Are you Motivated?You Don’t Look Motivated!

Clark C. Barrett

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Motivation

Motive, impulse, incentive, inducement, spur, goad, prod

Prime mover

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Outline• Motivation• Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic• Theories

– Non-theory– Need-Motive-Value Theories– Cognitive Choice Theories

• Thomas’ Model– Origins– The Model– Taking Action

• Paradigm Shifts• The Leadership Connection• Sources

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Motivation

• The force that drives people to behave in a way that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior

• Individual variability in behavior not due solely to:– a) Individual differences in ability– b) Environmental demands

• 3 major dependent variables

     1. Direction of behavior

     2. Intensity of action

     3. Persistence of behavior

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General Model of Performance

Ability

Situational Constraints

Motivation

Behavior Performance

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Motivation• Extrinsic

• means external to a thing, its essential nature, or its original character; applies to what is distinctly outside the thing in question or is not contained in or derived from its essential nature

• Motivators

• Reinforcers, Punishers & Incentives

• Like money, gold stars, treats, prizes, grades and praise

• OR

• Better jobs, promotions, salary increase, and

the like

• Intrinsic

• belonging to the essential nature or constitution of a thing; originating or due to causes within a body, organ, or part

• Motivators

• Comes from doing the thing itself

• Desire for increased self-esteem, quality of life, responsibility, job satisfaction, and the like

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Theories of Work MotivationA. Non-Theories of Motivation•  1. Reinforcement Theory • (Skinner et. al) 

Three key concepts:

       1. Stimulus

       2. Response

       3. Reward

 

 

Evaluation of Reinforcement Theory• Principles of reinforcement theory do “work” • Theory is still an incomplete picture of human motivation

 

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Theories of Work MotivationB. Need-Motive-Value Theories

Emphasize the role of personality traits and stable needs and values  

 

• 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• 2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory (Not addressed)

• 3. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

• 4. Job Characteristics Theory

• 5. Cognitive Evaluation Theory

 

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Theories of Motivation• 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

TYPE OF NEEDGeneric definitions

PHYSIOLOGICALSalaries and wages Safe and pleasant working conditions

SECURITY• Pension and health care plans. Job tenure. Emphasis on career paths within the organization

PHYSIOLOGICALBasic to survival of organism and includes food, water, rest, shelter, air, etc.

SECURITY• Concerned with providing a safe and secure environment, free from threats to one’s existence

Deficit (d-) Needs

SOCIAL• Work organization that permits interaction with colleagues Social and sports events. Office and factory parties and outings

BELONGING• Deal with the need for friendship, affection, affiliation, sometimes referred to as social needs

EGO• Creation of jobs with scope of achievement, autonomy, responsibility, and personal control. Work enhancing personal identity Feedback and recognition for good performance (e.g. promotions, “employee of the month” awards)

ESTEEM• Concerned with the desire of people to have a stable, high evaluation of themselves and to have respect from other people

SELF-ACTUALIZING• Encouragement of complete employee commitment Job a major expressive dimension of employee’s life

SELF-ACTUALIZATIONRefers to the desire to achieve self-fulfillment, to develop one’s potential to the fullest, to become everything that one is capable of becoming, and to achieve fulfillment of one's life goals

TYPE OF NEEDWorkplace examples

EX

TR

INS

IC…

……

…IN

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INS

IC

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Theories of Motivation• 3. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

• Hygiene Factors vs. Motivator Factors

EXTRINSIC…………INTRINSIC

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

No Satisfaction Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Motivator Factors

Zero Level

Zero Level

Overlap

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Theories of Motivation• 4. Job Characteristics Theory • (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

• Five core job dimensions

          Skill variety 

          Task identity 

          Task significance 

          Autonomy 

          Task feedback

• Motivational Potential Score (MPS)

FeedbackAutonomy3

TS TI VSMPS

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Theories of Motivation

• 4. Job Characteristics Theory (cont.)

• (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

• 3 critical psychological states

          Experienced meaningfulness of the work

          Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work

        Knowledge of actual results of the work

This theory replaced Herzberg’s theory for organizational settings.

Focuses on task outcomes only, does not account for

activity-related awards. Knowledge of results and experienced

responsibility are only rewarding when results are positive.

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Theories of Motivation• 5. Cognitive Evaluation Theory • (Deci, 1971)

• Motivation is a function of the desire to fulfill higher order needs

         Need for competence

            Need for self-determination

• Use of extrinsic rewards only satisfies lower order needs• Intrinsic motivation undermined by organization’s focus on extrinsic rewards

(?)• External events have controlling aspect and information aspect• Deci presents the importance of autonomy and authenticity• Focuses on task activities, (i.e. choice), but not task purposes

(i.e. meaningfulness)

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The Overjustification Effect• Individuals offered extrinsic rewards for continued performance of an interesting

task show decreases in intrinsic motivation

  Perceived decrease in self-determination

  Rewards seen as controlling

   Goals shift from learning/mastery to gains in terms of rewards

   Persistence only lasts until extrinsic motivator is gained

   Extrinsic motivators may not always exist

   Extrinsic motivators may not inoculate against feelings of

discouragement

   May begin seeking out easy goals

 •  Other “controlling” factors:

          Task deadlines           Limited choice

          Contingent rewards           Negative feedback

          Evaluation by others           Competition

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Punished By Rewards

• Kohn explains that rewards fail for five reasons:

     1. Rewards punish

     2. Rewards rupture relationships

     3. Rewards ignore reasons

     4. Rewards discourage risk-taking

     5. Rewards destroy intrinsic motivation for the things we do

Fundamentally Kohn; and many other advocates against extrinsic motivators, view the use of rewards (or punishments) as “Do this and you’ll get that!”

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Punished By Rewards• Kohn suggests six methods to reduce the impact of rewards:

     1. Get rewards out of people faces.

     2. Offer rewards [only] after the fact as a surprise.

     3. Never turn the quest for rewards into a contest.

     4. Make rewards as similar as possible to the task.

     5. Give people as much choice as possible re: use of rewards.

     6. Try to immunize individuals against the motivation-killing effects

of awards.

KOHN’S FACTORS TO BUILD INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

     Collaboration requires that the members of the group or classroom rally around the true concept of working together for the success of the group.

     Content requires that the task, job, or learning experience cover a fulfilling and rewarding role. (this might be called Meaningfulness)

     People must be afforded the maximum amount of Choice in what and how they perform their tasks or work. This facilitates buy-in and participation.

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Meta-analytic Reviews• A. Cameron & Pierce (1994)•  

          Found no evidence of harmful effects of rewards on intrinsic

motivation•  Remember Deci?•  • B. Cameron & Eisenberger (1996)•

          Found that rewards may enhance intrinsic motivation•  •  • C. Eisenberger, Pierce & Cameron (1999)•  

          Found no support for negative impact of rewards on feelings of

self-determination.

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Theories of Motivation• B. Cognitive Choice Theories

• 1. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)

• This theory is based on the principle of social comparison

     Equity considerations

     Input/output ratio for self and others

• 2 types of inequity

         1. Underpayment

         2. Overpayment

•  Inequity = Tension

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Theories of Motivation• 2. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)

• A cognitive theory that assumes that all people are completely rational decision makers

•  

• People expend effort on activities that will lead to desired outcomes or rewards

•   

• 5 major components to the theory

          Job outcomes

          Valence (V)

          Instrumentality (I)

          Expectancy (E)

         Force (F)

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Theories of Work Motivation• VIE Model

 F = E ( VI)

Example: Increasing job performance

Assume that there are two valued outcomes associated with increased job performance

 

 Pay increase

 8

 .3

 .80

 Promotion

 6

 .4

 

Outcome V I E

F = E ( VI)F = (.80) [(8 x .3) + (6 x .4)]F = 3.84

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Intrinsic Motivation

• Is that how you get motivated?

      With a calculator in hand?

      With purely rational thinking?

Most of these models fail in one way or another.

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Thomas’ Model• Builds on these previous theories of Intrinsic Motivation

Five Characteristics of Job Design Shape Experienced Meaningfulness, Causal Responsibility for Task Outcomes, and Knowledge of Results

Job Characteristics Model

Hackman & Oldham

Task Purpose

Feedback and Rewards Shape Levels of Experienced Choice (Self Determination) and Competence

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Deci & RyanTask Activities

CONTENTTHEORYTHEORISTSFOCUS

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Thomas’ Model• Intrinsic Task Rewards

TASK-RELATEDRewards

PSYCHOLOGICALRewards

(Intrinsic to Person)

INTRINSICNONTASKREWARDS

(Psychological Rewards From Membership

- Power, Affiliation, Pride in

Organization)

INTRINSICTASK

REWARDS(Psychological Rewards From

Task)

EXTRINSICTASK

REWARDS(Task Rewardsfrom Others:

Pay,Recognition)

“intrinsic motivation involves psychological rewards that individuals derive directly from a task”

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Intrinsic Motivation• ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment

Sense of CHOICE

Sense of MEANINGFUL

-NESS

Sense ofCOMPETENCE

Sense of PROGRESS

ACCOMPLISHMENTRewards

OPPORTUNITYRewards

From TaskACTIVITIES

From TaskPURPOSE

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Intrinsic Motivation• ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment

• Choice is the opportunity you feel to select task activities that make sense to you and perform them in ways that seem appropriate. The feeling of choice is the feeling of being free to choose - of being able to use your own judgment and act out of your understanding of the task.

• Competence is the accomplishment you feel in skillfully performing task activities you have chosen. The feeling of competence involves the sense that you are doing good, quality work on the task.

• Meaningfulness is the opportunity you feel to pursue a worthy task purpose. The feeling of meaningfulness is the feeling that you are on a path that is worth your time and energy - that you are on a valuable mission, that your purpose matters in the larger scheme of things.

• Progress is the accomplishment you feel in achieving the task purpose. The feeling of progress involves the sense that the task is moving forward, that your activities are really accomplishing something.

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Intrinsic Motivation• Taking Action on with the Empowerment Model

CHOICEDelegated authorityTrust in workersSecurity (no punishment for honest mistakes)A clear purposeInformation

MEANINGFULNESSA non-cynical climateClearly identified passionsAn exciting visionRelevant task purposesWhole tasks

COMPETENCEKnowledge ModelsPositive FeedbackSkill recognitionChallengeHigh, non-comparative standards

PROGRESSA collaborative climateMilestonesCelebrationsAccess to customersMeasurement of improvement

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Sense of Choice• Personal Level • Team Level

Delegated authority

Trust in workers

Security

A clear purpose

Information

Giving members the right to make decisions relative to their task, including the spending of resources.

Trusting members judgment, and giving them the space to exercise it.

Supporting experimentation, no blame or punishment for honest mistakes.

Deciding upon a clear team objective or direction to guide decision-making.

Sharing with team all the information they need to make decisions.

Negotiating the right to make your own decisions relative to

your task.

Listening to and trusting your own judgment.

Having the courage to try things you believe will work, not yielding

to your fears.

Clarifying and negotiating a clearpurpose for your task activities.

Contacting people to request any information required.

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Sense of Competence• Personal Level • Team Level

Knowledge models

Positive Feedback

Skill Recognition

Growth Opportunities,Challenge

High Non-comparativeStandards

Providing models of task performance through training, role modeling, mentoring and shared learning.

Providing feedback that is more ‘appreciative’ than ‘deficiency focused’. Building on what is done well rather than focusing on mistakes and shortcomings.

Giving credit for successes - attributing to skill (rather than luck, others or easy tasks).

Stretching team with gradually increasing demands and challenges.

Not putting team in competition with one another, ensure recognizing one member’s competence does not threaten others.

Networking and researching for models, mentors and training

opportunities.

Appreciating successes, limiting deficiency focusing, requesting

positive feedback.

Recognizing the role of your competencies in your successes.

Trying new tasks, further developing old tasks.

Avoiding self-defeating comparisons to others, learning from their success without fear.

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Sense of Meaningfulness• Personal Level • Team Level

Non-cynical climate

Clear Passions

Exciting Vision

Relevant Task Purposes

Whole Tasks

Providing a non-cynical environment that encourages idealism and caring.

Developing a shared value system for the team that identifies the group’s priorities.

Constructing a vision for the future the team wants to create; ensuring that vision adds value to the world.

Adopting task purposes that are clearly related to the vision; sowing their contribution; protecting team from low value busy work.

When possible, giving members tasks that are whole projects, or major identifiable portions of a project.

Seeking supportive teammates who help nurture your ideals; controlling

cynicism.

Understanding your own values; seeking teammates who share

them; stating your values to teammates.

Buying into the vision and making it yours; negotiating necessary

changes; building a vision in the absence of one.

Ensuring your task purposes contribute to the vision: “What can be done here that is meaningful?”

eliminating low value busy work.

Negotiating responsibility for whole, identifiable tasks.

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Sense of Progress• Personal Level • Team Level

Collaborative climate

Milestones

Celebrations

Access to the customer

Measurement of improvement

Collaborating with team when coordination or support are needed - working together to meet the team’s needs.

Providing clear information/direction on key events that will occur in achieving a task purpose.

Celebrating team member progress with important milestones.

Disseminating customer satisfaction feedback to the team (a measure of task success).

On recurring tasks, using customer feedback and other criteria to help team continuously improve task performance.

Building collaborative relationships with others involved

in your tasks.

Developing your internal milestones to achieve your task

purposes.

Tracking milestones; taking time to recognize and celebrate them.

Making contact with your customers to gain feedback on

your task performance.

Monitoring and continuously improving your task

performance.

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Intrinsic Motivation

• “To understand intrinsic motivation, it’s important to see the limitations of the rational-economic (CET) model….At its heart, intrinsic motivation is not about rational calculation - it is about passion and positive feelings people get form their work. These feelings reinforce or energize workers [and] provide the fulfillment that is needed to keep today’s workers on the job. Building motivation, then, is about finding ways to enable and amplify those feelings”

- Kenneth Thomas

This is a shift in paradigms

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The Self-Management process

Commit to a Meaningful

Purpose

Perform Activities

Choose Activities to Accomplish

the Purpose

Monitor ProgressToward the

Purpose

Monitor Activitiesfor Competence

The Paradigm Shiftin Individuals

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The Paradigm Shiftin Management

Old School

(Command and Control)

Emerging View

(Collegial)

Manager’s Role

Worker’s Role

Worker’s Motivation

Post-industrial Paradigm

Leadership and Coaching

Self-management

Mostly intrinsicCommitted to taskGets rewards directly from doing the task well and self management

Industrial Paradigm

Directing and Controlling

Compliance

Mostly extrinsicNo Commitment to

taskResponds to carrots and sticks controlled

by management

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Leadership Connection

• Leadership is influencing people—by providing purpose, direction, and motivation—while operating to accomplish the mission [or task] and improving the organization.

FM 22-100, Department of the Army

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The Role of Leadership• Using the ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment• If we incorporate the Team and Personal Actions the end result is:

Leading for CHOICEHANDING OFF

Leading forMEANINGFULNESSINSPIRING

Leading for COMPETENCECOACHING

Leading for PROGRESSSCOREKEEPING and CHEERING

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Sources• Deci, E. & Flaste, R. (1996). Why we do what we do: Understanding

self-motivation. New York: Penguin.

• Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum.

• Department of Behavioral Sciences & Leadership, USMA. (1988). Leadership in organizations. Garden City Park, NY: Avery Publishing Group.

• Department of Psychology. (2003). Work Motivation. University of Vermont. Retrieved June 15, 2003, from http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/sum2003/60924/Motivation.htm

• Department of the Army. (1989). Leadership: How to. FORSCOM Pamphlet 600-7.

• Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

• Hackman, J.R. & Oldham, G.R. (1980). Work Redesign. Reading, M.A.: Addison-Wesley.

• Katzenbach, J.R. (2003). Why pride matters more than money: The power of the world’s greatest motivational force. New York: Crown Business.

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Sources(cont.)

• Kohn, A. (1992). No contest: The case against competition. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.

• Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, a's, praise, and other bribes. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.

• Lead Institute. (2001). Leadership and intrinsic motivation. Ann Arbor, MI: The General Systems Consulting Group, Inc.

• Morgan, G. (1997). Images of organization (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Robbins, A. (1991). Awaken the giant within: How to take immediate control of your mental, emotional, physical & financial destiny. New York: Simon & Shuster.

• Thomas, K. (1994). Intrinsic motivation at work: Building energy & commitment. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

• Thomas, K. & Jansen, E. (1996). Intrinsic motivation in the military: Models and strategic importance. Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School.

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Summary• Motivation• Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic• Theories

– Non-theory– Need-Motive-Value Theories– Cognitive Choice Theories

• Thomas’ Model– Origins– The Model– Taking Action

• Paradigm Shifts• The Leadership Connection• Sources