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Assaulted by the iPod: The Linkbetween Passive Listening and ViolenceMark ThorleyPublished online: 10 Feb 2011.
To cite this article: Mark Thorley (2011) Assaulted by the iPod: The Link between Passive Listeningand Violence, Popular Music and Society, 34:01, 79-96, DOI: 10.1080/03007766.2011.539828
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03007766.2011.539828
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Assaulted by the iPod: The Linkbetween Passive Listening andViolenceMark Thorley
In response to the rise in the number of MP3 players in use, and anecdotal evidence oftheir annoyance value, this paper examines the link between passive MP3 player listeningand violence. In examining the link, it first presents the concept of a “passive listener,” then
looks at the issue of control and choice, and the different levels to which these are present incontrolled and passive listening. It then examines the unique elements of passive listening
which make it different from many other acts of musical violence, before summarizing theeffect on the passive listener. Finally, the paper suggests strategies to minimize the effects of
passive listening as a form of violence, before suggesting areas for further research.
Background
Driven by increased internet connectivity and availability of disposable income, the
number of MP3 players sold has increased year by year and shows little sign of
slowing. Often replacing older formats, in the twelve months to September 2008,
in the UK alone, more than 32 million MP3 playing devices were bought compared
with a mere 8 million CD playing devices (Green). As well as being able to store large
amounts of music, most significantly users can enjoy music in isolation wherever they
are, be it on public transport or in the workplace. The benefits of being able to shut off
from others around, particularly when in the close proximity which is typical of
crowded commuter travel, are clearly attractive.
Added to this, music listeners are able to identify and express themselves through
their choice of music and by demonstrating that they choose to listen to music. As
fashion accessories, MP3 players and mobile telephones (which often operate as MP3
players) are now seen as a way of expressing personal identity, with new models being
adopted eagerly. Listeners can also reflect identity through their choice of music.
Therefore, on the journey to work, where the listener is most likely to come into
contact with people who do not really know him or her, the potential for using an
iPod or MP3 player to express identity is significant.
ISSN 0300-7766 (print)/ISSN 1740-1712 (online) q 2011 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/03007766.2011.539828
Popular Music and SocietyVol. 34, No. 1, February 2011, pp. 79–96
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A Solitary Experience Shared
The common perception of listening to an iPod or MP3 player is one of a solitary
experience. Bull (55) has written of the positive effects of MP3 player listening,
including the envelopment in a personal audio experience and ameans of preparing the
listener for what the day has ahead. While such studies concentrate on the listener
wearing the headphones, the effect on the other person sitting near the listener and
sharing the music without choosing to is often neglected. The phenomenon of
someone listening to another person’s music occurs because of the sound leakage from
many (often low-quality) headphones operating at high listening levels. The perception
of an isolated music experience is therefore a beguiling but inaccurate one. At the very
least, the intrusion of themusic on others nearby can only add to the surprising amount
of music which is experienced without “focussed listening” (Sloboda and O’Neill
416–18). In a train carriage full of people, for example, they are being exposed to the
sound, but, due to the quality of the sound, they are not hearing it as it should be
reproduced. They are neither able fully to appreciate the music nor to benefit from this
time which would otherwise not include music. It is argued here that the effect on the
passive listener could be far greater than previously realized, with raised stress levels,
changes to bodily state, damage to health, and potential secondary manifestations of
violence. There is already compelling recent evidence of how having to listen to other
passengers’music causes stress while commuting, such as inwork byWilliams andHill.
In their study, loud music was ranked second after insufficient room as a stressor in
commuting, with delays from home to work, delays from work to home, and odors
being the next most stressful.
The Concept of a Passive Listener
The issues surrounding the use of personal music systems and the possible side effects
have been considered as significant for some time. Although these have tended to
confine themselves to the potential damage to hearing, they reflect general concerns
which have followed the adoption of new technology by consumers for the purposes
of music listening. For example, as early as 1972 and 1982 respectively, Wood and
Lipscomb (484–87), and Katz et al. (1460–61) examined the effects of listening to
personal music systems, which were then typified by cassette and CD. In these and
other studies, it was concluded that personal listening systems presented a hazard to
hearing. There are therefore two good reasons for this examination of the effect of
MP3 player listening on others. First, technology is developing quickly and, as Kumar
et al. have noted, “there is a paucity of data regarding the output levels and their effect
on the auditory system of new generation MP3 players and mobile phones MP3
systems” (133). Second, these studies and others have focused on the effect on the
person wearing the headphones with no attention to the impact on others nearby.
They neglect the effects on those whom Williams and Hill identify as suffering from
irritation and stress.
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For the purposes of understanding the experience of those in close proximity to an
MP3 player listener who are exposed to the music without choice, the concept of a“passive listener” is proposed. The term “passive listening” is already current in a
number of discourses, as, for example, interpersonal communication studies. In thisarticle, it will be deployed in a specific sense. Just as the concept of a passive smoker (and
the associated health effects) is nowwidely accepted, the passive listener experiences the
music through no choice of her/his own. This is in contrast with the person (whowill bereferred to as the primary listener) who has made the conscious choice to listen to the
music. The element of choice which the primary listener has been able to make, whichthe passive listener has not, is crucial and is explored later in the paper.
Environment is also a key factor, since the primary listeners are often trying to blockout the stimuli in the physical surroundings in order to improve their journey (or other
activity). Therefore, the worse the journey and the noisier the surroundings, the more
the primary listeners will want to immerse themselves in the music by turning up thevolume. Hodgetts, Reiger, and Szarko (296) observed in their various scenarios that
listeners turned music up by 6–10 dB SPL in the presence of background noise typicalof a commuting journey.
No Sense of Control, a Lack of Choice
In contrast to the control which the primary listener is exerting to envelop
himself/herself in a more positive environment, the passive listener has little sense ofcontrol. Johnson and Cloonan have noted that many negative reactions to music
center upon a sense of control and furthermore “one common factor is that imposedmusic will always tend to constitute a form of violence to a greater or lesser degree, and
in any society” (24). The imposition of the primary listener’s audio choices upon the
passive listener is therefore an act of musical violence. Much research has beenconducted into musical acts of violence in other spheres such as in torture or in
preparation for aggressive sporting activities. However, there are some elementsunique to or more prevalent in the passive listening experience as the unintended
by-product of the MP3 player. Examples of these elements explored later includethe sonic characteristics of the music, the degraded sound quality, and the influence
of the environment. These elements could be said to contribute to the “greater or lesser
degree” of the violence inflicted upon the passive listener. However, this is not the onlyact of violence possibly perpetrated through the passive listening experience. A second
manifestation of violence can exist in the response of the passive listener. This isbecause the physiological and psychological changes in the body of the passive listener
can produce feelings of aggression which could lead to expressions of violence.It would be easy to think of the difference in control exercised by the primary
compared with the passive listener merely in terms of choice of music. However, just
as important as the question of “what” music is listened to is “how” it sounds to thelistener. Technology can alter the relationship between music creation and its sources
and destinations (Johnson and Cloonan 62), and listeners commonly exercise choice
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over the technology. A recording can sound significantly different according to the
characteristics of the equipment on which it is reproduced. Cheap systems can meanthe listener misses certain elements of the sound while high-cost systems will
reproduce the sound more accurately, and therefore color the sound less. In somecases, systems include an emphasis on low and high frequencies to compensate for thenon-linearity of hearing at lower frequencies (Rumsey and McCormick 28). Bull has
referred to personal stereo users “enhancing their level of control” through“technological empowerment” (119). This is not limited to the use of personal stereos,
though, as choice of and use of technology in music listening pervades all methods ofreproduction. The diverse choice of reproduction equipment available from CD
players and turntables through to headphones and loudspeakers alters how the musicsounds as compared with when it was mastered. Specific examples include bass-heavy
systems in cars, which often boost low frequencies to such an extent that they can befelt by passers-by. Taking the example of headphones with an emphasis on the highfrequencies, the “tsh tsh” of the hi-hats on a dance record would become more
prominent, and in the case of passive listening may be the main sound heard. Musiclistening therefore normally offers the listener extensive choice over how the music
sounds according to his or her choice of reproduction equipment. This makes the lackof control which the passive listener can exert even more striking.
Inferior and Uninvited Sounds
Lack of control means the passive listener is forced to hear sounds which are imposedand uninvited. Additionally, the quality of sound is made inferior by a number of
aspects distinctive to the passive listening experience. These include use ofcompression in mastering, MP3 quality issues, aspects of sound levels, and the
influence of the environment.
Use of Compression
One of the most significant changes to music production which has occurred
concurrently with MP3 player adoption is the increased use of compression to alter thedynamic range of a recording. Although used throughout the recording process, its
most audible use is by mastering engineers. Izhaki summarizes this process, stating“perhaps their most important role is to bring the sonic aspects of an album to the
highest, most appealing state. If the mixes are good, they can make diamonds out ofgold” (55). The concept of dynamic range is illustrated in Figure 1, from the track “Blue
Train” by John Coltrane, recorded in 1957. The center section is where all instrumentsexcept for bass and drums drop out, and it is therefore quieter. This reflects the desire tocapture a performance accurately; as Case has pointed out, “making clever use of loud
parts and soft parts is a fundamental part of performance, composition, and arrangingin all styles of music from classical to jazz and folk to rock” (33). Capturing these
elements has not always been straightforward, however, as recording media have a
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dynamic range less than that of the performance. While older formats such as cassette
and vinyl have very limited dynamic range, CD is typically accepted as around 90dB,
though theoretically it could achieve 96dB (Fries and Fries 147).
Surprisingly, rather than the use of compression decreasing with the adoption of
new formats, in reality the opposite has happened, the result of which is a
phenomenon referred to as the “loudness wars.” The reasons for this lie not with the
newer formats, but, first, with psychoacoustic principles. Fletcher and Munsen (82–
108), in a paper for the Acoustical Society of America in 1933, reported that the
human ear has been shown to be non-linear in its frequency response. At lower
volumes, it responds less well to lower and higher frequencies. As the volume
increases, the ear’s response becomes more linear. Therefore, by making the overall
levels higher, the music arguably sounds better. For this reason, compression is used to
quieten the louder passages and boost the quieter ones. In addition, the increase in
listening to music outside the home (including the use of MP3 players) is a significant
factor in the use of compression. If someone listens at home, she/he is likely to hear
the quiet passages just as well as the loud ones, and enjoy the difference between them.
However, if listening takes place in a noisy environment such as a car or on public
transport, the quieter passages can be drowned out. In response to the increase in
listening in acoustically compromised environments, compression is therefore used to
ensure that the quieter passages are raised in level so that they too are heard.The detrimental effect of compression in music production has been noted by Bob
Katz, one of the world’s best-known mastering engineers (Jones). Katz noted that
there is a 12 to 14dB difference between a Black Sabbath album recorded in the late
1970s and mastered for CD in the early 1980s, as compared with the Black Eyed Peas
“Let’s Get It Started” in 2003. Both of these recordings use the same output medium
of CD, and, given the presumption that the aim of the mastering engineer as outlined
by Izhaki would have been exactly the same, the reasons for the change must lie
elsewhere. Tellingly, Jones’s article, which includes contributions from many well-
known mastering engineers, attributes the problem to “the iPod-centric population
with no concept of dynamic range or even active listening.” This would seem to
support some of the ideas in this paper, pinpointing the hardware as contributory and
the manner of listening as crucial. Certainly, levels have generally risen, but, most
importantly, the dynamics have been limited such that they are not like those of the
Figure 1 Passage from “Blue Train” by John Coltrane
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original performance or the master recording. This seems to suggest that there is an
increasing disjunction between the dynamics of a real performance and the listeningexperience which many people accept.
All this means that neither primary nor passive listeners experience the true lightand shade of quieter and louder passages. It also means that their hearing is exposed to
the higher levels of sound through much of the recording rather than merely in the
loudest passages. The passive listener though has no choice about listening to all themusic, as he or she will hear the quieter passages just as much as the louder ones.
Whatever it is in the sound which causes reaction, it will be constantly present as thequiet passages in the performance are heard as much as the louder ones.
MP3 Quality
The widespread adoption of MP3 players has been facilitated by developments in
digital audio compression technologies. The ability to screen out audio data that maybe regarded as redundant because of psychoacoustic masking has allowed sound files
to be much smaller, and thus recorded in abundance onto hard drives. Though “MP3”is commonly used to refer (incorrectly) to any compressed audio file, there are in fact
many variations, ranging from AAC, used in iTunes and the iPod, to the open-source
Ogg Vorbis. In listening tests, each of these codecs has been shown to offer differentlevels of quality, and users can chose different levels of quality when they download
them or rip (record) from CD. The result is a quality of recording which, in spite of allthe hype, is not as good as CD. To some ears, it may be close, but, given the choice of
an older codec and a low bit rate, quality can in fact be very low. Concern over thisseeming backward step in quality perception has been raised by many industry
groups, including those mastering engineers represented in the article by Jones. As
further worrying evidence, Jonathan Berger, Professor of Music at StanfordUniversity, has spoken at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences of his dismay at
students’ preference for inferior formats such as MP3 (Dougherty). In this case, notonly are the students unaware of its inadequacies, but, as a younger generation which
has grown up with it they seem to prefer the compromised sound. Berger uses thephrase “sizzling sound” to refer to the high-frequency distortion sometimes present in
MP3s. This brings to light issues of perception, choice, and how quality is often based
upon previous experience.There is, however, evidence of listeners being able to judge MP3 music files as
inferior when presented with a meaningful comparison. The BBC’s Working Lunchran a blind comparison where listeners were able to compare music played on an
up-to-date iPod dock with music played on a second-hand CD player-based hi-fi(Sakr). In the test, eight out of ten people preferred the second-hand hi-fi playing
from CD. While there are obviously a number of other variables involved in this
comparison (loudspeakers, amplification, etc.), it does show how listeners are able tojudge quality when presented with different comparisons. The problem with MP3
listening is that, with its increasing adoption, comparison with better quality is less
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likely to take place. While there are many choices on offer, from the highest quality to
the lowest, some people choose low quality because they are either unaware of, oraccepting of, its limitations.
It can be concluded that the compressed audio format used in MP3 players is of alesser standard than CD, the degree of quality being dependent upon choice of format
and bit rate settings. This has implications for the primary listener for whom the
quality chosen will be significantly worse than envisaged at the mastering stage. Forthe passive listener, though, the sound quality may be worse than he or she would
choose, but he or she has no control over its imposition.
The Relevance of Sound Levels
With music being imposed upon the passive listener, it is relevant to examine typicalsound levels. High levels of sound (such as gunfire) have been shown to be causes of
stress, according to Prasher (154), in that they disturb the balance of the cardiovascular,endocrine, and immune systems. However, the levels which a passive music listener
typically experiences would not be at such a high level. Evidence of lower-level noise
causing stress does exist, however, such as the example of traffic noise examined byBabisch, Ising, and Gallacher (739). It would seem, therefore, that it is not merely a
matter of the sound levels, but the cumulative effect over time which needsexamination.
The lack of meaningful guidelines is reflected by Kumar et al. who have suggestedthat “as no evidence-based definition exists for hazardous sound levels of music, as a
substitute, standards for exposure to occupational noise have been proposed for use”
(132). In this instance the use of the World Health Organization “Guidelines forCommunity Noise” are proposed as appropriate. These guidelines reflect the concept
that it is not just the level of the noise but the length of the exposure. The standardrecognizes that there is a trade-off which can be quantified as the “3dB exchange rule”:
An increase of sound by 3dB should be endured for only half as long or a 3dB decrease
allows double the time exposure. This is consistent with the notion of sound having acumulative effect on the body, with lower volume levels being just as damaging if they
are endured for longer. With passive listening, the effect is dependent upon for howlong it occurs, just as much as the volume level. A longer journey at lower levels could
be just as damaging as a shorter journey at higher levels. This would seem to suggest
an even greater potential for effects from passive listening rather than the obviousmeasure of volume.
The Influence of the Environment
The listening experience of the passive listener is further complicated because the
music she/he hears is essentially leakage. How much he or she hears and what is heardwill depend upon the headphones, but there will always be further alteration of
the sound. Depending upon the headphone design, there is likely to be more leakage
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of high-frequency content, resulting, for example, in cymbals, high hats, and elements
of the snare drum being more audible. If the primary listener is playing the music athigh levels, the sound may also be distorted. These effects combine to present the
passive listener with an auditory experience which is a significantly degraded versionof what the primary listener is experiencing. Even if it were his or her choice of music,
it would still be a very poor representation of it.The sound which reaches the passive listener has been affected in further and more
complicated ways, due to the environment being acoustically compromised. There will
be extensive levels of background noise which will add to the sound levels experiencedby the passive listener. The environment also often contains hard surfaces which will
diffract and delay sounds and create reverberation-type effects. This is in contrast tothe kind of acoustic environment which would be more traditionally associated with
music listening—the home. Though not specifically designed for music listening, atypical sitting room has low background noise and a low reverberation time. Music
listening may take place in other compromised spaces such as cars, but in such an
instance there is more control over volume. In the instance of passive listening, thevarious sources of sound (the leaked sound, any reflections of the sound, and
background noise) will interfere with each other. Interference occurs when soundwaves are superimposed upon each other and it results in the spectral contour of the
sound being altered (Everest 15). Some frequencies may be emphasized and othersdiminished such that the sound is further colored between the leaked sound and the
passive listener. It is therefore an amalgam of the music and the environment, and,
importantly, the passive listener is likely to have sufficient auditory experience ofreasonable quality sound to judge it as poor.
Given the various processes which have changed the sound, it is worth consideringwhether the passive listener is experiencing music or noise. There is a range of
definitions of noise, from the more scientific to the everyday. In scientific terms, noiseis commonly distinguished as having a non-periodic waveform, or, to put it another
way, it is unharmonious or discordant. If the sound has been significantly degradedthrough its reproduction via leakage and the intervention of the acoustic environment,
it can therefore be defined as noise. If it still contains significant harmonic elements, it
could arguably be considered to be music. However, alternative definitions as typifiedby those in environmental acoustics consider any unwanted sound to be noise
(Stansfeld and Matheson 243). Using this definition, then, the passive listener is stillexperiencing noise even if it contains harmonic elements. This opens up new lines of
thought on the effect of passive listening. For example, Rossing, Moore and Wheelerhint at the potential of noise, stating that “there is a general feeling that nervousness
and anxiety are caused by exposure to noise or are at least intensified by it” (727).The listener normally has some control over the choice of listening environment,
where he or she can appreciate the music fully without distortion or degradation. In
contrast, the passive listener is experiencing a leaked sound, which has been degradedfurther by an acoustically compromised environment. Given that the physical quality
(including noise aspects) of the environment can be a stressor and, according to Boyd
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(157), a trigger to violence, the auditory degradation resulting from the environment
can be a contributory factor.
Overall Effect
The overall effect of uninvited and inferior sounds is a form of musical violence
towards passive listeners, taking them towards pain (Johnson and Cloonan 26), withthe particular aspects of passive listening discussed contributing to the “greater orlesser” effect. Just as a physical act of violence alters the victim’s body, the act of
imposed passive listening has the potential to change the state of the passive listener’sbody without his or her permission. The resulting change or damage is evidence of the
imposition of passive listening as an act of violence. There is additional potential for asecond level of violence. Cohen and Weinstein (68) have noted that annoyance from
noise can include fear and anger related to the belief that the listener is beingunavoidably harmed. This belief can produce a secondary form of violence in the
psychological and physiological response of the passive listener. As Johnson andCloonan note “Enduring high levels of pain can lead to violence” (29).
Increase in Stress Levels, Damage to the Passive Listener, and Expressions of Violence
The psychological and physiological changes brought about by passive listening areattributable to increases in stress levels (Stansfeld and Matheson 247). This
constitutes uninvited change to the bodily state, and the conditions for a secondarymanifestation of violence. Stress, as a medical term, was first described in 1936 by
Hans Selye in the journal Nature in terms of a wide range of strong external stimuli,both physiological and psychological, which could cause a physiological response,
termed “the general adaptation syndrome.” Commonly now known as “fight orflight” (though there are more options), the body’s reaction to stress is a complexseries of responses brought about by external stimuli. The stimuli may be threatening
or may involve excessive demands or a challenge, and the response takes place toensure that the body is ready to deal with the situation. In the context of music,
Becker (144) has defined such an arousal as stimulation of the autonomic nervoussystem resulting in changes in heartbeat, breathing, skin temperature, and so on.
Although the autonomic nervous system is important, additional bodily processes areactually involved. So, while the fight or flight response may be useful in readying the
body for action when being charged by a bull, the same response to passive listeningmay not be as appropriate.
Figure 2 indicates the biological mechanisms involved in the stress response.In response to information from the senses, the hypothalamus controls the action ofboth the autonomic nervous system and the pituitary-adrenal cortex system. The
response of the autonomic nervous system to which Becker (144) refers is importantbecause it cannot be voluntarily controlled. Therefore, the action of heartbeat, lungs,
and blood vessels changes in automatic response to stimuli including sound.
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The two sides of the system (parasympathetic and sympathetic) work in opposite
ways in that, while the sympathetic side enhances the body’s readiness to respond with
action, the parasympathetic conserves energy and protects the body. The response of
the organs is prompted by the release of neurotransmitters from the nerve endings—
namely acetylcholine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline, the latter two of these being part
of the stress response. The pituitary-adrenal cortex system also releases hormones
from the endocrine glands into the blood, where from they travel to the organs. These
consist of the oestrogen and androgen hormones (including testosterone), which aid
the building and maintenance of relationships between humans, and cortisol, which
ensures a supply of energy to the body muscles. The adrenal and pituitary glands can
also produce adrenaline and noradrenaline in the same way that the nerve endings of
the autonomic nervous system do. (See Figure 2.)Noradrenaline, adrenaline, and cortisol are the key hormones of the stress response,
with differing mixes of these and testosterone determining how the body is readied for
action (Aldwin 37–39). In the case of passive listening, if the brain considers the
situation to be threatening and out of its control, the autonomic and pituitary-adrenal
cortex system will respond. The lack of control and the final compromised quality of
Hypothalamus
situated in brain
Autonomic nervous system
Parasympatheticnervous system
Sympatheticnervous system
Adrenaline
Response in bodyorgans
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Pituitary-adrenalcortex system
Cortisol Oestrogensand androgens
Stimuli from
hearing and
Figure 2 Biological processes of the stress response
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sound could, based upon the passive listener’s perception of the situation, result in
such a response.Table 1 shows how different levels of each hormone can elicit different responses,
with defeat added to the commonly recognized fight and flight reactions. Such a
variety of responses is outlined by the US Office of Noise Abatement and Control
which notes that “a person may respond with anger, or experience symptoms such as
anxiety, irritability and/or general emotional stress” (40). Which response takes place
depends upon how the situation is perceived by the brain. It is therefore highly
dependent upon the individual’s situation and her/his attitude to it (Looker and
Gregson 56–59). A rise in feelings of aggression and a possible inclination to violence
result from a large increase in noradrenaline, a smaller increase in adrenaline, little
change in cortisol, and a small increase in testosterone. Inclination to flight results
from a large increase in adrenaline, a small increase in noradrenaline, and an increase
in cortisol. A feeling of defeat in the situation results from a large increase in cortisol,
which can itself be highly damaging to health in the long term. There is therefore a
range of responses possible to the same external stimuli, such as in passive listening.When the situation has passed, the action of the parasympathetic nervous system is
important to the passive listener as it increases its activity while the sympathetic
nervous system decreases its activity to bring the body back to homeostasis (Aldwin
38). Homeostasis is explained by Sterling and Eyer (629) and refers to the manner in
which the cardiovascular system adjusts to the various demands on the body, whether
active or resting. However, if the person continues to be exposed to similarly
challenging situations (such as a stressful job), the body can remain in a state of hyper
arousal, where it is unrealistically armed to deal with the next threat. In this case, the
activity of the sympathetic nervous system and the pituitary-adrenal cortex system
continues to supply signals which can result in fight, flight, or defeat. The manner in
which different stresses can act synergistically or antagonistically has been noted by
Stansfeld and Matheson (249). Therefore, effects can be cumulative, such that an
aggressive response may not necessarily occur in the environment where the passive
listening took place; it could be later in the day or in another challenging situation.
Even if the passive listener is not given to an aggressive reaction, there are likely to be
other effects associated with stress, such as suppression of the immune system, heart
problems, stroke, and even psychiatric disorders (Taylor 185). These health outcomes
that result from the musical act of violence are just as tangible as those resulting from
a physical act of violence.The initial act of musical violence therefore damages the passive listener through
the response of the autonomic nervous system and the pituitary-adrenal cortex
system. Exactly how the passive listener responds is down to a number of factors, but,
if other stresses are apparent and homeostasis is not facilitated through the action of
the parasympathetic nervous system, long-term health damage can result. Though
these are not immediate effects as with physical violence, the passive listening can be a
contributory factor to the resulting health damage.
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Table
1Possiblestress
responsesandhorm
onemix
Balance
ofstress
relatedhorm
ones
Oestrogens
andandrogens
Appraisalofpassive
listeningsituation
Dominantresponse
Noradrenaline
Adrenaline
Cortisol
Testosterone
Capableofresponse
Fight
Large
increase
Smallincrease
Littleornochange
Smallincrease
Notcapableofresponse
Fligh
tSm
allincrease
Large
increase
Increase
Littleornochange
Helplessnessandloss
of
control
Defeat
Littleornochange
Littleornochange
Large
increase
Decrease
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Second, the changes brought about in the passive listener could give rise to feelings
of aggression and violent acts. These could be expressed in the passive listeningenvironment and be directed towards the primary listener if the hormonal mix is
distinctive. Even a change in body language to an aggressive stance aimed at thepassive listener or the environment could be interpreted as evidence of preparation for
fight. Apart from specific research on incidents of violence attributed to passive
listening, there is extensive evidence of violence being related to stress. On therelationship between stress and violence in the transport sector, Essenberg noted that
“they can interact, since stress is believed to be at least partly a result of violence andvice versa” (1). In addition, the various stresses of modern life can be cumulative, such
that the sympathetic nervous system is constantly working, while situations which
impact on the parasympathetic nervous system are few and far between. In such aninstance, the passive listening experience can be contributory to expressions of
violence and aggression.
Unknown Factors
Although the effect of passive listening could alter the passive listener’s bodily stateand give rise to feelings of aggression and possible violence, this would not happen
with everyone at all times. There are therefore a number of variables which mayindicate who is more prone and under what circumstances.
The general levels of stress hormones are higher in the morning in preparing thebody for the challenges of the day. Furthermore, cortisol levels are commonly raised
by 50–60% in 80% of people and remain high for sixty minutes at the start of the day(Pruessner 2539–49). Therefore, a propensity for a stress response to passive listening
is more likely on the way to work in the morning than on the way back in the evening.
Also, if a person is experiencing high stress levels and responding accordingly duringthe rest of her/his life, the experience of passive listening is more likely to give rise to
problems. This is because the person is already in a state of hyper arousal and morelikely to consider the situation as out of control. The effect of passive listening must
therefore be considered in the context of other contributing factors.Crucially, not everyone will respond in the same way. According to the
psychological stress model of Henry and Stephens (139–44), how a stimulus is
perceived depends upon the individual’s coping resources, early experience, andgenetic background. If these factors converge in particular permutations and the
stimulus is perceived as a threat to control, the stress reaction will take place. In thisinstance, though, it is difficult to predict who will respond to the passive listening
experience, and how he or she will respond. It is likely that music styles which thepassive listener dislikes or finds offensive will cause a reaction as it is potentially a
violation of her/his identity through the projection of that of someone else (Johnson
and Cloonan 129). Interestingly, with primary listeners expressing their own identitythrough their music choice rather than engaging with a more unifying mass medium
such as radio, there is more potential for a difference in opinion on music choice.
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However, it has been demonstrated that the auditory experience of the passive listener
is far more complex than just listening to someone else’s music. The link is clearlycomplex and, as Prasher notes, “low levels may also affect cortisol secretion depending
upon the meaning and disturbing nature of the stimulus rather than its level” (153).In this case, the response goes further back from the hypothalamus to the limbicsystem, which adds an emotional dimension to the body’s maintenance mechanism.
Strategies to Deal with Issues of Passive Listening
There are a number of strategies which could be employed to reduce the violent effectsof passive listening, while also allowing primary listeners to listen to MP3 players.
The first and most obvious way is the use of headphones which provide better levelsof isolation. They also reduce the amount of outside noise that the primary listener
hears. This is therefore an attractive proposition for primary listeners since, inimproving their listening experience, they also improve the physical environment of
the passive listeners, thus alleviating the auditory pollution. This can be problematic,however, because such headphones have a tendency to facilitate listening at higher
levels as there is less sound loss due to leakage. They will therefore contribute furtherto the problems of hearing loss which have been referred to here, and are of concern toorganizations such as the Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID).
A second technological intervention would be the addition of a limiter in MP3players which would prevent the sound levels getting too high. This would cause a
decrease in the leakage of sound reaching the passive listener but would also preventdamage to hearing, which is of concern to health professionals. Arguably prompted by
possible legal action, Apple has already introduced a user-defined volume in fifth-generation iPods and iPod Nano. This is set with a combination code which could, for
example, be accessed only by parents. It can, however, be overridden so the choice tolisten at very high volumes is still available. There is clearly a need not to stifleinnovation on the part of electronic equipmentmanufacturers, and to allow consumers
to enjoy music freely as they see fit. However, the need to provide intervention, albeitwith a “light touch” has been recognized by the European Commission’s Scientific
Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR), which hasinstructed the European Union’s standardization body (CENELEC) to draw up safe
standards in the default mode of MP3 players. Such moves have been resisted bymanufacturers, as typified by those represented by Digital Europe, who maintain that
listening at high levels is very much a personal decision. In recognition of this, and thefact that the European Commission does not wish to stifle innovation or creativity in
product development, the default mode can be overridden.A further strategy would be a more proactive and scientific approach by public
transport companies in managing the auditory quality of the environment. Some have
warnings in their buses or trains about listening to music, and successful campaignssuch as those of TomWright and Valeria Martinell (Grell) and Pipedown show public
concern. However, debate over what is a reasonable level, how annoying it is, and what
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are the likely effects remains unresolved. Therefore, just as Kumar et al. (132) have
repurposed the WHO guidelines to demonstrate how the duration of exposure is ascrucial as the level, other guidelines concerned with sound exposure can be used. It is
proposed here that BS4142 “Method for rating industrial noise affecting mixedresidential and industrial areas” (BSI) can be applied to passive music listening. The
standard seeks to maintain the sound levels of residential areas where they could be
affected by industrial noise. It states that, if complaints of annoyance are to be avoided,any industrial noise should be at least 10dB SPL below the level of background noise;
10dB SPL above background noise is considered to be highly likely to cause annoyanceand complaint. As an example, if an industrial generator is due to be installed, the
housing must be designed such that the levels the generator produces are 10dBSPL less than background noise. This is a useful measure as it takes into account
the background noise, an element which is important in passive listening. Most
interestingly, however, is the way in which the BS4142 standard considers a soundwhich has any harmonic/pitched content (such as a hum or whirr) by applying a
further 5dB margin. In such an instance, the sound should be 15dB SPL belowbackground noise. This is in recognition of the fact that the repetitive nature of a
sound with pitched content has greater potential to pollute and annoy residents. Thiswould seem to reinforce the concept of passive listening being more annoying than
just background noise due to its harmonic content. It is effectively polluting the traincarriage, and thus directing that any devices should produce leaked sound of only
15dB SPL below background noise would seem reasonable. However, as the standard
does not consider duration or the physical environment of public space, this is acomplex issue warranting further research.
Senior managers and employers should also be mindful of this situation. Given thecumulative effect of sound which has been discussed, workers are likely to be less
tolerant of noise in the workplace than they would have been if they had a quiet journeyto work. With higher stress hormones prevalent in the body after the journey to work,
workers are also more susceptible to stressful situations in the workplace compared witharriving home in the evening. Care should therefore be taken to ensure that noise levels
within the working environment are reasonably low. This can be managed through
acoustic treatment, providing sufficient space, and not allowing the imposition of musicfrom one worker to another. Taking such an approach will facilitate the work of the
parasympathetic nervous system in employees in bringing their bodies back tohomeostasis. The work environment can actually be managed to counteract the stresses
of commuting in accordance with Stansfeld and Matheson’s (249) observation onstressors working synergistically and/or antagonistically. Noise exposure can also affect
performance, as evidenced by work from Loeb (216). Surprisingly, impairment due to
noise exposure continues as an after-effect even after the noise has stopped,demonstrating that degradation of performance in the workplace can result from the
contribution of passive listening earlier in the day. As noise levels have generallyincreased, andMP3 players gainedmore andmore popularity, there is muchmore to be
done by employers to manage the workplace in order to compensate.
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As the actions of the primary listener are pivotal, an obvious strategy is to persuade
the listener to change his or her behavior. The crucial issue which is difficult to answer,though, is the degree to which primary listeners are aware of the effect of their
behavior on others. In reality, it is likely that some may be aware that they could causeirritation but really do not care, and others may be unaware that others can even heartheir music. Due to these differences and the fact that it is unlikely that any would
understand the effects as outlined here, there is potential for behavioral changethrough awareness raising and education. The fact that the imposition of music on
others causes physiological and psychological change needs to be accepted, such thatcausing passive listening becomes socially unacceptable. Indicators of the likely
success of this can be taken from other areas. Passive smoking is now consideredsocially unacceptable based on raising awareness of the health effects, and smoking in
public has been criminalized in some countries. The RNID is also raising awareness ofthe potential damage to hearing through primary MP3-player listening through its“Don’t lose the music campaign.” Therefore, if the health risks are made clear, there is
potential for persuading people that causing passive listening is socially unacceptable.These factors combined could ensure that the passive listener feels more in control
of the auditory experience. The importance of control in managing health and mood,particularly in modern life, has been shown to be significant (Lovallo 118). While such
interventions do mean that the environment is controlled by someone (be that byhealth guidelines, transport companies, etc.) at least the primary listener is less likely
to impose sounds on the passive listener. As Stansfeld and Matheson have noted,“Perception of control over noise source may reduce the threat of noise and the belief
that it can be harmful” (253).
Opportunities for Further Work
While this paper has argued that the scenario of passive listening constitutes an act ofviolence and could cause further violent expression, there are clearly many aspects
discussed which are unproven or which invite further research. First, the paucity ofprimary data on incidents of violence arising out of passive listening makes this an
obvious area for more work. This could highlight not only how often incidentsoccurred, but also the circumstances and possible elements of the music which may
have been contributory. Second, it would be useful to research who is prone to a stressresponse to passive listening and why. This could be based upon Henry and Stephens’
(139–44) points regarding genetic background, early experience, culture, and so on,and how these elicit the response to the stimuli. This approach also relates to the work
of LeDoux (168), who referred to a secondary response (after the initial involuntaryresponse) facilitated by the hippocampus which contextualizes the response withmemory. It may also be useful to utilize the valence/arousal quadrant model described
by Schubert (315). Lastly, examination of the particular spectral content experiencedthrough passive music listening is justified. Such issues are unresolved, as noted by
Stansfeld and Matheson in their observation that “response to noise may depend on
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characteristics of the sound, including intensity, frequency, complexity of the
sound and themeaning of the noise” (244). Johnson and Cloonan have also referred to
the obvious but ambiguous relationship between “melodic and harmonic complexity”
(143) and aggression and the way it is dependent upon so many other variables.
Elements such as spectral content involved in passive listening could also prove
relevant. Suggestions that the emphasis on high-frequency content could be
problematic can be found in work by Broadbent (21–29), who found that high
frequencies (above 2000Hz) impaired performancemore than lower frequencies at the
same level. More recent laboratory work by Bjork (343) has also noted that high
frequency sound is more annoying.
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