges and late decision making. Cultural normsand socio-technical differences pose significantmanagement challenges to such workingarrangements. Indeed, the clearest result from thecase study is the need for participants to understandthe roles and responsibilities of other stakeholdersthrough appropriate communication. All of which

point to the need for better management of theinterfaces between project participants.

In the second paper, Tzortzopoulos and Cooperinvestigate design management from the perspectiveof contractors working in the UK. With contractorsassuming and taking managerial responsibility for thedesign process in the majority of projects in the UK,the issues of roles, responsibilities and control ofdesign value have taken on increased importance.Two case studies help to identify some confusionover the term design management and the lack ofclarity regarding the design management role inpractice. The paper raises an important issue aboutwho is best qualified to manage design, and judgingfrom the case study findings it would appear thatthere is considerable scope for improvement incontracting organizations. Of practical help is theidentification of skills necessary for effective designmanagers. The authors conclude with a plea forgreater clarity of stakeholders roles in designmanagement with a view to achieving effectiveprocesses and best value.

Defining and directing architectural value withinindustrialized buildings in Denmark forms the thrust ofthe paper by Beim and Vibk Jensen. Thisphilosophical, yet pragmatic, attention to coreelements of strategic design management helps tooutline an approach for achieving architectural qualitywithin an industrialized context. The authors arespecific in their aim: to help architectural officesidentify the characteristics and specific workingmethods for industrialized architecture, although thepaper does have a wider application. Case studies andexamples drawn from interviews with architects helpto add some colour to their theoretical model. Similarly,

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Stephen Emmitt

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testing the model in architectural education andreflecting on the results adds further to the authorsargument. This is a paper about empowering thearchitect and helping to improve architectural quality.

In the fourth paper, Gray and Al-Bizri attempt tomodel the not inconsiderable amount of informationproduction by trade contractors in the UK. Theauthors have focused on an area of engineeringdesign/design management largely overlooked byresearchers to date, despite its importance to thematerialization of buildings. By concentrating on therole of trade contractors, the authors propose ageneric sequence of design activities for constructionelements, which recognizes project specificrequirements and interactions with other components.The design of a precast concrete cladding panelprovides a worked example. In addition to exploringthe complexity of the detailed design phase, theauthors conclude by arguing for a knowledge base forall technologies to guide the user to the mostappropriate solution. Presumably such an approachwould also help to make the management of thisphase in the life of a design project more effective,thus helping to reduce uncertainty and associatedwaste during the realization phase.

Continuing the theme of information productionand documentation, Tombesi et al report on the digitaloutsourcing of architectural services from anAustralian perspective. This paper clearly identifiesthe challenges for researchers and practitioners inpresenting a balanced view of the opportunitiesand perils inherent in digital outsourcing and thecreation of distant alliances. This paper isinteresting in that it does not concentrate solelyon information communication technologies; moreimportantly, it addresses the socio-technicalcharacteristics and cultural routines of the firms

involved in such relationships. The complex socio-technical characteristics of architectural practices andthe need for clear criteria and protocols whenoutsourcing work are emphasized. The experience ofthe research project to date has shown that distantcollaboration changes significantly with thedocumentation requirements of the firms involved.Thus, it is crucial that the purpose of the work isclearly defined and the structure of the professionalcollaboration designed with the same care as thatgiven to the building.

A common feature of the papers is the issue ofknowledge and information transfer. In the final paper,Heylighen et al tackle knowledge capital inarchitectural education. This work draws heavily onthe experience of the authors at the University ofCalifornia Berkeley, and posits a good argument forstorytelling as a precursor to good design and itsmanagement. In addition to providing usefulreflection on their educational programme, theauthors aim to create a discussion forum for dialogueabout how knowledge is generated and disseminatedin architecture. Largely implicit in this paper is therelationship between storytelling and effective designmanagement, especially through the ability todevelop relationships in collaborative arrangements.Hopefully, this is an area for further research.

Explicit and implicit in the papers is the issue ofhow actors work, or at least attempt to work,together. Collectively, the papers help to emphasizethe softer side of design management and the inter-relationships between people, technologies andmanagement. Continuing the design managementtheme, two books are reviewed that deal with relatedfactors. The first deals with partnering and integratedteamworking, the second with the integration of valueand risk management.


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Keywords Building design; construction; contracts;globalization; project management; quality

ECONOMIC SCENARIO ANDCONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN BRAZILWith a population close to 186 million people, a grossdomestic product (GDP) around US$1.492 trillion anda GDP per capita of US$8100 (CIA, 2005), Brazil hasthe largest domestic market in Latin America. Locatedin the south east of the country, So Paulo is Brazilsmost important city, and is the third largest in theworld in terms of population, behind Tokyo andMexico City. With regard to the Brazilian constructionindustry, So Paulo is also the most significant state

for development, with about 30,000 residential unitsbuilt annually just in the metropolitan area of SoPaulo city (Conjuntura da Construo, 2005).

In the 1970s, foreign investment brought aboutsignificant growth rates in Brazil, which led to theimplementation of large infrastructure projects andthe development of a competitive heavy constructionindustry. However, public expenditure and growthrates were severely constrained after a shortage offoreign investment in the 1980s. Monthly inflationrates of up to 80% discouraged measures to improveefficiency owing to the attractiveness of financialoperations. Low productivity, lack of quality andhigh material wastage contributed to create


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AbstractThe decline in construction demand in developed countries has led to the search for business opportunitiesoverseas and the entry of foreign companies into emerging markets. Recent advances in information andcommunication technologies have also favoured the procurement of architecture, engineering andconstruction services on a global basis, and have led to the establishment of international design teams. Theemployment of foreign design firms for complex building projects in developing countries can promotebenefits such as technology transfer and innovative architectural and engineering design solutions. However,it can also bring about additional risks that, if not recognized early in the procurement process, can createdifficulties during the design and construction stages. International design teams may exacerbate traditionalcommunication problems as a result of differences in language, managerial style, organizational andindividual culture, lack of personal contacts and poor adoption of communication technologies. This paperexplores the technological, managerial, organizational and cultural barriers that may arise from theemployment of foreign design offices for complex building projects in developing countries. Analysis of acase study in So Paulo suggests that the engagement of foreign consultants requires careful planning,innovative managerial approaches, attention to behavioural issues, appropriate communication andinformation technologies, sensible choice of procurement routes, and mutual understanding of stakeholdersroles and responsibilities.

ARTICLE

International Building DesignManagement and Project Performance:Case Study in So Paulo, BrazilLeonardo Grilo, Slvio Melhado, Srgio Alfredo Rosa Silva, Peter Edwards

and Cliff Hardcastle

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a negative image of the construction industry,according to public opinion.

In the past decade, globalization, marketopenness, privatization of state-owned enterprises,monetary stability, fiscal constraint and shortages inpublic expenditure, changes in the procurement law,decline in profit margins and increasing customerconsciousness have all contributed towardsreshaping the profile of the construction industry.Some sectors responded promptly and establishedextensive measures to address the inefficiencies thattraditionally plagued the industry.

Government-driven policies, such as the BrazilianQuality and Productivity Program (PBQP-Habitat),inspired in the Housing Quality Program of So PauloState (QUALIHAB), enforced the gradual implementationof quality management systems as a requirement forconstruction and design firms to take part in publicbids. According to the Brazilian Technical StandardAssociation, about 280 construction firms and 160design and project management offices werecompliant with ISO quality management systemstandards and about 1550 contractors were compliantwith PBQP-Habitats requirements in the four levels ofexigency (D, C, B and A) up to February 2003 (ABNT,2003). These figures clearly illustrate the increaseduse of quality systems in the Brazilian constructionindustry. However, despite improvements achievedin some segments, advances across sectors anddifferent regions of the country remain heterogeneous.

Foreign companies are present in varioussegments of the Brazilian construction industry. Thedecline in construction demand in developed countriestends to enhance the search for opportunities on aninternational basis and the entry of foreign competitorsinto developing markets. In Brazil, the entry of foreignorganizations has exposed the technical andcommercial weaknesses of local firms. In addition, thelack of mutual agreements to regulate the trade ofbuilding design services between countries hasenhanced these limitations. Musa (1996) listed somerelative weaknesses of local architectural offices incomparison with foreign firms, such as lack ofresponsiveness and flexibility, difficult relationshipswith technical designers and reduced involvement ofclients in the decision-making process. Musasuggested some measures to reduce the impact of

globalization and stressed the importance of initiativesaimed at reducing barriers to entry for Brazilian designpractices in other countries, such as diploma validationrequirements, excessive taxation and the need to setup a branch with a local company in order to gain accessto these markets.

Despite recent improvements, the constructionindustry is still considered as backward comparedwith other industries. Frequently, constructionmethods are poorly chosen, workers are not properlytrained and on-site supervision and projectmanagement are lax. Extensive waste, informality andproject time and cost overruns are recurrent. TheBrazilian construction industry also lacks consistentindustrial policies, since its activity level is oftenerratic and driven by political motivations, such asabsorbing non-skilled workers. In its annual report onthe construction industry, for example, the BrazilianInstitute of Geography and Statistics highlights thatthe informal sector was responsible for 63% of thevalue added by the construction sector in 2003 (IBGE,2003; Zaidan, 2005).

The Brazilian industry is dependent ongovernment programmes such as low-incomehousing, infrastructure and other civil works. The highcost of capital, credit scarcity, public expenditureshortages, political turbulence and economic shockshave recently affected the performance of the sector,despite a national housing shortfall in excess of7.2 million units (Fundao Joo Pinheiro, 2005;Garcia et al, 2005). The construction industryexperienced outstanding progress in the 1990s.However, the inconsistent economic growth in recentyears may affect long-term initiatives workingtowards the improvement of the performance of theBrazilian construction industry.

POTENTIAL BARRIERS FOR BUILDINGDESIGN MANAGEMENTIn no other important industry is the designresponsibility so detached from the productionresponsibility as it is in construction (Banwell, 1964).Harvey (1971) criticized the separation betweendesigners and contractors in England. Contractors areoften excluded from the design process, whiledesigners are expected to undertake responsibility forelements of the construction that they do not fully


6 L. GRILO, S. MELHADO, S.A.R. SILVA, P. EDWARDS AND C. HARDCASTLE

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understand. The construction industry presents acomplex responsibility chain and nobody seemsprepared to satisfy the client (Egan, 1998). Somecommentators argue that designers could benefitfrom the early involvement of contractors, who, undertraditional procurement systems, are not usuallyinvolved before the bidding process (Pocock et al,1997).

Frequently, designers and contractors are workingtogether for the first time on a project. Even if theirparent companies have collaborated in the past,actual team members assigned to a new project willprobably be unknown to each other (Grok, 1992).The fact that project team members do not knoweach other in personal and organizational terms isrelevant (Brown, 2001).

Stakeholders commonly approach projects withparticular expectations. Although these expectationsvary according to the project type, clients usuallyseek time and cost certainty, and quality. Designersfocus on aesthetics, functionality and a minimal useof resources. Conversely, contractors expect feasiblemethods, viable schedules and a profit margincommensurate with the level of risk transfer. Theunderlying divergence of objectives can hinder teambuilding and encourage an adversarial approach.Selected by their reputation, designers will focus onquality; whereas contractors, hired by competitivetendering, tend to concentrate on efficiency andeconomy (Bobroff, 1991; Nam and Tatum, 1992;Barlow et al, 1997).

Architects have been accused of abandoning theirresponsibilities within the project team (Weingardt,1996) and studies point out that they have beenincreasingly replaced by contractors and projectmanagers in the design management role (RIBA,1992; Gray and Hughes, 2001), mainly as a result ofpoor communication with clients and deficient costand time management. The Tavistock Institute (1999)recommends the appointment of architects for thepurpose of design integration and of otherprofessionals for project management, since thelatter involves duties that are unattractive toarchitects and which could thus be neglected if theywere to undertake a project management role.

An adequate level of client involvement candemonstrably enhance overall satisfaction with the

investment and the likelihood of meeting establishedgoals (Davenport and Smith, 1995). If the client adoptspractices that promote a collaborative environment,the stakeholders will be encouraged to increase thequality and efficiency of their services in all stages ofthe process (Jawahar-Nessan and Price, 1997).

Procurement systems can also influence theproject performance and the integration betweendesign and construction teams. The selection ofprocurement routes should consider aspects such asproject type, building complexity, design andconstruction schedule and budget, and clientorganization and experience (Chan and Chan, 2000).Love et al (1998) suggest a range of criteria toestablish client requirements and informprocurement choices, namely, speed during designand construction, variability, flexibility to designchanges, quality, protection against risks, complexity,responsibilities, total price and arbitration.

POTENTIAL DIFFICULTIES FORINTERNATIONAL BUILDING DESIGNTEAMSDespite recent technological developments,communication between organizations (or evenwithin a single organization) has been identified asa main driver of failures in construction projects.Research carried out by British insurance companiespointed to poor communication and lack ofcoordination as primary drivers of client dissatisfaction,claims, frustration with unattended items, lack ofpositive relationships and incomplete information(Brown, 2001).

Communication and functional issues, whichinvolve not only the organizations but also theindividuals, cannot be ignored. Without an analysis ofindividual skills, cultures and interests, there will be littleunderstanding of roles or respect for leadershipstructures, which can enhance rivalry and reluctance tocooperate. Issues such as roles, cultures andcommunication must be addressed if personal skills areto be optimized on behalf of the team (Brown, 2001).

In recent years, information and communicationtechnologies have evolved rapidly. Providers havedeveloped collaborative systems and started to offerservices that enable project team members tocooperate in a virtual project environment. Collaborative


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systems can bring about potential benefits, includingreduction of communication failures, savings withposting and photocopying, speed, safety, privacy indata transfer, automatic issue of reports andelimination of document control and distributionprocedures (Chinowski and Rojas, 2003).

However, team members tend to operate inisolation, which inhibits the establishment of trust andthe awareness of individual roles. Therefore, projectmanagers need to reinforce individual roles andconciliate team members expectations throughoutthe project. They should also set parameters forinformation exchange to reduce the likelihood ofexponential increases in data flow and informationoverloads. Consequently, remote project teamsrequire leaders who are able to communicate andestablish relationships (Chinowski and Rojas, 2003).

In theory, international design teams canadversely influence team members willingness tocollaborate because of factors such as remoteness,impersonal relationships, preconceptions, lack ofadequate technologies to support communicationand data transfer, different languages and particularindividual and organizational cultures. On the otherhand, foreign offices can bring a lot of advantages,notably technology transfer, innovative designconcepts and awareness of aesthetic issues.Nevertheless, these benefits can be outweighed bythe potential disadvantages, which should beproperly managed to minimize the likelihood andimpact of their occurrence.

Wang (2000) describes some difficulties in theassignment of foreign designers in Chinese projects:selection by a competition of ideas does notconsider the size, reputation and capacity of thedesign practice; lack of familiarity with localstandards may necessitate late design changes oradjustments to plans and specifications by localdesign institutes; the need for large numbers ofimported components in service engineering;deficient communication techniques; differentlanguages; and long distances.

Moreover, Wang (2000) highlights the relevanceof the functional arrangement for the performance ofthe design team. The appointment of foreign officesto coordinate the design ensures a broader fidelitywith the original concept, but tends to create

difficulties for local contractors. Alternatively, clientscan assign Chinese design institutes for thepreparation of detail plans and specifications so as tofavour buildability in terms of local practice. Wangsuggests a hybrid arrangement: the appointment oflocal designers at the outset of the project in order toadapt the design to local standards and to minimizethe involvement of foreign designers in the detailwork. It is assumed that this strategy could proveequally beneficial in projects that involve foreigndesign firms in Brazil.

CASE STUDY RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThe technical scope of a case study can be defined asan empirical investigation that observes acontemporary phenomenon in a realistic context,especially when the boundaries between thephenomenon and the context are not clearly evident(Yin, 1994). Investigations that focus on the linkagesbetween complex organizations such as thoseinvolved in a construction project may require theadoption of multiple sources of evidence (interviews,documental analysis) and the consultation of multipleunits of analysis (designers, contractors and projectmanagers) to produce more reliable outcomes. Basedon a broad literature review, a research instrumentwas prepared and tested in an exploratory case study.The questionnaire comprised open and closedquestions related to the variables:

integration: quality of interaction between projectteam members

procurement system: method for the selectionand organization of the project teams for theobtainment of a building by a client

project performance: time and cost certainty,compliance with clients objectives, and absenceof claims.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted withseven primary players involved in the projectconsisting of representatives of the construction firm,the designers and the project managers. Thefollowing criteria informed the selection of the projectfor the case study the participation of Brazilianleading construction and design firms, and the size,complexity and uniqueness of the project.



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COORDINATION PROBLEMS WITHFOREIGN DESIGN CONSULTANTS ON ACOMPLEX BUILDING PROJECTWith a net floor area of 82,000 m2, the case studyproject creates a distinctive landmark in So Pauloslandscape. Some innovative characteristics of theproject include: appointment of foreign designconsultants; extensive specification of importedcomponents and equipment such as master controlpanels, chillers and lifts; modular panellized curtainwalls; variable air volume systems for airconditioning; duplicated wiring; and an independentpower generation system. For the facade, low-emissivity glazing controls solar heat gain and visiblelight transmission. An aerogel deposited within theglazing avoids condensation occurring when internaland external temperatures differ. Some specificationsof the project were criticized by the project team,such as the reinforcement cover of up to 7 cm andthe 20 different mix designs for the concretestructure, with concrete strengths ranging from3060 MPa. The excessive reinforcement coverrequired the use of water-vapour fans and ice in themixing water to reduce surface concrete cracking. Inaddition, the curtain wall was designed to resisttyphoons, despite no previous occurrence oftyphoons in the local region.

The project adopted the traditional procurementsystem (separated design, bid and constructprocesses) with a guaranteed maximum price (GMP)contract divided into four stages, in whichconstruction prices would be gradually reduced. Thecontractor was selected through a closed bidfollowed by a negotiation stage. The selection criteriatook into account technical, economical and financialcriteria. The successful construction company hasoperated in the local market for almost 40 years andhas executed more than 4 million m2 of buildings invarying market segments. Certification of thecompanys quality management system, according toISO 9001, was obtained in 1999. The constructionteam was composed of production, technical andadministrative teams, and totalled 18 professionals.

The design concept was developed by US officesin Chicago and New York, and then adapted by localarchitecture and engineering firms. The foreignarchitectural office has accumulated experience in

different project types in more than 50 countries. Theservice engineering design was developed by a UScompany with branches in different continents. Aproject management company from Chicago openeda branch in So Paulo especially to advise the client,whose team encompassed a facilities manager, twoarchitects and a project management team with fiveprofessionals.

The structural design, developed in the US, wasadapted by an Argentine design practice that hadworked for the Brazilian client on another project inSouth America. The local design office participated inthe development and coordination of architecturaland urban planning designs. With a markedlycommercial character, it focuses on the leverage ofbusiness opportunities within government bodies,public entities and developers. The organizationalstructures for the project and the design team areshown in Figure 1.

The case demonstrates that the appointment offoreign design offices fosters innovation andtechnological transfer, particularly in architectural andengineering design solutions, but can adverselyimpact on design management, since a number oftechnical, managerial, cultural and economic factors,such as the development of the local supply chain,should be realized at an early stage in the briefingprocess. In this context, it is argued that internationaldesign teams require careful management ofthe work scope for each designer, extensiveconfiguration management, clear authority lines,mutual understanding of roles and responsibilities,management of interfaces and adequate selection oflocal partners. The design management may also beinfluenced by the organization of the design team orthe roles and responsibilities assigned to eachdesigner. Some of the difficulties faced by the projectteam as a result of deficiencies in the designmanagement for the case study project aresummarized in Table 1 and discussed later.

DEFICIENCIES IN THE SELECTION OF LOCALAND FOREIGN DESIGN OFFICESThe design concept was commended as outstandingand innovative, but team members admitted withhindsight that design development should have beenassigned to Brazilian offices from the outset of the



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project, because of their greater familiarity with localconstruction methods and faster decision-makingcapacity. On the other hand, the local design officeswere considered unsuitable for the project becauseof its technical and managerial complexity. Accordingto the contract manager: Its inconceivable that oneof the largest design offices in So Paulo doesntknow [about] dry wall. This reflects a wrong selectionof the partners. The design coordination, assigned toa local architectural office, was criticized: When youbring designers together, they do not talk to eachother. The coordination is not done or if it is done, itis not done well. According to a project manager:Architects are considered efficient when they areable to produce compatible drawings, but they arenot always good at coordinating the design process.

The structural design was also questioned.According to one architect: An engineer could findsolutions in this project that have been used all overthe world. There is no standardization. They possiblyused all the solutions available in the concrete books.The design of the concrete structure was consideredconservative due to the implicit lack of familiarity ofUS designers with this technology and to the lack oftrust in the reliability of local contractors. A consultanthired by the construction firm to review the structuraldesign found material errors and omissions such asbeams with only 50% of the required reinforcement,

which could have endangered the rigidity of thebuilding.

DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF THE FOREIGNDESIGNSThe assignment of foreign designers to the designdevelopment assured the incorporation of the originaldesign intent but raised further difficulties for thedesign management. In general, US suppliersundertake an essential role in the design detailing.Despite their international experience, the foreigndesign consultants assumed that local supplierswould be capable of detailing the shop drawings.However, Brazilian contractors and project managersnoticed that the design documents were insufficientto inform local suppliers and subcontractors. Thisomission led to delays while the problem wasrectified and hampered the mutual understanding ofdesign team members roles and responsibilities.

A Brazilian architect who worked in the USarchitectural practice was initially assigned tocoordinate the design. Despite the good intention,this proved unfeasible due to the attitude of foreigndesigners, who never made decisions duringmeetings and were considered technically defensiveby other project team members. According to thecontract manager, as the project was falling behindschedule, it wasnt working. Foreign designers dont



Acoustics

Interiordesign

Structuraldesign

Foundations

WaterproofingStone

consultancy

Faade

Airconditioning

Buildingsystems

Buildingsystems

Lightningdesign

Architecturallandscaping

Architecture& structure

Architecture

Contractual relationships

Functional relationships

Client

Projectmanager

Design team Constructionteam

Client team

SubcontractorsMultidisciplinaryteam

Five professionals

14 main design disciplines

Technicaldirector, 2architects

Production,technical supportand administrationteams (18professionals)

23 mainsubcontractors

United States

Brazil

Argentina

FIGURE 1 Project and design team organizational chart

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overcome contract terms and dont run unnecessaryrisks.

The specification of imported components poseddifficulties for the construction firm as a result of non-standard dimensions, connections and methods ofexecution. Moreover, the design concept followed nomodularization precepts. The contract managerpointed out that the modularization of the concretestructure differs from the standards of Braziliancurtain wall systems. There are differentmodularizations.

The project also exposed some weaknesses inthe local supply chain. An architect highlighted that a

US company delivered a curtain wall faster than alocal factory.

THE POOR QUALITY OF THE BRIEFINGPROCESSThe architect stressed the importance of an intenseinvolvement of the clients organization throughoutthe briefing process so as to mitigate the risk of latedesign changes:

If I could start it all over again, I would start from thebriefing. Defining a brief is one of the mostimportant milestones of a project, but nobody



TABLE 1 Deficiencies in the project design process and subsequent impacts on project managementDeficiencies in the design process Impact on project management

Lack of standardization or excessive customization Complex procurement, budgeting, contract management, change

management and document control

Conflicting information in different documents Work overload for the project team, complex procurement and

budgeting, construction errors, rework and material wastage

Lack of information Work overload for the project team, delays in the procurement of

construction subcontracts, complex contract management, cost and

time overruns, insufficient information for procurement purposes

Problems in the information flow and communication structure Different level of information between team members, late

incorporation of design changes in the plans, incompatibility

between information received by team members, heterogeneous

information

Delay in the incorporation of design changes in plans and Construction errors, complex document control, reviews with out-of-

specifications date information, varying levels of information between team

members, complex contract management with subcontractors,

stress, rework, execution prior to the incorporation of information in

the design

Excessive non-reviewed items in plans and specifications Complex document control on the site, risk of errors in the

execution, demand of excessive follow-up meetings

Excessive design reviews Cost and time overruns, construction errors, work overload for

project team, stress, escalation in printing and photocopying costs,

delays in the distribution of drawings to the site

Multiple stakeholders in the client team Complex decision-making and approval process, excessive design

changes, varying level of information between project team

members

Excessive design changes in a late stage of the project Complex contract management with subcontractors, difficult design

review, rework, time and cost overruns, work overload for

construction and coordination teams, negotiations with the client,

rescheduling, changes in the budget, stress

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seems to care about it. The client should haveparticipated more actively. So they came out lateron with solutions used elsewhere, but which couldnot be adopted in this building.

The design management was largely affected byfailures in the scope definition and design changemanagement. The Brazilian architectural designerstressed the deficiencies in the briefing process:

The brief should be finished by a given date. Thenthis date approached and there were a lot ofchanges. Nobody is to blame. We were unableto determine [from the brief] exactly what theclient wanted. This is a point that should bestressed.

DEFICIENCIES IN COMMUNICATION ANDINFORMATION FLOWSIdeally, the design management should define whattype of information is relevant for each team memberand establish communication lines, informationflows, timetables and formats to transfer, record anddistribute the information. The lack of communicationprocedures can lead to managerial problems, such asvarying levels of information between project teamsor even within a single team. According to anengineer:

I received information initially and then a drawingwith different information. Then I found that thedesigner did not receive the required informationeither. Consequently, he issued drawings thatdiffered from what was agreed upon earlier. Thereare three or four client representatives directlyinvolved in the process. So different people dealwith the information and sometimes it does notreach all the recipients. I received information fromthe project manager that differed from that sent bythe client. There are too many people involved, andnot in an organized way.

The complexity of the project and the unusualnumber of participants affected the communicationprocess, which could have been facilitated bycollaborative systems and the adoption of agreedupon coordination procedures.

DEFICIENCIES IN THE CONTROL AND ISSUEOF DESIGN REVIEWSOngoing design changes and a lack of criteria for theissuance of design reviews postponed the definitionof critical items. The contract manager criticized thedesigners lack of commitment to meeting projectmilestones: Works on some floors were disrupted aswe did not know how to progress. The mostimportant floors for the client are exactly those wherethe design is behind schedule. Reviews too often didnot solve design errors and omissions, and sloweddown the procurement of subcontractors and thedistribution of drawings to the site. An engineercomplained about the design review process: Itseems illogical, because issuing reviews is time-consuming, but in some cases we received out-of-date reviews. Whenever a review is issued, it shouldcontain up-to-date information.

The contract manager criticized the planning ofthe reviews: We have drawings with more than 20reviews. Why? It is linked to the lack of planning. Theprocess also exposed the lack of quality controlprocedures: In the rush, designers deliver anything.Nobody reviews or coordinates. These problemsoccur due to the lack of coordination. The drawingsare simply incompatible. The issue of successivedesign reviews hindered the distribution of drawingsto the site. The drawings were being reviewed soquickly and so often that the contractor nearly sentout a version that was already obsolete. Decision-making in design review meetings was fast, whichmeant that drawings frequently could not incorporatethe agreed information quickly enough. Therefore,the construction firm modified its quality controlprocedure so as to enable the receipt of incompleteor under approval drawings, which were given partialapproval and distributed to the subcontractorsthrough coordination meetings.

LACK OF INFORMATION AND DESIGNINCOMPATIBILITIESThe lack of information affected the management ofcontracts with suppliers and necessitated theappointment of additional professionals to theconstruction team. Initially, a reduced team wasassigned to manage the lump sum contracts, whichwere soon afterwards replaced by unitary cost



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agreements because of the lack of information.According to the contract manager: I shouldnt careabout it, but I spend 2030% of my time trying to sortout the consequences of a poor design. The design iscalamitous in this project. The construction teamreported design errors and omissions and stressedthe lack of quality control procedures. Design errorsoverburdened the construction team and hamperedcost estimates. An engineer pointed out that alltechnical, procurement and construction problems inthis project are related to the lack of information. Adelay in the choice of stainless steel for thecurtain wall postponed the schedule by four months.The contract manager complained: We are oncemore building without a design. The owner wants tolaunch the project, but had he decided to completethe design earlier, he could have saved time andmoney.

DEMAND FOR MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING OFROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIESThe architect criticized the lack of clear authority linesin the design management. Conversely, members ofthe construction and project management teamsargued that the coordination role was definitelyassigned to the architect. However, typical roles of thedesign manager such as control, registration,distribution and issuance of design documents, as wellas quality control and change management wereundertaken by the construction team, who prepared aspreadsheet to guide the architect. According to anengineer: I take a look at the drawings to identifymissing or conflicting data and inform them throughmeetings, e-mails or letters. I identify the missing dataand require its inclusion in the design.

These difficulties were partially caused by a poorunderstanding of design team members roles andresponsibilities and a lack of recognized leadership.The dissatisfaction seemed to emerge fromunrealistic expectations, preconceptions andconflicting requirements. The team members clearlypresented different understandings of their roles andresponsibilities, as suggested by the architectinterviewed:

Someone has already said that deadlines werenot set to be met. I havent seen a single deadline

met in this project. Now they set an unlikelyschedule. They are going nuts to meet it. But wewill succeed and it is going to end up with a bigparty.

DIVERGENT INTERESTS AND EXPECTATIONSBETWEEN PROJECT TEAM MEMBERSPoor coordination procedures led to difficulties, suchas different information levels, between the projectteams. An engineer pointed out that three peoplefrom the client team worked directly in the process.Consequently, she received data both from theproject manager and the client, leaving room forextensive doubts. Coordination procedures,implemented and supervised by each team leader,should have substantially minimized the emergenceof different information levels between projectteams.

The architect emphasized the conflicting interestsbetween designers and contractors: This isabsolutely normal. Were acting on the clients behalf.We are protecting the clients interest in this project;the contractor is protecting his interests. Thearchitect also criticized the architects detachmentfrom the construction and complained about recentchanges in professional roles, which illustrate theunderlying rivalry between architects and engineers,and the reluctance to change:

Architects are unconsciously relinquishing theirtraditional leadership role, which gives engineersthe opportunity to enter the market. Engineers arenot the same anymore. I used to learn with them.Now they become bureaucrats who manage thecontract to meet the schedule, even if they have todestroy their partners. It really is a battle in thisrespect.

DESIGNERS DETACHMENT FROM TIME ANDCOST MANAGEMENTThe contract manager criticized the designersdetachment from cost and time management: It isclear to me. There is a historical detachment ofdesigners from cost management that leads toconstruction problems. There is a deadline and I dontknow what I am supposed to do on some floors. I amnot inventing this whole story. Excessive design



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changes and late decision-making affected theprogress of the project and the relationship betweenteam members. According to an engineer, frequentdesign changes required an active contractmanagement approach by the construction team:

Frequently, the work is already done when adesign change appears. There is rework and ademand for new cost estimates. We try to identifythe cost as the design is issued and negotiate itwith the client. Then we have to procure it onceagain. This demands hands-on contractmanagement.

CONTRACT COULD NOT BE IMPLEMENTED ASEXPECTEDThe Maximum Guaranteed Price contract wasconsidered comprehensive and conducive toachieving high performance by all parties. Accordingto the project manager: The contract has a USstructure, but is organized and precise, and providessolutions for any dispute. Despite its strengths, thecontract was not fully adopted, according to thecontract manager, because of the lack of definitionsin the design: The cost should be reduced as thedesign was developed. We were unable to do it,however, as the design was incomplete. We hadto raise the price. Thus, we offered no benefits tothe client. According to the project manager, theinexperience of the local supply chain affected thecontract enforcement: A guaranteed maximum price(GMP) contract is clear for a North-Americancontractor. The second price is lower than the firstone. If the design does not change, then the price isreduced. In contrast, a local contractor makes a lot ofdecisions based on assumptions. The contractordisagreed: The first cost estimate was R$130 million,because there was only a schematic design. The firstGMP was R$128 million and the last R$146 million.Something happened, right? He also questioned theso-called concurrent engineering:

Engineering has been re-invented in Brazil. Ivebeen working for 23 years. Today, it is much worsethan in the past. There isnt concurrent engineeringif this concurrence occurs during the construction.I cannot procure a curtain wall if I dont know the

type of glass or aluminium. This is not engineeringto me, it is something else.

CONCLUSIONSThe assignment of foreign offices to work onconstruction projects in developing countries canbring about benefits, such as technology transfer andinnovative design concepts. On the other hand, itposes difficulties for the design management as itmay intensify coordination and communicationproblems, and there may be conflicting interests anda lack of mutual understanding of roles andresponsibilities among project team members.Therefore, it can increase project risks to the client,induce cost and time overruns, cause excessivedesign changes and claims, and have an adverseimpact on quality.

The assignment of foreign offices can adverselyaffect communication and team building dueto different languages, remoteness, impersonalrelationships, lack of face-to-face contacts,inadequate communication technologies and culturalsingularities. In the project case study, foreigndesigners assumed a defensive technical attitudeso as not to incur liabilities for their firms, whichdelayed the decision-making at a critical stage of theproject.

The involvement of foreign offices in the designdevelopment stage can warrant fidelity to originalconcepts and compliance with specified solutions.Nevertheless, differences in the level of informationof construction documents, lack of familiarity of localcontractors and subcontractors with foreign plansand specifications, and complexity in estimating,procuring and installing imported items andequipment may arguably affect the design andconstruction management. US constructiondocuments present a lower level of information incomparison with Brazilian ones, since subcontractorsand suppliers play an essential role in thedevelopment of the design in the US.

Furthermore, communication problems wereintensified due to the employment of foreigndesigners. The Brazilian design team had to learnEnglish and the foreign team had to learn Portuguese.According to the contract manager, nobody in thelocal design team was fluent in English. Certainly, this



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aspect delayed the analysis of plans andspecifications, affected the clarification of doubts andinduced failures in the interpretation of the designdocuments.

Teleconferences were used by design managersbut without great success. Drawings were also madeavailable for download from an intranet at the outsetof the project. However, the system was abandonedas the majority of the subcontractors had never usedit before. Moreover, design documents distributedthrough the intranet bypassed the qualitymanagement system of the construction firm.Therefore, the availability of promising technologiesdoes not guarantee immediate adoption andacceptance by project team members, since theirimplementation commonly requires investment,training, managerial changes and overcoming culturalbarriers.

The study identified serious deficiencies in designquality management, such as failures in designbriefing and scope management, incompatibilities,interferences, lack of procedures for the issueof design reviews, poor standardization andmodularization, and an excessive number of latedesign changes. According to the interviewees, theseproblems emerged mainly as a result of: the unusualcomplexity of the project; deficient selection of localdesign offices; lack of precepts, tools and techniquesfor the design quality management; deficiencies inthe scope management; and inappropriate choice ofthe procurement route.

Although the volume of information exceededoverall expectations, it is assumed that careful designplanning and the adoption of simple precepts, suchas the single statement of information, could havereduced the problems faced by the project team. Thespreadsheet developed by the contractors fordocument management purposes denotes aproactive approach that should have beenencouraged. The design coordination could haveagreed upon an information demand schedule withclient and construction teams. Presumably, thisinitiative was not taken due to conflicting interestsand a lack of trust and genuine leadership within theproject team.

The case study has highlighted some potentialimpacts of the trend for globalization in the

construction industry, such as the purchase of goodsand services on an international basis and theestablishment of international design teams. Remotedesign teams promote innovative personal andprofessional relationships, but may conversely raisetechnological, managerial and organizational barriers tothe integration of design and construction. Therefore,an informed choice of the procurement method andinnovations in management, technology and humanresources are required to establish trust andstrengthen cooperation in international design teams.

AUTHOR CONTACT DETAILSLeonardo Grilo (corresponding author): Department of CivilConstruction Engineering, Polytechnic School, University of So

Paulo, Brazil. Tel: +55 11 3091 5459, fax: +55 11 3091 5544,

e-mail: [email protected]

Slvio Melhado and Srgio Alfredo Rosa Silva: Department ofCivil Construction Engineering, Polytechnic School, University of

So Paulo, Brazil. Tel: +55 11 3091 5164, fax: +55 11 3091 5544,

e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Peter Edwards: School of Property, Construction and ProjectManagement, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

Tel: +61 3 9925 3478, fax: +61 3 9925 1939, e-mail:

[email protected]

Cliff Hardcastle: School of the Built and Natural Environment,Glasgow Caledonian University, Scotland, UK. Tel: +44 141 331

3630, fax: +44 141 331 3696, e-mail: [email protected]

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Keywords Contractors; design management; designmanagers

INTRODUCTIONArchitectural design is a complex activity whichposes difficult managerial problems. Complexities liewithin the technical knowledge, informationavailability, the uniqueness of design and interactionsbetween different stakeholders (Sebastian, 2005).Design involves a number of decisions withnumerous interdependencies (Cornick, 1991; Ballardand Koskela, 1998). There are often conflictingrequirements, demanding an effort to recognize,understand and manage trade-offs, and decisionsmust usually be made quickly and sometimes withoutcomplete information (Reinertsen, 1997; Sanban et al,2000; Koskela, 2004). A large number of stakeholdersare involved, such as architects, project managers,structural engineers, building services engineers andmarketing consultants. Moreover, feedback fromproduction and operation takes a long time to be

obtained and tends to be ineffective (Formoso et al,2002).

Design management, as a body of knowledge,has emerged with the aim of reaching a betterunderstanding of these issues and how they shouldbe tackled. In recent years, the rising complexityof projects and growing market competitionhas significantly increased the pressures toimprove design performance i.e. to develop high-quality design solutions through shorter timescales.Such complexities affect both designers andcontractors.

In the UK context, procurement routes such asdesign and build (D&B) and Public Private Partnerships(PPP) are currently being widely adopted. Theseenable clients and/or owners to benefit from having asingle organization taking responsibility for deliveringthe required building and associated servicesaccording to predefined standards (Bennett et al,1996). Akintoye (1994) further elucidates that themajority of D&B contractors employ external


17

AbstractOver the past 40 years, a concern with the adoption of business methods to support successful designdevelopment has emerged. Design management as a discipline addresses such concern through two centralschools of thought. The first focuses on organizing the design firm, and the second aims to better understandthe design process (its nature, stages and activities) and to propose improved communication andcoordination mechanisms. Both schools of thought have taken essentially a design professionals perspectiveto analyse design. Nevertheless, the recent adoption of procurement routes in which contractors areresponsible for design, construction and facilities management has imposed on contractors the need tomanage design to maintain competitiveness. This paper presents results from two case studies investigatingthe contractors role in managing the design process. Research results are presented in terms of theproblems contractors face in managing design, the necessity for appropriate design management and theskills contractors believe are required for effective design management. The paper concludes by advocatinga need for clarity in the definition of design management from a contractors perspective.

ARTICLE

Design Management from a ContractorsPerspective: The Need for ClarityPatricia Tzortzopoulos and Rachel Cooper

Tzortzopoulous 6/13/07 10:15 AM Page 17

consultant architects and engineers to develop thedesign. Within this environment, contractors need toappropriately manage the design process to maintaincompetitiveness in the marketplace and to reducewastage both in design and in downstreamconstruction activities (Broadbent and Laughlin,2003).

However, to date, design management researchhas not sufficiently emphasized how contractorscould manage design, what their role is in thisprocess and what barriers they face. The concept ofdesign management and the necessary skills tomanage design from a contractors perspectiveappear to be unclear. Such a gap may be a partialconsequence of the fact that design managementhas typically been approached mainly from theperspective of the different professionals involved indesign (Press and Cooper, 2002). Therefore, a broaderperspective on design management is needed.

This paper aims to partially address this issue byanalysing data from two case studies in whichcontractors were responsible for managing thedesign process. The paper discusses the role ofcontractors in design management, examining theskills needs for design managers from a contractorsperspective. Questions for further research are alsoposed.

DESIGN MANAGEMENTDesign management endeavours to establishmanagerial practices focused on improving thedesign process, thus creating opportunities for thedevelopment of high-quality innovative productsthrough effective processes. Even though excellencein management is not considered a substitute forhigh-quality creativity and innovation, it can representthe difference between success and failure inmultidimensional and complex project environments(Cooper and Press, 1995).

Emmitt (1999) poses that in architecture, the workof Brunton et al (1964) represents an early attempt tointroduce managerial concepts in design. The searchfor an understanding of how people perform complexcognitive activities has been the underlying principle ofdesign research for the past four decades (Kalay, 1999).During this period, there has been a slow but steadygrowth in understanding design ability. Similarly, the

need to provide research and measures to encouragefirms to make use of design for competitive advantagecame to light (Press and Cooper, 2002). It was hopedthat understanding how designers think would lead tothe development of methods and tools to help thereliable achievement of high-quality results in design(Kalay, 1999; Lawson, 2006).

In general, past research has focused on twodifferent design management dimensions i.e. office orpractice management and individual job management(the management of the design/project in hand)(Sebastian, 2004). However, such distinction may bepotentially misleading since the two interconnect i.e.the management of people and social characteristicsof staff employed will create the unique culture of thefirm, which will in turn affect the way individualprojects are managed (Emmitt, 1999).

From a project management or individual jobperspective, the design process has been studiedfrom two different viewpoints. The first aims toincrease understanding of the nature of the designactivity (e.g. Lawson et al, 2003). The secondproposes ways in which design should be developedat its different stages, considering both hardactivities and soft social design interactions (e.g.Kagioglou et al, 1998). Along these lines, designmanagement has been closely related to a concernwith systematic design methods, focusing on theoutcome of design decisions (i.e. the product ofdesign) and the activity of designing (i.e. the designprocess) (Cross, 1999; Press and Cooper, 2002;Lawson et al, 2003).

As a result, the need to consider the whole lifecycle of projects became apparent. Architecturalmanagement evolved from approaching design asan isolated activity at the front-end of projects, tocover the project from inception through todemolition, recycle and reuse. Figure 1 describes thecontext in which design management happens, anddemonstrates the importance of communication andcollaboration with different stakeholders. These areessential design and design management skills.

Figure 1 demonstrates some of the differentissues that need to be considered by designmanagers. Nevertheless, for design management tobe effective, a more detailed understanding of skillsneeds is essential. A brief description of such skills,


18 P. TZORTZOPOULOS AND R. COOPER


as discussed in the literature, is presented in thenext section.

DESIGN SKILLSDesign skills are essential for the activity ofdesigning. Bloom et al (2004) state that, put simply,skills are what an individual possesses, and these canbe learnt both informally (on the job) and formally(through training). It is important to recognize thatthere is a natural way in which humans develop theability to design e.g. by categorizing different thingsor through activities such as changing the furniturelayout in our houses. However, the development ofdesign skills could be compared to the acquisition ofa language, in that it is a continuous processbeginning in childhood (Lawson, 2006).

It is accepted that in order to locate design skillsand competences (i.e. knowledge and behaviours)and to consider their value, one must analyse

the breadth of the profession of design. Differingdesign professions have evolved by educationalpush and by corporate and consumer pull, whichmeans that there are various perspectives from whichto assess the design and the design managementprofession and its future (Press and Cooper, 2002).

It is well known that design activity includes highcognitive abilities, including creativity, synthesis andproblem solving. Cross (2004) reviews the field ofexpertise in design, linking it to design behaviour andthe design process. The author states that expertdesigners appear to be ill-behaved problem solversas they do not spend much time defining the designproblem. Expert designers are, therefore, solution-focused, not problem-focused. Generating a widerange of alternative solutions is a recommendedstrategy in the literature (e.g. Reinertsen, 1997).However, Cross (2004) points out that this may not benecessarily good, as most expert designers tend to


Design Management from a Contractor s Perspective 19

FIGURE 1 Architectural design management within the project framework, from Emmitt (2002: 40)


define a single solution and then develop it further.The study of the way in which expert designersbehave may provide clues as to how designmanagement should be approached; however, thelinks between these two areas appear to be unclear inthe literature.

Design managers skills have been brieflydescribed in the literature. It has been stated thatdesign managers need to have the skills tounderstand a comprehensive set of requirements andto support their capture from the client/users andconstruction teams (Barrett and Stanley, 1999). Theyalso require communication skills, both verbal andvisual, to coordinate the exchanges of informationthroughout design development, and to explain theconcepts to the stakeholders whenever necessary(Press and Cooper, 2002). Therefore, designmanagers need to have technical skills, looking atdesign as a sequence of activities based on arationalized approach to a technical problem;cognitive skills, approaching the skills and limitationsof the individual designer; and social skills, looking athow designers interact with other stakeholders andhow this influences teamwork and value generation(Cross and Clayburn, 1995).

Even though such descriptions are important, it isbelieved that more information is needed to supporta better understanding of design management and ofthe skills that effective design managers shouldpossess. The currently poor understanding of the roleof design managers within different contexts (e.g.design office, contractors, developers, etc.) may berelated to deficiencies in current definitions of designmanagers skills.

RESEARCH METHODThe epistemological option for this study is based onthe interpretative school of thought. The researchuses qualitative approaches to inductively andholistically understand human experience in context-specific settings. As pointed out by Silverman (1998:3), a particular strength of qualitative research ... is itsability to focus on actual practice in situ, looking athow organizations are routinely enacted. Thus, designmanagement developed by contractors was analysedwith an emphasis on meanings, facts and words toreach an understanding of the phenomena in practice.

Within this context, a case study approach withexploratory characteristics was used to understandthe overall role of contractors in managing design,and examine the skills that design managers need toperform such activity. The two companies involved inthe case study are major construction contractorswithin the UK, and both are heavily involved withdesign management due to the type of procurementadopted i.e. in both cases more than 60% of thework undertaken involves managing the designand construction processes. The companies werealso selected because they considered designmanagement to be of strategic importance.

Data were collected through (a) seven semi-structured interviews with design managers four atcompany A and three at company B; (b) participationof one of the researchers in meetings in which designmanagement issues were discussed (six at companyA and four at company B); and (c) documentaryevidence including company information over theInternet and descriptions of design managerscapabilities and skills. Specific documents forcompany A included a design management map; amap linking the design and bid processes; trainingprogramme; mistakes made and lessons learnt;designer performance review form; managementsystem procedure; D&B guidance notes; hospitalbidding documentation. Documentary evidence forcompany B incorporated procurement information(e.g. http://www.dh.gov.uk/ProcurementAndProposals/PublicPrivatePartnership/NHSLIFT/fs/en); biddingdocuments; training needs for design managers; anddescription of the design managers role. All interviewswere tape recorded and verbatim transcribed,generating a detailed report on design managementissues faced by the companies.

Data analysis was developed with the aid ofcontent analysis. According to Krippendorff (1980:21), content analysis is a research technique formaking replicable and valid inferences from data totheir context and its purpose is to provide knowledgeand new insights through a representation of facts.The analysis focused on identifying the perceived roleof contractors and its design managers in managingdesign and the problems faced, as well as theperceived skills that design managers should havefrom the contractors perspective.




FINDINGSCase study findings are presented for companies Aand B. The background of each company isdiscussed, followed by a description of its role inmanaging design. Interview quotes are provided toenrich the discussion. Finally, the role of designmanagers is discussed. The discussion sectionpresents the cross-case analysis and draws majorconclusions.

CASE STUDY 1: CONSTRUCTION COMPANY ACompany A is a major civil engineering andconstruction contractor. The companys turnover isaround 450 million a year, with a staff of about 1200in the UK. The company works in different businessstreams and 7080% of the contracts are procuredthough D&B or PPP. The company has main offices in18 different regions in the UK.

BackgroundCompany A was involved in an improvementprogramme called Implementing Best Practice. Aspart of the programme, a design managementprocess model was developed. The model describesthe design process focusing on the activities to beperformed by the contractors design manager. Themodel aims to improve design management skillsand therefore bring all company design managers upto a minimum standard.

The model is a prescriptive to be generic model(see Winch and Carr, 2001 for a definition) developedat the firm level, presenting six project phases asdescribed in Figure 2:

get opportunity work up to bid: involves all design stages win and start up: includes the award of the

contract, mobilization and production information do work: construction handover and close review.

Figure 2 also shows the hierarchical structure of themodel, which presents three different levels of detaili.e. project stages, activities and tasks.

The model defines project deliverables as well asinformation needs in terms of activities, technology

and people. The discussion presented here focuseson the role of design managers within the firm, aswell as the problems faced by the company inmanaging design, which triggered the process modeldevelopment.

Design management problems: the role of designmanagementIn company A, design management is perceived as asignificant risk due to the fact that badly manageddesign can cause increased construction costs,rework, changes and time delays. More importantly,poor design can cause failure in bidding, affectingcompetitiveness. Even though its importance is clearlyacknowledged, design is the most inconsistentlymanaged process across the company. Inappropriateplanning, poor reviews, poor resource availability andpoor quality were issues identified. As stated by asenior design manager interviewed:

This is where the problem is, processes areinconsistent at the moment, and design is themost inconsistent, and thats the best way ofdescribing it.

Design work is always sub-let to externalconsultancies. Progress is usually monitored againsthigh-level milestones. However, milestones do notfocus on the information that should be produced butrather on major activities such as getting planningapproval. Furthermore, there is a belief that the detaildesign phase should be pulled from constructionplanning (as, in most cases, design and constructionare developed concurrently), but this does nothappen because of poor information transfers withexternal designers. As a consequence, many designdecisions are taken on site.

Design review meetings occur less often thanwould be appropriate. Design fixity (see Kagioglouet al, 1998 for a definition) should be sought throughthese reviews, but the concept of fixity seems to bepoorly understood, and there is no clarity on how itcould be achieved. Moreover, defining and controllingthe brief is considered a challenge, as designers havetheir own agendas that often conflict with thecontractors interests, as clearly stated in thefollowing interview extract:






FIGURE 2 Design management process model hierarchical structure


Designers want to reduce their own costs ... andare not so much [concerned] with reducingconstruction costs.

Further difficulties occur when design is novated tothe company. This is generally problematic as theproposed design does not consider the companysbuilding standards, and there is poor financialflexibility to obtain design changes or details. Inaddition, it has been stated that sometimes designersare inflexible in terms of not being able to respond tothe companys requests because many designconsultancies are small and lack slack resources.1

The company has a total of 12 design managerswhich, in general, get involved in large D&Bconstruction projects. Of those, three are designersand nine come from different backgrounds e.g.planners, programmers or quantity surveyors.Therefore, it appears that most design managers donot have appropriate knowledge, and possibly do nothave the necessary skills, to manage design. This isevidenced by the following interview extract:

We have people doing design management butthey dont actually know how to do it, they are notqualified to do it ... because they dont reallyunderstand the design process ... so the only thingthat they can check it for is if it is buildable, andrelatively simple plans, quality plans. So most ofthem ... tend to operate as information coordinators,its just pushing drawings out of the people, withoutreally analysing quality or the process.

Finally, the company design managers suffer diffi-culties with external architectural consultancies as, inmany cases, the latter believe the contractor to betaking over their responsibilities. This demonstratestensions with regard to who should manage design designers as service providers, or contractors as theinternal client.

Skills requiredCompany A has difficulties in defining the role ofdesign managers and consequently the skills requiredto perform the activity. Company offices in differentregions work independently and this generatesproblems in implementing a unified approach.

Furthermore, some of the company managers believethat as design work is subcontracted, design manage-ment should be too. Others believe that design is ofstrategic importance and, therefore, its managementshould be taken over by the company for its ownbenefit, as well as for the benefit of its clients.

Even though there was not an agreement withrespect to subcontracting or developing designmanagement internally, work was conducted as partof the process model design to establish basic designmanagement skills. Seven key skills for designmanagers were established:

design procurement commercial interface project standards design coordination design verification programme and performance measurement project systems (IT focused).

Those skills were further detailed through a list of 35items summarizing the design managers role. Theseare described as follows.

First, the design manager should map the specificproject process, based on the generic model. Theproject process should form the basis for planningand controlling design development, including thedelivery of work by external consultants andsubcontractors. Weekly meetings should be held toensure work is developed to schedule, and the designmanager should have authority to coordinate theparticipants and activities of each phase. Second, thedesign manager should appoint appropriately skilleddesign consultants. Third, s/he should be thecommunications link between the clients, designersand subcontractors, and therefore be responsible forcontrolling the briefing process and requirementsmanagement. In this sense, s/he should be capable ofmaking fast and effective decisions on designmatters. Fourth, issues of design aesthetics,buildability, costs, quality and programme constraintsshould be appropriately balanced. Drawings shouldbe checked and approved for compliance with thecontractors regulations. Finally, soft human skills arementioned in terms of providing leadership andestablishing teamwork.




However, it seems that the development of anoverarching standard approach to design manage-ment within the firm remains a major challenge. Thisis partially a consequence of the divergentperspectives on design management within thecompany, which has been evidenced throughdiscussions observed by the researcher about theimplementation of the design process model. Thesefocused much more on what is a design manager?than on the implementation process itself. Thisdemonstrates the importance and lack of clarity aboutthe design management approach at company A.

CASE STUDY 2: CONSTRUCTION COMPANY BCompany B is an international construction groupwith capability in the design, procurement anddelivery of major projects. Its turnover is around 1.6billion, with about 9000 staff in the UK. The companyhas a major track record in working through initiativessuch as private finance initiative (PFI) and designbuild finance and operate (DBFO) schemes with thepublic sector.

BackgroundCompany B is involved with the LIFT initiative (LocalImprovement Finance Trust). LIFTs are public/privatepartnerships set up to allow NHS Primary Care Trustsand their local partner organizations to developprimary healthcare facilities. Through LIFT, a numberof schemes are clustered and delivered by a singleprivate sector partner. Company B is the privatesector partner in two major LIFTs in the UK, beingresponsible for designing, building, financing thefacilities and providing facilities management andsupport services over a 25-year period.

Company B was responsible for procuringdesigners and managing the design process in thedevelopment of LIFT schemes. The design of suchschemes is challenging, as buildings are innovativeand complex. Complexities lie within the need toprovide therapeutic environments supportive of thehealing process and the need for a patient-centredservice model (Gesler et al, 2004). The functional levelof the buildings and the operating conditions arecomplex, as different services need to be deliveredjointly, and the service mix and ways of operation arevaried and unknown at the outset.

Design management problems: the role of designmanagementCompany B considers effective design managementessential in controlling the front-end of the majority ofits projects. Furthermore, design quality is consideredparamount to maintain and increase competitiveadvantage. However, the company faces designmanagement difficulties. Poor clarity with regard towho should capture and manage requirements, poorcontrol of design changes, difficulties in managingexchanges of information between clients, designersand contractors, and poor alignment between designsolutions and clients requirements were issuesidentified. The occurrence of these issues isillustrated through the description of problems thathave occurred on a specific primary healthcareproject.

There was no appropriate ownership and controlover clients requirements at the project environment.These were partially managed by the clients, partiallyby company Bs design managers, and partially by thearchitects. Requirements were not ranked neitherwas the ability to deliver analysed. As a consequence,there were difficulties in trade-offs between userswants and a prioritization of project needs. Inaddition, the design managers/designers were notpresent at all requirements capture meetings;therefore, the expected support to the client was notprovided, and communications between clients anddesigners were inappropriate.

Furthermore, there was no audit trail for designchanges in place. Requirements changes had beendealt with directly by the architects, and requestsfrom users were generally included in the designwithout considering affordability or the effects thatthe changes had in terms of time delays. The numberof changes in the project is clear from the followinginterview transcript:

I do remember some late change requests, and Ikept saying, do you [client/user] realize what this isgoing to cost you? And when they did, then theymanaged to refine their requirements. And therehad been design solutions that had cost a fortunethat had to be removed as inappropriate designsolutions. So it was an unstructured, ill-disciplinedprocess.




As in company A, design managers in company Bcome from a variety of professional backgrounds i.e.engineers, architects, building services and planners.Most importantly, many design managers did nothave all the capabilities necessary to appropriatelyperform their role. The design managers intervieweddid not have previous training or experience in design,as one had a degree in construction management andworked as a production coordinator, and the secondhad a building degree and had worked withconstruction planning. It is believed that this mayhave influenced some of the problems that occurredat the project level.

Interview data also made clear that designmanagers in company B tend to approach their workfrom personal, and sometimes contrasting,perspectives. For instance, one design managerbelieved that as he was representing the contractor,he should not be involved in requirements capture andmanagement. However, it was on the remit of thecontractors work to provide support to the clients inmanaging requirements. On the other hand, a seconddesign manager believed that he should managerequirements and provide an appropriate link betweenclients, contractors and designers. Unfortunately, hefaced problems in performing such activities becauseof his skills level and his poor bargaining power withboth the client organization and the designers. Suchdifferent managerial approaches make explicit thelack of clarity in design management roles andresponsibilities at the company level.

Skills requiredCompany B has stated the design management skillsit requires in terms of different issues. Designmanagers are expected to have appropriateprofessional qualifications (e.g. RIBA, MICE, MIOB,etc.) and to be able to demonstrate competence inthe role. There is a belief that good design managersmust understand the projects needs, budgets andaspirations, making decisions and communicatingthese appropriately. Furthermore, s/he must becapable of understanding processes within both thedesign and construction environments. Also, thedesign manager is considered to be key in creating aseamless link from design, through procurement intoconstruction, commissioning and handover.

In this sense, design managers are expected toplay an active part within the wider project team,liaising and coordinating the design team, the client,trade designers, statutory authorities and otherinterested parties e.g. fire officers, police, disabilityad

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Architectural Engineering and Design Management