Atheism(and(Transcendence(

Steven(Brutus(April(2014(

atheism!in!baseball!!!!!For!cubs!fans,!the!pennant!is!the!Holy!Grail,!and!the!world!series!is!the!Promised!Land.!!A!famous!Chicago!newspaper!columnist!named!Mike!Royco!used!to!say!that!cubs!fans!are!tough!people,!they!can!take!a!punch,!suffering!is!no!big!deal!for!them!III!you!can!slap!‘em!around,!they’ll!come!back!for!more!III!they!understand!a!hopeless!hope!II!giving!up!on!the!cubs!would!make!sense!for!most!people,!not!for!cubs!fans!!!

!That!would!be!atheism!!

atheism!is!a!polemical!concept!•  the!ancient!Romans!accused!the!new!sect!called!‘Chris2ans’!

of!being!atheists,!because!they!disbelieved!in!the!Roman!gods!•  a)polemical!concept!is!one!that!enters!into!and!takes!a!side!in!

a!controversy!–!polemos,!the!Greek!term!for!struggle,!conflict,!war!–!thus!atheism!only!makes!sense!in!the!context!of!theism!!

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If!theism!is!IIIIIIII,!then!atheism!is!IIIIIIII!!If!theism!is!asser2on,!then!atheism!is!denial!!!!

If!theism!is!God,!then!atheism!is!man!If!theism!is!belief,!then!atheism!is!doubt!

If!theism!is!fear,!then!atheism!is!confidence!If!theism!is!otherIworldly,!then!atheism!is!thisIworldly!

If!theism!is!supers22on,!then!atheism!is!realism!!!!If!theism!is!mys2cism,!then!atheism!is!naturalism!!!!If!theism!is!trus2ng,!then!atheism!is!skep2cal!!!!If!theism!is!heaven,!then!atheism!is!earth!

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theism!&!atheism!!

!!wherever!there!is!theism,!there!is!atheism,!and!viceIversa!!atheism!is!as!old!as!theism!and!is!recorded!in!our!oldest!texts!!the!history!of!theism!and!atheism!have!the!same!star2ng!point!!!!!

primi2ve!religiosity!is!the!background!for!theism!and!atheism!

2meline!

Hominid!ancestors!I!10?!!7?!!3?!million!years!ago!!Homo!erectus!–!2.5!million!years!ago!!(runner,!hunter,!toolmaker,!the!first!to!leave!Africa)!

Homo!sapiens!–!250!thousand!years!ago!!(triple!the!brain!size!of!their!nearest!evolu2onary!ancestor!and!anatomically!iden2cal!to!ourselves)!

Upper!Paleolithic!revolu2on!–!40!thousand!years!ago!(clothing,!shelters,!cooked!food,!jewelry,!pain2ngs,!sculptures,!etchings,!ar2facts!of!clay,!regional!differences!in!culture)!

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economics!of!religion!!!There!is!a!correla2on!between!the!economic!level!of!society!and!nature!of!its!supernatural!beings.!!Civiliza2ons!with!a!foodIgathering!or!fishingIhun2ng!economy!worship!or!fear!inconsistently!defined!spirits.!!When!the!method!of!food!produc2on!evolves!into!agriculture,!caste!and!class!systems!emerge!and!a!priestly!class!who!find!it!necessary!or!profitable!to!elaborate!the!nature!of!a!supernatural!being.!!Agricultural!record!keeping!systems!gradually!evolve!into!wri2ng!systems!(early!date!for!protoIwri2ng!systems!7000!BCE),!quickly!exploited!for!reverence!and!skep2cism.!!Huge!beings!who!lord!over!the!universe!have!an!earthly!correlate!in!mighty!grainIkings!presiding!over!Nile,!Euphrates,!Indus!and!Yellow!river!civiliza2ons!–!theologies!follow!empires!–!where!religious!skep2cism!is!born!in!the!same!moment,!in!most!examples!from!within!the!priestly!class!itself.!!

stone,!copper,!bronze,!iron!!

Sumer!~7000!BCE!–!Nile!valley!~6000!BCE!Agriculture,!urbaniza2on,!domes2ca2on!of!animals,!large!building!construc2on,!weapons,!caste!systems,!popula2on!increase,!the!wheel,!wri2ng,!priests,!creator!gods,!slavery,!skep2cal!inquiry!!

Make!a!holiday!of!life!and!don't!weary!of!it!!!No!one!is!allowed!to!take!their!things!with!them,!and!there!is!no!one!who!goes!away!and!comes!back!again.!!Song)of)the)Harper)

matriarchy!to!patriarchy!the!change!from!hunterIgatherer!economies!to!agricultural!economies!is!also!the!change!from!moon!worship!to!sun!worship,!from!13!to!10,!matriarchy!to!patriarchy!–!from!ancestor!worship!in!which!the!sexual!iden2ty!of!the!head!of!the!family!has!a!divine!counterpart!–!first!mother,!then!father!!stable,!egalitarian,!matricentric!cultures!of!the!Stone!Age!were!succeeded!by!dynamic,!hierarchical,!patricentric!cultures!of!the!Bronze!Age!–!the!Old!Woman!succeeded!by!the!Brahmin,!Shaman,!Prophet!or!Priest!–!the!Great!Mother!replaced!by!weather!gods,!volcano!gods,!the!Sky!Father!!!!

urbaniza2on!/!temple!religion!

destruc2on!of!the!temple!/!diasporic!religion!

destruc2on!of!the!fanum,!!destruc2on!of!the!residence!of!God!on!earth;!dispersion!to!alien!lands!…!sacred!wri5ngs!in!place!of!sacred!places!…!carrying!the!presence!of!God!within!…!animal!sacrifice!replaced!by!charity,!compassion,!jus2ce!…!the!Axial!Age,!the!Great!Transforma2on!…!spirituality!and!internal!religiosity!…!the!idea!of!connec2ng!God’s!presence!to!a!geographical!loca2on!becomes!associated!with!paganism!!

Relevance!of!ancient!religiosity!to!understanding!theism!and!atheism!today!!

Religion!was!ini2ally!about!magic!and!prac2cal!ac2on;!about!what!people!did!and!not!what!they!thought;!beliefs!and!even!ideas!played!no!role!in!the!earliest!stages!of!religion;!there!were!no!doctrines!or!explana2ons!at!all;!in!religion!we!celebrate!the!sacred!through!dance,!art,!ritual!and!sacrifice.!!With!the!change!from!prehistory!into!history,!religions!developed!intellectual!tradi2ons!and!a!preoccupa2on!with!doctrinal!correctness;!tradi2ons!of!skep2cism!emerged.!!Theism!and!atheism!are!opposite!reac2ons!to!the!loss!of!a!common!world!of!rites.!!!!!

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histories!–!not!‘History’!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!China!

•  The!Book!of!Changes!(I)Ching)!–!2900!BCE!•  the!father!god!and!mother!goddess!of!primordial!2mes,!thought!to!have!given!birth!to!the!world,!were!replaced!by!completely!impersonal!forces!of!nature,!whose!cycles!may!be!studied!and!understood!!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!India!

•  The!Rig!Veda!(Praise!Knowledge)!–!1700!BCE!–!also!Jainism!–!9th!c!BCE!–!Mahavira!599–527!BCE!–!also!Buddhism!–!Siddhartha!563–483!BCE!!

•  Jainism:!divinity!is!man’s!highest!aqainment!•  Buddhism:!divinity!is!irrelevant!to!awakening!!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Greece!

•  Thales!of!Melitus!(624I546!BCE)!•  Xenophanes!of!Colophon!(570I475!BCE)!

•  Men!believe!that!the!gods!are!clothed!and!shaped!and!speak!like!ourselves!(f14)!•  If!oxen,!horses!and!lions!could!draw!and!paint,!they!would!make!gods!like!themselves!(f15)!•  Africans!say!that!gods!are!flat!nosed!and!black,!Thracians!that!gods!have!blue!eyes!and!red!

hair!(f16)!

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early!forms!of!atheism!/!Greece!

Anaxagoras,!Democritus,!Protagoras,!Diagoras!of!Melos,!Lysias!–!the!kakodaimonistai))club)–!!!

the!“hellfire”!club!–!Athens,!5th!c!BCE!

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early!forms!of!atheism!I!Greece!“Then!when!the!laws!prevented!men!from!open!deeds!of!violence,!but!they!con2nued!to!commit!them!in!secret,!some!man!of!shrewd!and!subtle!mind!invented!for!men!the!fear!of!gods,!so!there!might!be!something!to!frighten!the!wicked!when!they!acted,!spoke!or!even!thought!in!secret.!!There!is,!he!said,!a!tremendous!spirit!that!never!dies,!that!hears!and!sees!everything,!exceedingly!wise,!which!is!the!divine)nature.!!This!is!the!seduc2ve!story!he!told!with!lying!words.!!He!gave!the!gods!a!dwelling!place!to!strike!fear!in!the!hearts!of!men,!in!the!heavenly!vault,!whence!come!lightnings!and!roars!of!thunder,!and!the!starry!face!and!form!of!heaven,!wrought!beau2ful!by!the!cunning!cravsmanship!of!2me;!where!the!meteor!falls!from!the!sky,!and!liquid!rain!that!descends!to!earth.!!He!surrounded!men!with!these!fears!and!wonders!and!gave!the!Deity!a!fiwng!home!in!a!fiwng!place,!to!ex2nguish!wrongdoing!by!means!of!fear…this!is!how!men!came!to!believe!in!the!existence!of!gods.”!(Kri2as,!f!25)!

early!forms!of!atheism!I!Greece!

Plato’s!Euthyphro)vs.)Genesis)22!Is!something!good!because!God!commands!it,!or!does!God!command!it!because!it!is!good?!!

early!forms!of!atheism!I!Greece!

Socrates!violates!the!law!by!corrup2ng!the!youth!and!by!not!believing!in!the!gods!of!the!state,!but!other!new!divini2es!of!his!own!(Apology!24bIc)!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Greece!Plato,!Laws!948c:!!

“In!these!days!of!ours,!some!men!have!no!belief!whatever!in!gods,!others!hold!that!gods!exist!but!have!no!concern!with!us,!but!most,!who!are!the!worst,!believe!that!if!they!pay!the!gods!a!liqle!trifle!of!sacrifice!or!flaqery,!the!gods!will!help!them!in!vast!frauds!and!deliver!the!wrongdoer!from!any!penalty.”!(‘prac2cal!atheism’)!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Greece!

Aristotle,!Poli5cs,!1,!2,!7:!!“All!people!say!that!that!the!gods!have!a!king!because!they!themselves!had!kings!formerly!or!now;!for!men!create!gods!aver!their!own!image,!not!only!with!regard!to!form!but!with!regard!to!their!whole!manner!of!life.”!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Greece!Epicurus,!341I270!BCE!!“Is!God!willing!to!prevent!evil,!but!not!able?!!Then!he!is!not!omnipotent.!Is!he!able,!but!not!willing?!Then!he!is!malevolent.!Is!he!both!able!and!willing?!Then!whence!comes!evil?!Is!he!unable!and!unwilling?!Then!why!call!him!God?”!!!(the!moral!argument)!!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Rome!

Lucre2us,!99I55!BCE.!!!His!work,!On)the)Nature)of)Things!(De)Rerum)Natura),!is!meant!to!free!the!reader’s!mind!of!all!traces!of!supers22on!and!fear!of!death!and!to!relax!the!reader’s!mind!into!a!state!of!reflec2ve!calm!(ataraxia).!!!

early!forms!of!atheism!/!Abrahamic!religions!

Psalms!10,!4;!14,!1!(1000!BCE)!Jeremiah!5,!12!(626!BCE)!Ecclesiastes!(4th!c!BCE)!The!above!biblical!references!give!expression!to!the!idea!of!atheism,!without!agreement!

•  In)their)insolence)the)wicked)boast:)!“God!does!not!care;!there!is!!no!God.”!

•  The)fool)says)in)his)heart,)!“There!is!no!God.”!

medieval!forms!of!atheism/Rhazes!!

! ! !Muhammad!ibn!Zakariya!alIRazi,!865!–!925,!!) ) )On)Prophecies,)On)the)Tricks)of)False)Prophets,)Con5nens)Liber!

!!!!!

When!religious!people!are!asked!about!the!proof!for!the!soundness!of!their!religion,!they!flare!up,!get!angry!and!spill!the!blood!of!whoever!confronts!them!with!this!ques2on.!They!forbid!ra2onal!specula2on,!and!strive!to!kill!their!adversaries.!This!is!why!truth!became!thoroughly!silenced!and!concealed!!You!claim!that!the!eviden2ary!miracle!is!present!and!available,!namely,!the!Koran.!You!say:!"Whoever!denies!it,!let!him!produce!a!similar!one."!Indeed,!we!shall!produce!a!thousand!similar,!from!the!works!of!rhetoricians,!eloquent!speakers!and!valiant!poets.!!!!Asked!if!a!philosopher!can!follow!a!prophe2cally!revealed!religion,!Rhazes!offered!this!view:!“How!can!anyone!think!philosophically!while!commiqed!to!old!wives’!tales,!founded!on!contradic2ons,!stubborn!ignorance!and!the!scourge!of!dogma2sm?”!!

medieval!forms!of!atheism/Abu!Ala!Abu!Ala!AlIMaʿarri!of!Syria,!

philosopher!and!poet,!973I1058))Do)not)suppose)the)statements)of)the)prophets)to)be)true;)they)are)all)fabrica5ons.)Men)lived)comfortably)5ll)they)came)and)spoiled)life.)The)sacred)books)are)only)such)a)set)of)idle)tales)as)any)age)can)and)indeed)always)does)produce!

medieval!forms!of!atheism!•  Averroes!of!Andalusia!(Abu!Walid!

Muhammad!Ibn!Rushd)!1126I98!/!Aristotelian!philosopher!/!taught!the!theory!of!the!double)truth)

•  Amaury!of!Bene!(died!1206).!!!“Hell!is!ignorance!and!it!is!in!us!like!a!bad!tooth.!!God!is!iden2cal!with!all!that!is,!including!evil.!!Insight!puts!us!in!heaven,!which!is!the!only!resurrec2on.!!There!is!no!other!life;!our!fulfillment!is!here.”!!

!•  David!of!Dinant!(1160I1217).!!

Called!himself!a!disciple!of!Xenophanes;!held!that!God!is!all!maqer.!!!

medieval!forms!of!atheism!•  Anselm!of!Canterbury,!1033!–!1109!•  The!Ontological!Argument!

•  Gaunilon!of!Marmon2ers,!!!!11th!c!!•  “On!Behalf!of!the!Fool”/!refuta2on!of!

Anselm’s!“Ontological!Argument”!

The!Lost)Island)is!that!than!which!no!greater!can!be!conceived.!It!is!greater!to!exist!in!reality!than!merely!as!an!idea.!If!the!Lost)Island)does!not!exist,!one!can!conceive!of!an!even!greater!island,!i.e.,!one!that!does!exist.!Therefore,!the!Lost)Island)exists!in!reality.!

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steps!to!modernism!Ibn!Khaldun!(1332I1406).!Historiography;!civiliza2on!and!decay;!asabiyyah.!Government:!“an!ins2tu2on!that!prevents!injus2ce,!other!than!such!as!it!commits!itself.”!!Leonardo!da!Vinci!(1452I1519).!!Separa2on!from!conven2on.!!“Whoever!in!discussion!adduces!authority!uses!not!intellect!but!rather!memory.”!!Niccolo!Machiavelli!(1469I1527).!!Religion!is!manImade!and!its!func2on!is!to!preserve!social!order.!Chris2anity!leads!to!weakness!and!corrup2on.!!Francis!Bacon!(1561I1626).)Idola)tribus.)Reason!must!free!itself!from!personal,!social,!market!and!ar2s2c!idols.!!Reason!should!proceed!from!fact!to!law!via!induc2on.!Everything!else!is!prejudice.!!

transi2on!to!modernism!

Galileo!Galilei!1564I1642!!!

Philosophiæ)Naturalis)Principia)Mathema4ca,)1687))Rules)of)Reasoning)in)Philosophy))1.!!More!is!vain!when!less!will!serve!!!!!!!Nature!is!pleased!with!simplicity!!!!!!!And!affects!not!the!pomp!of!superfluous!causes!2.!!To!the!same!effects!we!assign!the!same!causes!!!!!!As!in!respira2on!in!a!man!or!a!beast!!!!!!The!descent!of!stones!in!Europe!and!America!!!!!!The!light!of!our!kitchen!fire!and!that!of!the!sun!!!!!!The!reflec2on!of!light!in!the!earth!and!in!the!planets!3.!!Discovered!quali2es!are!to!be!esteemed!universal!!!!!!!so!far!as!they!agree!with!experiment!4.!!We!argue!from!experience!induc2vely,!arguing!from!!!!!!!!!!appearances!to!universal!conclusions,!which!we!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!regard!as!accurate!or!very!nearly!true,!un2l!such!!!!!!!!!!2me!as!new!phenomena!are!discovered,!to!make!!!!!!!!!!!!!!our!provisional!ideas!more!accurate!or!doub{ul!

some!modern!defini2ons!of!religion!!Spinoza:!religion!may!be!summed!up!as!respect!for!priests.!!!Voltaire:!religion!is!best!understood!by!those!who!have!lost!all!power!of!reasoning.!!!Ambrose!Bierce:!religion!is!the!daughter!of!Hope!and!Fear,!explaining!to!Ignorance!the!nature!of!the!Unknowable.!!!Clifford!Geertz:!religion!is!a!confronta2on!with!the!problems!of!meaninglessness,!suffering!and!injus2ce;!a!strategy!for!trying!to!reduce!these!problems;!and!an!approach!to!dealing!with!the!fact!that!despite!all!effort,!they!con2nue.!Jared!Diamond:!religion!is!supernatural!beliefs!serving!to!jus2fy!central!authority,!transfer!of!wealth!and!maintenance!of!society!Richard!Dawkins:!Religion!is!about!turning!untested!belief!into!unshakable!truth!through!the!power!of!ins2tu2ons!and!the!passage!of!2me.!

steps!within!modernism!Humanism!The!Scien2fic!Revolu2on!/!the!Enlightenment!Roman2cism!Liberalism,!Conserva2sm!Socialism,!U2litarianism,!Marxism!19th!Century!/!Science!of!the!Irra2onal!World!War!I!/!Decline,!Search!for!Meaning!World!War!II!/!Totalitarianism,!Propaganda,!Economic!collapse,!Race!hatred,!Genocide!!Cold!War!/!existen2alism,!psychoanalysis,!postIcolonialism,!!libera2on!movements,!feminism,!fundamentalism,!postmodernism,!new!atheism,!neuroscience,!biologism!

Ra2onalism!Empiricism!Kant!Hegel!Keats!Burke!Paine!Schopenhauer!Darwin!Nietzsche!Weber!!Durkheim!Freud!Jaspers!de!Beauvoir!Frankl!Jaspers!Murdoch!Dawkins!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Kant!&!Hume!

Arthur!Schopenhauer,!1788I1860!

“Religion!has!everything!on!its!side:!revela2on,!prophesies,!government!protec2on,!the!highest!dignity!and!eminence!…!and!more!than!this,!the!invaluable!preroga2ve!of!being!allowed!to!imprint!its!doctrines!on!the!mind!at!a!tender!age!of!childhood,!whereby!they!become!almost!innate!ideas.”!!World)as)Will)and)Representa5on,!Chapter!17,!“On!Man’s!Need!for!Metaphysics”!(1818)!

Søren!Kierkegaard,!1813!I1855!

Friedrich!Nietzsche,!1844I1900!

atheism!becomes!explaining!religion!

Psychological!theories!include!Max!Müller’s!idea!that!human!beings!possess!a!sense!for!the!sacred,!similar!to!vision!and!the!sense!of!touch;!Tylor!coined!the!term!“animism”!to!refer!to!primi2ve!man’s!aqribu2on!of!life!even!to!inanimate!things;!Mareq!held!that!religion!originates!in!the!feeling!of!awe;!Wundt!held!that!religion!arises!from!fear;!Freud!developed!a!theory!based!on!the!idea!that!religion!originates!in!the!world!of!infan2le!sexuality,!childhood!dependency!and!helplessness:!the!child’s!guilt,!reverence!and!general!ambivalence!toward!parental!figures!is!writ!large!in!the!idea!of!God.!!!

atheism!becomes!explaining!religion!

Social!theories!include!those!of!Robertson!Smith,!J.F.!McLennan!and!F.B.!Jevons,!who!derived!religion!from!ancient!man’s!complicated!feelings!and!reali2es!of!dependency!on!animals!and!on!the!guilt!they!felt!about!slaughtering!animals!for!survival,!which!on!the!Smith!theory!underlies!animal!sacrifice,!totemism!and!the!ancient!prac2ce!of!tracing!family!and!tribal!lineage!back!to!a!spirit!animal.!!Scholars!such!as!Francis!Cornford,!Jane!Harrison!and!Wilhelm!Troqer!derived!religion!from!what!they!called!!“the!herd!ins2nct”!and!“herdIsugges2on”!and!related!ideas!about!the!“social”!or!“collec2ve”!consciousness.!Nicolai!Bukharin!argued!for!the!thesis!that!religion!arises!by!gradual!steps!from!ancestorIworship.!!!

atheism!becomes!explaining!religion!

Historical!theories!about!religion!focus!on!ideas!about!civiliza2onal!growth!and!decay!(Spengler,!Toynbee),!conflict!among!paradigms!(Samuel!Hun2ngton,!Benjamin!Barber)!–!economic!theories!focus!on!hedonism!(Hume),!monopolies!(Adam!Smith),!teleology!(Hegel,!Marx),!ra2onal!choice!(Rodney!Stark),!consump2on!(E.F.!Schumacher)!–!Max!Weber’s!The)Protestant)Ethic)and)the)Spirit)of)Capitalism!(1930)!founds!the!new!subject!of!the!sociology)of)religion)and!the!idea!of!the!calling.!!!!

atheism!becomes!explaining!religion!

Biological!theories!include!Darwin’s!approach!in!the!Expression)of)the)Emo5ons)in)Animals;!Dawkins’!theory!of!mime2c!evolu2on;!Kapogiannis’!and!Barbey’s!work!on!regional!cor2cal!volumes!of!the!brain;!Charcot’s!theory!of!religious!emo2onalism!and!epilepsy;!Geschwind!&!Bears’!studies!linking!schizophrenia!and!religious!feeling!and!imagina2on;!and!ideas!being!developed!in!the!new!field!of!neurotheology!by!researchers!such!as!John!Bargh,!Deborah!Keleman,!Jonathan!Haidt,!Michael!Gazzinga,!Pascal!Boyer,!Scoq!Atran,!Antonio!Damasio,!Sara!Lazar,!Vilayanur!Ramachandran!and!Andrew!Newberg!

!a!response:!theism!in!response!to!atheism!

Rudolf!Bultmann!! ! ! ! ! ! !Paul!Tillich!

Demythologiza2on!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Deliteraliza2on!!

a!response:!theology!aver!Nietzsche!

Death)of)God!theology:!Harvey!Cox,!J.J.!Al2zer,!Paul!Van!Buren,!William!Hamilton,!Mark!C.!Taylor.!!!!Some!important!ideas!in!this!school!include:!gewng!away!from!prosely2zing!and!overpowering!people!with!a!religious!message;!to!learn!how!to!sense!mystery,!live!with!it,!and!develop!a!mindfulness!and!life!prac2ce!that!includes!it;!to!cul2vate!silence!and!“unknowing”!as!an!orien2ng!force!and!joyful!support!to!everything!one!does;!to!get!away!from!dogma!and!certainty,!and!to!move!towards!building!community!via!common!ac2on!rather!than!common!beliefs;!and!prac2cing!though{ul!dialogue.!!!!

Weak!theology:!JeanILuc!Nancy,!Philippe!LacoueILabarthe,!Bernard!S2egler,!John!D.!Caputo,!Gianteresio!Vawmo!!!Caputo!writes!about!“the!weakness!of!God”!and!argues!for!an!understanding!of!God!as!“an!uncondi2onal!claim!without!force.”!!God!is!not!a!force!that!intervenes!in!nature!but!a!claim!that!a!human!being!feels!the!pull!of!and!incorporates!by!prac2cing!mindfulness,!humor!and!charity!(The)Weakness)of)God,!2006).!!Vawmo!denounces!what!he!calls!the!“triumphalist!metaphysics!of!aggressive!certainty.”!

a!response:!fundamentalism!Fundamentalism!portrays!itself!as!restoring!an!earlier,!ideal!past!–!returning!to!a!tradi2on!that!recent,!‘modern’!ideas!have!put!in!jeopardy!–!yet!fundamentalism!is!a!late!development!in!religious!life.!!Religions,!just!like!the!cultures!of!which!they!are!a!part,!traverse!cycles!of!change,!beginning!in!dynamism,!selfIconfidence!and!experimenta2on,!and!later!hardening!into!orthodoxy.!!Fundamentalism!distorts!the!tradi2on!that!it!is!trying!to!defend;!it!emerges!from!a!cornered,!embaqled!posi2on!and!responds!to!social!change!with!defensiveness!and!a!demand!for!absolute!loyalty.!!The!upshot!is!polariza2on!and!the!tendency!to!demonize!one’s!opponent.!!!!

a!response:!fundamentalism!

E.g.,!Chris2an!fundamentalism!has!an!important!beginning!with!Pope!Pius!X’s!declara2on!in!1907!that!“modernism!is!a!satanic!heresy.”!Pius!excommunicated!a!large!number!of!modern!authors!and!banned!their!books,!including!René!Descartes,!Michel!de!Montaigne,!John!Locke,!Jonathan!Swiv,!Voltaire,!Denis!Diderot,!Thomas!Paine!and,!of!course,!Charles!Darwin.!Hitler!was!never!excommunicated;!Immanuel!Kant!was.!!

!the!new!atheism!Richard!Dawkins,!Christopher!Hitchens,!Daniel!

Denneq,!Sam!Harris,!Peter!Boghossian!!

the!name!given!to!the!ideas!promoted!by!a!group!of!21stIcentury!atheist!writers!who!have!advocated!the!view!that!"religion!should!not!simply!be!tolerated!but!should!be!countered,!cri2cized,!and!rigorously!exposed!by!ra2onal!argument!wherever!its!influence!arises”!(Simon!Hooper)!!

Belief!in!God!!��Being!irra2onal!!

Richard!Dawkins!Richard!Dawkins!introduced!the!term!“memes”!on!the!model!of!biological!‘genes’!to!get!at!problems!like!the!“fitness”!of!belief!and!“struggle!for!existence”!among!beliefs.!!!A!“meme”!is!an!idea!or!prac2ce!that!can!replicate!itself!from!one!brain!into!another.!!Just!as!some!genes!grow!more!common!and!others!less!common,!so!some!memes!grow!more!common!(ritual!cleansing,!confession,!forgiveness,!promise!of!a!future!life)!and!others!less!common!(animal!sacrifice,!bloodlewng,!ini2a2on!into!the!mystery!rite,!exorcism!of!demons).!!Dawkins!compares!memes!to!mental!viruses!that!have!a!kind!of!parasi2cal!rela2on!to!the!host!mind.!!From!this!perspec2ve,!the!beneficiaries!of!religion!are!not!human!beings!(believers)!but!memes!(beliefs).!!Some!ideas!are!good!at!keeping!themselves!alive;!others!are!less!able!to!catch!fire!and!spread.!!!!“On!this!model!we!should!expect!that,!in!different!geographical!regions,!different!arbitrary!beliefs,!none!of!which!have!any!factual!basis,!will!be!handed!down,!to!be!believed!with!the!same!convic2on!as!useful!pieces!of!tradi2onal!wisdom!such!as!the!belief!that!manure!is!good!for!the!crops.!!We!should!also!expect!that!supers22ons!and!other!nonIfactual!beliefs!will!evolve!locally!–!changing!over!genera2ons!–!either!by!random!driv!or!by!some!sort!of!analogue!of!Darwinian!selec2on,!eventually!showing!a!paqern!of!significant!divergence!from!common!ancestry”!(The)God)Delusion,!2006)!!!

Sam!Harris!Human!beings!have!a!cogni2ve!impera2ve!towards!meaning,!explana2on!and!understanding!–!religion!is!an!early!result!of!this!need!–!i.e.,!religion!is!failed!science.!!We!must!fight!the!taboo!against!cri2cizing!religion!–!We!have!a!duty!to!destroy!bad!ideas!wherever!we!find!them!–!We!should!prac2ce!“conversa2onal!intolerance”!–!Deference!to!religious!speech!blunts!our!minds!–!The!usefulness!of!religion,!the!fact!that!it!gives!life!meaning,!that!it!makes!people!feel!good!is!not!an!argument!for!the!truth!of!any!religious!doctrine.!You!should!only!be!able!to!believe!those!things!for!which!you!have!good!evidence.!The)End)of)Faith)(2004)!!!!

Stephen!Law!Defends!these!theses:!Naturalism!is!the!belief!that!nature!is!all!there!is!It!is!almost!certain!that!there!is!no!God.!Religions!are!dangerous!and!do!not!automa2cally!deserve!respect.!Religious!belief!has!a!naturalis2c!evolu2onary!explana2on.!Belief!in!God!and!in!evolu2on!are!not!compa2ble.!Religion!tends!to!subvert!science,!ands!science!subverts!religion.!!An!autonomous!secular!morality!is!possible;!morality!does!not!presuppose!God.!Life!is!not!meaningless!without!belief!in!God.!Atheism!is!not!discredited!by!atheis2c!totalitarianism.!Religious!educa2on!of!children!is!'child!abuse'.!

Believing)Bullshit,!2011!

Peter!Boghossian!

Faith!as!an!unwarranted!knowledge!claim!–!a!failed!epistemology!–!a!cogni2ve!sickness!–!leading!to!doxas2c!closure!–!faith!is!a!covering!for!ignorance.!Return!to!Socrates:!it!is!a!human!duty!to!challenge!beliefs!that!are!based!on!inaccurate!informa2on!or!faulty!logical!processes!–!we!have!a!duty!to!bring!our!beliefs!into!lawful!alignment!with!reality,!rather!than!pleasing!delusions!–!otherwise!we!do!not!deserve!a!place!at!the!adult!table!of!discussion!

some!forms!of!atheism!

naturalism,!materialism,!skep2cism,!doubt,!reason,!disenchantment,!poli2cal!selfIasser2on,!cynicism,!scorn,!bravado,!sa2re,!moral!outrage,!courage,!freedom!of!inquiry,!humility!rather!than!arrogantly!thinking!that!one!understands!the!universe,!selfIdepreca2on,!science,!selfIconfidence,!freedom!from!supers22on,!reflec2ve!calm,!loneliness!in!a!world!without!God,!despair,!man’s!coming!of!age,!despera2on,!a!call!for!help,!the!fool!who!says!in!his!heart,!‘There!is!no!God’!–!and!acceptance!of!reality!

"We!have!to!get!to!the!point!where!we!no!longer!worship!anything.”!!Richard!Rorty!

summary!theism!and!atheism!are!opposite!reac2ons!to!the!loss!of!a!common!world!of!rites!–!both!rejec2ng!legi2macy!to!their!counterparts!–!they!are!polemical!counterparts!–!essen2ally!poli5cal!discourses!–!developing!the!opposite!basic!stances!of!the!“s2ll!greater!context”!(inclusion)!and!the!“more!restric2ve!context”!(reduc2on)!–!projec5ng!to!“sacredness”!(via!enthusiasm)!versus!withdrawing!to!“simplicity”!(via!sobriety)!–!storytelling!versus!theorizing.!!!Their!common!point!of!origin!in!primi2ve!religiosity!remains!a!valid!symbol!of!thankfulness!within!being!!!!

religion!&!poli2cs!

!“The!various!modes!of!worship,!which!prevailed!in!the!Roman!world,!were!all!considered!by!the!people,!as!equally!true;!by!the!philosopher,!as!equally!false;!and!by!the!magistrate,!as!equally!useful.”!!

!Edward!Gibbon,!The)Decline)and)Fall)of)the)Roman)Empire)

What!is!philosophy?!

Philosophy!is!roughly!a!way!of!making!sense!of!the!world!–!differently!than!science!or!religion!–!reaching!beyond!what!the!sciences!reveal!to!us!because!philosophy!is!a!human!response!to!life!and!humans!aspire!–!but!stopping!short!of!the!appeals!to!faith!required!by!religious!belief,!because!it!is!a!human!response!seeking!human!truth!–!a!human!response!not!a!divine!response!–!a!human!way!and!not!merely!coldly!analy2cal!

skep2cism,!naturalism,!communitarianism!

!Skep2cism!–!Socrates,!Buddha,!Xenophanes!Naturalism!–!Thales,!Darwin,!Popper,!Dawkins!Communitarianism!–!Confucius,!Sharia,!Torah!!

three!solu2ons:!dialec2c!and!selfIknowledge;!!beliefs,!desires!and!scien2fic!method;!tradi2on!!

!≅!philosophy,!science,!religion!

The!view!of!philosophy!making!progress!is!misleading!–!in!philosophy!as!in!art,!supreme!works!are!irreplaceable!and!unique!–!philosophy!achieves!wholeness!in!the!individual,!not!in!the!history!of!philosophy!–!a!philosopher!is!not!a!milestone!or!a!precursor!–!philosophy!is!a!point!of!departure!for!a!flight!on!which!everything!depends!–!a!journey!in!solitude!or!a!mee2ng!across!a!boundary!–!which!can!never!become!the!object!of!any!doctrine!–!which!engages!all!human!belief!and!doubt!–!universal!and!cri2cal!

transcendence!

reaching!atheism!in!one’s!thinking!is!not!to!deny!transcendence!but!to!remind!us!that!theism!and!its!mythologies!are!merely!one!way!for!us!to!engage!the!human!project!–!unlike!religion!and!science,!philosophy!conceives!transcendence!neither!by!storytelling!nor!by!theorizing!–!but!as!wonder!–!philosophy!is!the!project!of!evoking!cri2cal!awareness!of!the!enigma2c!situa2on!we!are!facing!in!every!single!moment!of!our!lives!!!!