e Aviation Theory Coursefor rline Transport Pilot Compiled byLi Weidong Hao JingsongHe Qiuzhao THEAVIATIONTHEORYCOURSEFOR AirlineTransportPilot Compiled byLi WeidongHao JingsongHe Qiuzhao Southwest Jiaotong University Press Chengdu, China f!l=tU:Eit&Uii El( CIP ) AviationTheory Course for Airline Transport Pilot I*:E.*, tiHtH,2004.3 (2006.3:W:EP) ISBN 7-81057-835-9 I. AA; ...II .CD*..... @foJ...m. IV. V21 ClP ( 2004)jjl 010658 % The Aviation Theory Course for Airline Transport Pilot ..i.!J, .t* -t1tA44i.t. 1-,.hii i9: it*-7t _j:_ IDiW13:c illi::k::!f: tl:Ht& U llff Ill -%61003187600564) http://press.swjtu.edu.cn E-mail: cbsxx@swjtu.edu.cn tmJ IIE'] $ijlj * 185 mmX260 mm20.375 391 2004 l:f 3 PJI/1&2006 3PJ5 ISBN 7-81057-835-9N 022 }:E-Ifl' : 29.80 5f;

028-87600562 CONTENTS Chapter! Regulations 1 Section A Section B Section C SectionD Section E SectionF SectionG Section H Section I Applicable Regulations I The ATP Ce.rtificate I Flight Engineer Requirements Ill 2 Flight Attendants 3 Experience and Training Requirements .. ... ... 4 Flight Crew Duty' Time Limits 6 Dispatching and Flight Release 19 Fuel Requirements 20 Carriage of Passengers and Cargo 21 Section JEmergency Equipment and Operations ... .... .. ....... 23 Chapter 2Equipment, Navigation and Facilities 27 Section A Section B Section C SectionD Section E Section F Section G Section H Section I Section J Section K Inoperative Eq_uipment 27 Pitot-static lnstrllments 27 Safety of Flight Equipment 30 Communications 32 Navigation Equipment 32 Horizontal Situ.ation Indicator 34 Radio Magnetic Indicator (R.MI) 37 Long Range Navigation Systems 38 Approach Systems 39 Global Positioning System ... .... 43 Airport Lighting an.d Marking 44 Section LApproach Lighting ........................................................................ 47 Chapter3 Aerodynamics 49 Section ALift and Drag ........... 49 Section B Section C SectionD Section E Section F SectionG Stability 53 Flight Controls 54 High-lift Devices 56 ........................... 57 ............. ...... 58 High Speed Fligh.t 59 Chapter 4Perfonnance .. 6 I Section AEngine performance... .. 61 Section BTake-off Perforn1ance 64 Section CClimb Performance .. .. 78 Section DCruise Perforn1ance .. 90 Section ELanding Performance........ .. .. ................................................... ...91 Section FMiscellaneous Perforn1ance........ . .......... .. ............................ ........103 Section GEngine-out Procedures .. .. .. .... .... .............. 108 Section HFlight Planning Graphs and Tables .. .. .. .. ............ Ill Section ITypical Flight Logs............ .... ........... .... ...... .... .. .... ..........115 Chapter 5Weight and Balance.......... .. .. .. ...................... .......................... ...132 Section AIntroduction.................. ...... .... ........ .. .....................................132 Section BWeight and Balance Principle............ ..................... .....................133 Section CCenter of Gravity Computation and Stabilizer Trim Setting" .... ... 137 Section DChanging Loading Condition ............... .. ........................................148 Section EFloor Loading Limits ....... .. ... .. ............................ ........... . ............150 Chapter6FlightOperations................................. .. ..... ... ........... ..................151 Section AAirspaces.. .. .............. .... .... .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. ........ .. .... .. 151 Section BNOTAMs (Notices To Airmen) ....................... .................. .... ......152 Section CItems on the Flight Plan ................. .. ... .... .. ...................... .. ...........154 Section DSelecting an Alternate Airport.... ..... .. ... ........ ... .. ...........................156 Section EATC Clearances........... ....... .................. ...... ..............................158 Section FTake-off Procedures........ .. .. ........ .. ...... ... ...... .... .... .... .. .. .. .. 159 Section GInstrument Approaches ..................... .... ......................................161 Section HLanding..................................... ............................................168 Section ICommunications.................................. .. ... .. ............................168 Section JSpeed Adjustments. .. ......... .................. .. ..................................169 Section KHolding .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .... ...... ........ .. ........ .. ...... .... .... 170 Section LCharts for Instrument Flight .... .......... .......... .. ........ .... .... .. ...... .. 173 Chapter 7Emergency, Physiology and Crew Resource Management...... ..... .. ...... .. ..196 Section AFlight Emergency and Hazards......................................................196 Section BFlight Physiology .... .. .. .. .......... ........ ...... .. .. .... ........ .. 209 Section CSituation Awareness, Communication, Leadership and Decision Making .. .. 224 Chapter 8Aviation Meteorology.. .... .. .... ............ ...... .. ............ .. ..... ...... ...236 Section ABasic Theories ...... ................... ........ .......... .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .... 236 Section BHazard Weather. .. .. .. .. ... ...... .. ............ .......... ...... .. ........ ....256 Section CAviation Weather Services.................... .. ............ ........ .... .. .. ...275 Appendix..................... ...... ...... ...... ...... ........................ ...... .....................315 References .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .............. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ...... 319 2 REFERENCES 1.Et!. -TW:-l\.d: 2002 22001 3tJ:I IE4Airbus 320 FCOM. Airbus Industry/Flight Safety, 1998 5Airline Transportation Pilot test Prep 2004. ASA, Inc, 2003 6Instrument Flying Handbook. ASA, Inc,1980 7Boeing 737-300 Operating Manual Boeing Company, 1996 8China Civil Aviation Regulations. 9Dale R Cundy, Rick S Brown. Introduction to Avionics. The Prentice--Hall,1997 10EHJPallettAircraftInstruments&IntegratedSystem.LongmanGroupUKLimited, 1992 11FAA. Airman's Information ManuaL1994 12HarryWOrlady,LindaMOrlady.HumanFactorsinMulti-CrewFlightOperations. Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1999 13IanBSuren.AeroplanePerfonnance,Planning&LoadingfortheTransportPilot. Aviation Theory Centre Pty Ltd, 1998 14J Powell. Aircraft Radio Systems. Pitman, 1986 15Instrument/Commercial Manual. Jeppesen Sanderson. Inc,1994 16Private pilot manual. Jeppesen Sanderson. Inc, 1988 17K DCampbell,M Bagshaw.HumanPerfonnanceandLimitationsin Aviation.Second Edition. Blackwell Science Ltd, 1999 18MartinBBshelby.AircraftPerformanceTheoryandPractice.AmericanInstituteof Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc, 2000 19The Pilot's Reference to ATC Procedures and Phraseology. California: Reavco Publishing, 1992 319 PREFACE Congratulations on you to continue your pilot training and welcome to The Aviation Theory CourseforAirlineTransport Pilot.Thisbookisdesignedasatextbookandareferencefor the CivilAviation Administrationof China (CAAC)knowledgeTestaboutAirlineTransportPilot License(ATPL).Theimportantpointsaresummarizedinthecourse;itisbasedonthe study/reviewconcept of learning.So,it has beenhelpingpilotspreparefor thetestwithgreat success. MAINCONTENT Allof the knowledgeforthe ATP is includedhere,and hasbeen arrangedinto8chapters based on each subject matter. They are Chapter 1, Regulations; Chapter 2, Equipment, Navigation and Facilities; Chapter 3, Aerodynamics; Chapter 4, Performance; Chapter 5, Weight and Balance; Chapter 6,Flight Operations;Chapter 7,Flight EmergencyandHazards,Flight Physiologyand Crew ResourceManagement;andChapter 8,MeteorologyandWeatherServices.Each chapter includes main knowledge about the subject USEOFTHECOURSE Airman knowledge about ATP requires applicants to understand it. All of the knowledge is facedwithATPLexamination.It isdesignedthatuserwillhavetwosetsoflearning, understanding and reviewing the basic knowledge appropriately. The intent is that all applicants keep on eye on basic concepts,proceduresand methods made from the wholechapters.These are important to ainnan for transport aircraft fly. Someof the informationmay seem basic.Therearetwo reasonsforthis: Many prospective private and commercial pilots and instrument rating knowledge are learned before, so some review is helpful; also, the airline transport knowledge is based on them but deeper than them. However, we arenotgoing tocover allof the information,because the pilot'sbasicknowledgeforinitialpilot wouldbepresumeduptoknow.If it hasbeenalongtimesinceyoureviewedtheknowledge requirementsof theinitialinformation,it mightbenefityoutoreviewtheAeronauticalTheory Course for Pilot (Chinese Edition, pressed by Southwest Jiaotong University Press, March, 2004). Thiscourse is the key element in airman knowledgematerials for ATPL. Although it can be studiedalone,westillsuggesttheuser to join theteachingtraining.Youmay getmanymore understanding from your instructors. You may learn from othermaterials such as CAAC aviation regulations,Flight coursesand other teaching materials provided by ATPtrainingorganizations. Then, you will be excellent to pass the theory test for ATPL. This introduction hasimplied aheavyemphasisonknowledgeexams,but that isnot our styleasaninstructor.Whatyouneedtoknowfor theknowledgetestrepresentslessthanthe coursetext- therestissolidinformationyoumuststudyfromtheChineseCivilAviation Regulations (CCAR, i.e. CCAR 61, CCAR 91, CCAR 121 and so on) and other reference books. You will also note an emphasis on computer-based training system (CBT). Most pilots are to some extent technically oriented, and it is estimated that well over all pilots use airline computers for flight planning,acquiring weather information,maintaining their logbooks,etc.Accordingly, we have included access information wherever it is appropriate. As CBT surfers know.if you can findone-by-one question showed on the computer,thenyou choiceonlyone correct answer for thequestionwithclickingthemousebutton.Andthenyouwillgetholdof allof theATP knowledge gradually. Finally, we shall give thanks to the writers of this course; they are Ma Zhigang, L uo Jun, Hao Jingsong, Wei Lin, Liu Duhui, Xiang Xiaojun, Yang Junli, Fang Xuedong, Jiang Bo, He Qiuzhao, Li Weidong, Mou Haiying, Huang Yifang, Zou Bo and Chen Huizhi. Thiscourse is compiled by LiWeidong,HaoJingsongandHeQiuzhao.Allof thewritersaretheexpertsabouta\iation theoryandcomefromtheCivilAviationFlight Universityof China.Webelieveitisagreat contribution for CAAC. We wish thisbook will provide agood referenceto you.We areconfident that \\ith proper use of this book, you will score very well on any of the Airline Transport Pilot tests. CHAPTER1REGULATIONS SECTIONAAPPLICABLEREGULATIONS "CCAR" is used as the acronym for "China Civil Aviation Regulations". Those regulations or rulesare very important for operationsof aircraft,and other aspectsinthat field.The regulations change frequently, and answer all questions in compliance with the most current regulations. Twodifferent China CivilAviation Regulationscan applytooperationsof aircraftcovered by this chapter: CCAR 91,121. CCAR 91encompasses the general operations and flight rules for allaircraftoperatingwithinthePeoples'Republicof China.Oftentherulesof CCAR121 supplement or even supersede CCAR 91. When an aircraft is not operated for compensation, only theCCAR91rulesapply.Forthetest,assumeCCAR121rulesapplyunlessthequestion specificallystatesotherwise.CCAR121appliestoaircarriers(airlines)engagedinChinaor overseasairtransportation.CarrierswhichoperateunderCCAR121areengagedincommon carriage.Thismeansthattheyoffertheirservicestothepublicandreceivecompensationfor those services. CCAR121operatorsaresubdividedintothreecategories.Carriersauthorizedtoconduct scheduledoperationswithinChinaaredomesticaircarriers.Flagcarriersconductscheduled operationsinside and outside China A supplemental carrier conductsits operations anywhere that its operations specifications permit but only on anon-scheduledbasis.Thereis afourthcategory, commercial operators of large aircraft, but they must comply with the rules covering supplemental carrier and the distinction is unimportant to this discussion. Otherpartsof theregulationsapplyaswell.CCAR 61governscertificationsof pilotsand fl ightinstructors.CCAR 67coverstheissuingandstandardsformedicalcertificates.CCAR 65 prescribes the requirements for issuing certificates and associated ratings and the general operating rules for the holders of those certificates and ratings. SECTION8THE ATPCERTIFICATE Thepilot-in-commandof anaircarrierflightmustholdanAirlineTransportPilot(ATP) certificate with theappropriate type rating.Theco-pilot on anaircarrier flightthatrequiresonly twopilotsneedonlyholdaCommercialPilotcertificate(withanInstrumentrating)withthe appropriate category and cl$5 ratings. A person must hold a type rating to act as pilot-in-command of a large aircraft (over 5 700 kg gross take-off weight), or of a mrbojet-powered airplane. Any type rating(s)on the pilot certificate of an applicant whosuccessfully complete an ATP checkridewill beincludedon theATPCertificatewiththeprivilegesand limitationsof the ATP Certificate, provided the applicant passes the checkrjde in the same category and class of aircraft for which the applicant holds the type rating(s). However, if a type rating for that category and class of aircraft on the superseded pilot certificate is limited to VFR, that limitation will be carried forward to the person's ATP Certificate level. An airline transport pilot may instruct other pilots in air transportation service in aircraft of the category, class and type for which he/she is rated. However, the ATP may not instruct for more than 8 hours in one day. Apersonwhohaslost an Airman'sCertificatemayobtaina temporarycertificatefromthe CAAC. The temporary certificate is valid no more than 120 days. A crewmember is a person assigned to dutyin the aircraft during flight Thisincludes pilots, flight engineers, navigators, flight attendants or anyone else assigned to duty in the airplane. A flight crewmember is a pilot,flightengineeror flightnavigator assignedtodutyin theaircraftduring flight Nopersonmayserveasapilotonanair carrierafter that person hasreachedhis/her60th birthday. Note that this rule applies to any pilot position in the aircraft, but it does not apply to other flight crew positions such as flight engineer or navigator. To exercise ATP privileges (such as pilot-in-command of an air carrier flight) a pilot must hold a First-Class Medical Certificate issued within the preceding 6 or12 calendar months. To exercise commercial pilot privileges (e.g., co-pilot on a two-pilot air carrier flight) a pilot must hold either a First- or Second-Class Medical Certificate issued within the preceding 12 or 24 calendar months. Theapplicantisnot requiredtohold amedicalcertificatewhentaking a test or checkfor a certificate, rating, or authorization conducted in a flight simulator or flight trainillg device. SECTIONCFLIGHTENGINEERREQUIREMENTS Many air carrier aircraft have a flightengineer as a required flightcrewmember.The aircraft "type certificate" states whether or not a flight engineer is required.On each flight requiring a flight engineer at least one flight crewmember, other than the flight engineer, must be qualified to provide emergency performance of the flight engineer's functions for the safe completion of the flight if the flight engineer becomes ill or is otherwise incapacitated. A pilot need not hold a Flight Engineer's Certificate to perform the flight engineer's functions in such a situation. 2 SECTIONDFLIGHT ATTENDANTS One or moreflight attendantsarerequired on eachpassenger-carrying airplane that hasmore than19 passenger seats.Thenumber of flight attendantsisdeterminedbythe number of installed passengerseats - not bytheactualnumber of passengersonboard.Each certificate holder shall provide at least the minimum number of flight attendants on each passenger-carrying airplane.For airplanes having a seating capacity of more than 20but less than50passengers:at least one flight attendant. For airplanes having a seating capacity of more than 51butlessthan100 passengers: at least two flight attendants. For airplanes having a seating capacity of more than 100 passengers: at least two flight attendants plus one additional flight attendant for eachunit (or part of a unit) of 50 passenger seats above a seating capacity of 100 passengers. If,inconductingtheemergencyevacuationdemonstrationrequiredunderCCAR121,the certificate holder used more flight attendants than is required under the paragraph above of this section for the maximum seating capacity of theairplane,he maynot,thereafter,takeoff that airplane inits maximum seating capacity configuration with fewer flight attendants than the number used during the emergencyevacuationdemonstration;or in any reducedseatingcapacityconfiguration withfewer flightattendantsthanthenumberrequiredbytheparagraphaboveof thissectionforthatseating capacityplusthenumberof flightattendantsusedduringtheemergencyevacuation demonstration that were in excess of those required under the paragraph above ofthis section. Thenumber of flightattendantsapprovedundertheparagraphsaboveof thissectionisset forthinthecertificateholder'soperationsspecifications.Duringtake-offandlanding,flight attendantsrequiredbythissectionshallbelocatedasnearaspracticabletorequiredfloorlevel existsandshallbeuniformlydistributedthroughouttheairplaneinordertoprovidethemost effective egressof passengersinevent of an emergencyevacuation.During taxi,flightattendants required by this section must remain at their duty stations with safety belts andshoulder harnesses fastened except to perform duties related to the safety of the airplane and its occupants. At stops where passengers remain on board, and on the airplane for which a flight attendant is not required by CCAR 121, the certificate holder must ensurethat a person who is qualifiedin the emergency evacuation procedures for the airplane asrequired in CCAR121, and who is identified to the passengers, remains onboardthe airplane, or nearby the airplane, in a position to adequately monitor passenger safety;andtheairplane engines are shut down;andatleast onefloorlevel exit remains open to provide for the deplaning ofpassengers. Oneachairplane forwhichflightattendantsarerequired byCCAR121,but thenumberof flight attendants remaining aboardis fewer than requiredby CCAR 121, the certificate holder shall ensurethat theairplaneenginesare shutdown,andatleastonefloorlevelexit remainsopento provide for the deplaning of passengers; and the number of flight attendants on board is at least half the number required by CCAR 121, rounded down to the next lower number in the case of fractions, but never fewer thanone.Thecertificateholdermaysubstitutefortherequiredflightattendants 3 otherpersonsqualifiedintheemergencyevacuationproced:!:resfir th:!:t.,.;-asrequiredin CCAR 121,if thesepersonsareidentifiedtothepassengersroea:tendant or other qualified personisonboardduringa stop,that flight anendant or 0eed indication will increase. During a descent the airspeed indication will decrease. If the pitot tubebecomes blockedbut pressure is not trappedin the pitot lines,the indicated will drop to zero since the pitot pressure will be approximately equal to the static pressure. Pitot tubes and static ports are electrically heated to prevent ice formations that could interfere .:=!proper operation of the systems. They are required to have "power on indicator lights to show operation. In addition,manyaircraft have an ammeter that shows theactual current flow to c:::;.'itot and static ports. 29 Sincethemagneticcompassistheonlydirection-seekinginstrument in mostairplanes,the pilot must be able to turn the airplane to amagnetic compass beading and maintain thisheading.It isinfluencedby magneticdipwhichcauses northerlyturningerrorandacceleration/deceleration error.When northerly turning error occurs, the compass will lag behind the actual aircraft heading whlleturningthroughheadingsinthenorthernhalf of thecompassrose,andleadtheaircraft' s actual heading in the southernhalf.The errorismost pronouncedwhen turning throughnorthor south, and is approximately equal in degrees to the latitude. The acceleration/deceleration error is most pronounced on beadings of east and west When accelerating, the compass indicates a turn toward the north, and when decelerating it indicates a turn toward the south. No errors are apparent whlle on east or west headings, when turning either north or south. SECTIONCSAFETYOFFLIGHTEQUIPMENT Airborneweatherradarisusedtodetectandavoidareasof heavyprecipitation suchas thunderstorms.Withfewexceptions,allair carrieraircraftmustbeequippedwithanapproved airborne weather radar unit.The radar must be in satisfactory operating condition prior to dispatch on an IFR or night VFR flight if thunderstorms (or other hazardous weather) that could be detected by the radar are forecast along the intended route of flight.An aircraft may be dispatched with an inoperative radar unit ifone of two conditions is met: A.The flight will be able to remain in day VFR flight conditions, or B.Hazardous weather is not forecast An air carrier' operations manual must contain procedures for the flight crew to follow if the weather radar fails in flight. No person may dispatch an airplane under IFR or night VFR conditions when current weather reportsindicatethatthunderstorm,or other potentiallyhazardousweather conditionsthatcanbe detectedwithairborneweatherradar,mayreasonablybeexpectedalongtheroutetobeflown, unlesstheweatherradarisinsatisfactoryoperatingcondition.If theairborneradarbecomes inoperative en route, the airplane must be operated in accordance with the approved instructions and procedures specified in the operations manual for such an event. Return to the departure airport upon malfunction of airborne weather detection radar would be the correct action if it were the procedure specified in the air carrier's operations manual. However, it is not required by regulation. Agroundproximitywarmingsystem(GPWS)mustbeinstalledonalllargeturbine-poweredairplanes.The GPWSgivesauraland visualwarningswhenan aircraft toocloseto the terrain is in an improper configuration for landing, or when it deviates below glide slope on an ILS approach. No person mayoperatea turbine-poweredairplane unless it isequipped with aground 30 --'--c glide slope deviation alerting system. IC -\.5 I(Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System) provides proximity warning only, to :.:,.: :: _.:: in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers - :e=.::or authorized as a result of a TCAS Iwarning. TCAS ll provides trafficadvisories ...... !..'.::: :-;solution advisories (RAS). Resolution advisories provide recommended maneuvers in - ,__,..:.:-ection toavoid conflicting traffic.TCASdoesnotalter ordiminishthepilot'sbasic .:.::dresponsibility toensure safe flight After the conflict, return to the ATCclearance in :: ::. occurs, contact ATC as soon as practicable. :;ilotwhodeviatesfroman ATC clearanceinresponse toaTCASn RASshall notify -:deviation as soon as practicable and expeditiously return tothe current ATCclearance =:".;!:;affic conflict is resolved. Coch.-pit voice recorders are required on large turbine engine powered airplanes and large four e:-::-.a".:.:'iprocatingpoweredairplanes.Therecordermustoperatefrombeforethestartof the - -; checklisttothecompletionof thesecurecockpit checklist.Althoughtherecorder -:::::::::':: ::1eentireflight,onlythemost recent 30minutesof informationneedbe retainedon the "::.::1acockpit voicerecorderis requiredon anairplane,it mustbeoperatedcontinuously =c :::estartof theuseof thecheck list(beforestartingenginesfor thepurposeof flight),to of thefinalchecklist at theterminationof flightInformationrecorded more than30 wlier may be erased or otherwise obliterated. ..:....::;pproved flightrecorder must beinstalledon all airplanes certified for operationsabove :=0:(:'eetandonall turbine-poweredairplanes.Whatever theflightrecordermustvariesfrom '!::::::::o airplane, but at a minimum it must record: :-i.me, \'erticalacceleration, Heading, and :-ime of each radio transmission to or from ATC . .l..!Otal of 1 hour of recorded data may be erasedfor the purpose of testing flight recorder :::;.;t recorder system.Anyerasure must be of theoldestrecordeddata accumulatedat the -! ::testing. :.:::ormationobtainedfromflightdataandcockpitvoicerecordersisusedtoassistin :::r.:=-=:."l..i.ngthecauseof accidentsor occurrencesinconnectionwithinvestigationunder NTSB =:::.al Transportation Safety Board) Part 830. The Administrator doesnot use the cockpit voice record in any civil penalty or certificate action. :::theeventof anaccident or occurrencerequiringimmediatenotificationto NTSB Part : . ..:..."1dthatresultsintheterminationof aflight,anyoperatorwhohasinstalledapproved 31 flight recorders and approved cockpit voice recorders shall keep the recorded information for at least 60 days. SECTIONDCOMMUNICATIONS Eachdomesticandflagaircarriermustshowthatatwo-wayair/groundradio communicationssystemisavailableatpointsthatwillensurereliableandrapid communications under normaloperating conditionsover theentireroute(either director via approved point to point circuits) between each airplane and the appropriate dispatch office, and between each airplane and the appropriate air traffic control unit. The En Route Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch) isaweather serviceon acommon frequencyof 122.0 MHz fromselectedFSS's (FlightServiceStations).This serviceisdedicated specifically to providing weather information to en routepilots and taking and disseminating pilot reports. Aeronautical weather and operational information may be displayed in the cockpit through the useof FAA FISDL (FederalAviationsAdministration'sFlightInformationServices Data Link), and is designed to provide coveragethroughout the continental U.S. from5000 feet AGL (above ground level) to17 500 feetMSL (sea level),except in those areas where this is unfeasible due to mountainous terrain. FAA FISDL provides free of charge, the following basic products: METARS,SPECIS, TAFs and their amendments,SIGMETS,ConvectiveSIGMETs, AIRMETs, PIREPs and, AWWsissued by the FAA or NWS (National Weather Service). FISDL products, such as ground-based radar precipitation maps, are not appropriate for use in tactical severe weather avoidance, such as negotiating a path through a weather hazard area (an area whereapilotcannotreliablydivertaroundhazardousweather,suchasabrokenlineof thunderstorms),but FISDLsupportsstrategic weather decisionmakingsuchasrouteselectionto avoid a weather hazard area in its entirely flight. The misuse of information beyond its applicability may place the pilot and his/her aircraft in great jeopardy. In addition,FISDL shouldnever be used in lieu of an individual preflight weather and flight planning briefing. SECTIONENAVIGATIONEQUIPMENT Whenan aircraftisflownIFRor VFR Over-the-Topit must haveadualinstallationof the navigation radios required to flythat route. This means that an aircraft flyingVictor airways or jet routes must have two operable VOR systems. Only one ILS system and one marker beacon system are required. 32 "'opersonmayoperateIFRor VFROver-the-Topunlesstheairplaneisequippedwiththe equipmentnecessaryfortheroute,andisabletosatisfactorilyreceiveradionavigational _ -:- s fromall primary en route and approach navigational facilitates intended foruse,by either of - : systems. \\ben an aircraft is navigating over routes using low frequency, ADFor Radio Range,it only one receiver for those NAVAIDS. If it is also equipped with two VOR receivers, if that is the '2-.;e.me VOR stations must be located such that the aircraft could complete the flight to a suitable 3=:-:v:-tandmake an instrument approach if the low frequencysystem fails.The airplanemust also =-=::.!eled to allow for such a failure. In the case of IFR operation over routes in which navigation isbased on low-frequency radio .....-;::e or automatic direction finding, only one low-frequency radio range or ADF receiver need be - s:alledif theairplaneisequippedwithtwoVORreceivers,andVOR navigationalaidsareso :.:a:ed and the airplane is fueled so that, in the case of failure of thelow-frequency radio range or .:..:>X:receiver,theflightmayproceedsafelytoasuitableairportbymeansof VORaidsand :.:::::plete an instrument approach by use of the remaining airplane radio system. WheneveradifferentVORstationistuned,thepilotmustlistentotheMorsecode .:::!Jtification.This will ensure that the correct frequencyhasbeen tunedandthat a usablesignal :;:.::isnot reliable enough off or the indent will be changed totheletters T-E-S-T.Other than the .:;:}ti.fier, the station may appear to be broadcasting a normal signal. During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, coded identification (or code and voice, applicable)isremovedfromcertain FAA NAVAIDS.During periods of maintenance,VHF very HighFrequency)rangesmayradiate aperiods of maintenance.VHFrangesmayradiatea :--E-S-T code. No person may operate an aircraft under IFR using the VOR system of radio navigation unless :::e VOR equipment of that aircraft hasbeen operationally checked within thepreceding 30days. ::1e pilots may check the accuracy of the VORs in one of several ways. A.The VORsmaybechecked using a VOTtest facilityon an airport.TheVOTbroadcasts the 360 radial and so the CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) needle should center either on a setting of360 with a FROM indication or on 180 with a TO indication. A deviation of 4 is acceptable for a VOT check. B.If a VOT isnot available,a VOR checkpointmaybeusedinstead.Theaircraft must be movedtothecheckpoint andthe designated radial set in the CDI course.The acceptable variation for a ground check is 4. For an airborne check the allowable variation is 6. C.If noVOT or VOR checkpoint is available, theVORs may be checked against each other. Thisiscalleda"dualVOR check". TurntheVORstothesamestationandcheck the difference in indicated bearing. If they are within 4 of each other, the check is satisfactory. And this check can be performed on the ground or in the air. If a dual system VOR(unitsindependent of each other exceptforthe antenna)isinstalled in 33 theaircraft.,thepersoncheckingtheequipmentmaycheckonesystemagainsttheother.The maximum permissible variation between the two indicated bearings is 4. Theperson makingaVOR check must makean entryintheaircraftlogor other record.A proper entry includes the date, place and bearing error. The checker must sign the entry. Besides the VOR check, thealtimeter system and the transponder must havebeenchecked within thelast 24 calendar months. Whenever VOR receivers are required on board an aircraft operating, it must also have at least one DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) receiver on board as well. If the DME fails in flight, the pilot must inform ATC as soon as possible. DMEindicatestheactualdistancefromthestationtothereceivingaircraftinnautical miles.That isdifferentfromthe horizontaldistancebecause the aircraftisalways higher than the DME ground station altitude which is included in the slant range.As a practical matter, the difference between the horizontaldistance and the "slant range" isinsignificant at distances of more than 10 milesfromthe station.There isa considerable error close to the station when the aircraft is at high altitudes. In such asituation, almost all of the slant range distance is vertical. Whenan aircraftpassesover aDME station,thedistanceindicatedat stationpassageisthe altitude of the aircraft above the station in nautical miles. For example, if an airplane flew over a VORTAC (Collocated VOR and TACAN navaids) site 12 000 feet above the station, the DME would indicate 2.0 NM. If anaircraft wasflyingaperfect10DME arctotheleftinno windconditions,the RMI bearing would remain on the left wing-tip reference mark indicating that the VOR was exactly 90 tothe left of the aircraft's heading.With aleft crosswind,thepilot wouldhave totum the aircraft toward the wind tocompensate for the drift to the right. That would place thebearing to the VOR less than 90, and the bearing pointer would be ahead of the wing-tip reference. NopersonmayoperateanairplaneincontrolledairspaceunderIFRunlesswithinthe preceding24calendarmonths,eachstaticpressuresystem,each altimeterinstrument,andeach automatic pressure altitude reporting system have been tested andinspected. No person may use an ATCtransponderrequiredbyregulationsunless,within thepreceding 24 calendarmonthsithas been tested and inspected. SECTIONFHORIZONTAL SITUATIONINDICATOR Thehorizontalsituationindicator(HSI)isacombinationof twoinstruments:theheading indicator and the VOR (see Figure 2-2). Theaircraftheadingdisplayedontherotatingazimuthcardundertheupperlubberlinein Figure2-2is330.The course-indicating arrowheadthatisshownissetto300.Thetailof the course-indicating arrow indicates the reciprocal, or 120. 34 SeleCted heading marker Course selectICompass card poinrerv--:--;--;;:i;:-- --i- 1- ----. Glide slope pointer Lateral deviation scale Heading select knob To IFrom pointer Lateral deviation bar Miniature airplane Course select knob Figure 2-2Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) The course deviation bar operates with a VORILOC (localizer) navigation receiver to indicate ~ i t h e rleft or right to deviations fromthe course that is selected with the course-indicating arrow.It ;novesleft or right to indicatedeviationfrom the centerlineinthesamemanner thattheangular movement of a conventional VORILOC needle indicates deviation from course. The desired course is selected by rotating the course-indicating arrow in relation to the azimuth card by means of the course set knob. This gives the pilot a pictorial presentation. The fixed aircraft symbol and the course deviation bar display the aircraft relative to the selected course as though the pilot was above the aircraft looking down. The TO/FROM indicator is a triangular-shaped pointer.When this indicator points to thehead of the course arrow,it indicates that thecourse selected, andif properly intercepted and flown,will rake the aircraft TO the selected facility, and vice versa Theglideslope deviationpointer indicatestherelationshipof theaircraft totheglideslope. When the pointer isbelow thecenter position, the aircraft is above the glide slope and an increased rate of descent is required. To orient where the aircraft is in relation to the facility, first determine which radial is selected look at the arrowhead).Next,determine whether the aircraft is flying toor away fromthe station 1ook at the TO/FROMindicator) tofmdwhichhemisphere the aircraftisin. Andthen determine how far fromthe selected course the aircraft is (look at the deviation bar) to find which quadrant the 3.ircraft isin.Last,consider theaircraft heading (under thelubber line) todetermine theaircraft's ?OSition within the quadrant Aircraftdisplacementfromcourseisapproximately200feetperdotpernauticalmile.For example, at 30 NM fromthe station 1-dot deflection indicates approximately1 NM displacement of tile aircraftfromthecoursecenterline.Therefore a2.5-dotdeflectionat60NMwouldmeanthe ilicraft is approximately 5 NM from the course centerline. 35 Several IDSpresentations and the relevant aircraft position and direction of flightare shown by Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-4. GH Figure 2-3HSI Presentations 1$> =AIRCRAFT POSrTlON AND DIREC110N OFFUGHT Figure 2-4Aircraft Position and Direction of FUgbt HSI indicator "A" is set up with the head of the arrow pointing to 270 (normal sensing). The Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) is centered; therefore, the aircraft is on the extended centerline of runway #9 and #27. With a heading of 360,indicator "A" represents an aircraft at position #6 and#9. HSI indicator ''B" is set up with the head of the arrow pointing to 090 (reverse sensing). The CDI indication is deflected right, which means the aircraft is actually to the south of the extended centerline. Indicator ''B'' then, with the aircraft flying on a heading of090, could be at position #13 and#5.Rememberthatthelocalreceiverdoesnot knowwhereyouarein relationshiptothe antenna site. HSI indicator "C" is set up with the head of the arrow pointing to 090 (reverse sensing). With the CDI centered the aircraft is on the extended centerline. And with a heading of090 position #12 36 ::=:e: ::lly one which would have that indication. HSI indicator ''D" is set up with the head of the arrow pointing to 090 (reverse sensing). The '-'...::dication is deflected right, which means the aircraft to the south of course.On a beading of ::;osition #2 is the only choice. :iSIindicator "E" is setupwith the head of the arrow pointing to090 (reversesensing).With c.:.=.::>I deflected right, the aircraft is to the south of the extended centerline.On a heading of045, -s:::on #8 or #3are the only answer. HSIindicator "F' is set up with thehead of the arrow pointing to090 (reverse sensing). The .:::;:mdicationisdeflected; tl.erefore,the aircraft is on the extendedcenterline of runway#9and =:- With a heading of270 indicator "F" represents an aircraft at position #4. HSIindicator "G"is set upwith thebead of the arrow pointing to270 (reverse sensing).The _:::):indication is deflected left;therefore, the aircraft is right of the extended centerline of runway =- :!-'ld #27. With a heading of270 indicator "G" represents an aircraft at position #7 or #11. HSIindicator "H" is set up with the headof the arrow pointing to 270 (reverse sensing). The ::>I indication is deflected left; therefore, the aircraft is right of the extended centerline of runway :.:#27. With a heading of215 indicator "H" represents an aircraft at position #I. HSI indicator "P' is set upwith thehead of the arrow pointing to090(reversesensing).The OI indication is deflected left; therefore,the aircraft is right of the extended centerline of runway ::. md #27. With a heading of 270 indicator "P' represents an aircraft at position #7 or # 11. SECTIONGRADIOMAGNETIC INDICATOR(AMI) The compass card shows the aircraft heading !: ill times under the lubber line. The two needles thebearingsTO and FROM thenumber1 number2VCRS.Thethinneedlescanbe :;.::ected to display ADF bearing information .The ..Jeadof each needle shows themagneticbearing :15 TO the station (330 radial) andthe number ::::eedleshows25510 thestation(075radial). 5.:-eFigure 2-5. To orient wherethe aircraft is in relation to =efacility,firstdeterminewhichradialis ;e.ected tofindwhich quadrant you arein (look !: :he tail of the needle,if you are tying toorient Figure 2-5 Radio Magnetic Indicator .c-'JI'Selfrelative to the VOR, make sure you are using the VOR needle). Next, consider the aircraft (under the lubber line) to determine the aircraft's position within the quadrant. 37 Themagneticbeadingof theaircraftisalwaysdirectlyundertheindexatthetopof the instrument.ThebearingpointerdisplaysbearingsTOtheselectedstationandthetaildisplays bearings FROM the station. SECTIONHLONGRANGENAVIGATIONSYSTEMS When an air carrier operates onroutes outside of the48contiguous states where the aircraft's positioncannotbereliablyfixedfor morethanonehour,specialfuelapplies.Theaircraftmust either be equipped with a "specialized means of navigation" (inertial navigation systemor Doppler Radar). Or one of the flight crewmembers must have a current flight navigator certificate. The FAA mayalsorequireeither a navigatororthespecializednavigation routeswhich meettheone-hour fuelif theyfeelit's necessary.All routes that require either thenavigator or specializedmean:>of navigation must be listed in the air carrier's operations specifications. Certainroutesoverthe NorthAtlanticOceanbetween NorthAmericaandEuroperequire betterthannormalstandardsof navigation.Administrator(theFAA)hasauthoritytogranta deviation from the navigation standards ifan operator requests one. Inertial Navigation System(lNS)is theprimary systemusedbyair carriersforover-water navigation. Prior to flight, the pilots enter the present latitude and longitude of the aircraft and the fixesthatmakeupthedesiredroute.TheINSconstantlyupdatesitspositionbysignalsfrom self-contained gyros and accelerometers. The unit then computes the direction and distance to the next fix anddisplays this information on theaircraft'snavigational source.If the INS gets input of the aircraft'sheading andairspeed,it cancompute anddisplay the windand anydrift angle. When INSisused as the navigation system,theaircraft must haveeither twoINSand Doppler Radar units. INSis a totallyself-containednavigation system,comprisedof gyros,accelerometers,and a navigationcomputer,whichprovidesaircraft positionandnavigationinformationinresponseto signals resulting from inertial effects on system components, and does not require infom1ation from external references. If a certificate holder elects to use Inertial Navigation System it must be at least a dual system. Atleast 2systemsmust beoperational at take-off.Thedualsystemmayconsist of either 2INS units, or 1 INS unit, or 1 INS unit and1 doppler radar unit. LORAN-Cis a pulsed, hyperbolic system operating in the 90 to110KHz frequencyband. The system is based on measurement of the difference in time of arrival of pulses of RF energy radiated bya"chain"of transmitterslocatedhundredsof milesapartWithinachain,onestationis designated as the Master (M) and the others are called secondaries, Whiskey CW), X-ray(X), Yankee (Y) and Zulu (z).Each chain is identified by its unique Group Repetition Interval (GRI). NOTAM(NoticetoAirmen)informationonthestatusof anyLORAN-Cchainorstation 38 in the United States can be found in NOTAM (D)Sunder the identifier 'LRN''. :be LORAN-Creceiverin theaircraftconvertsthetimedifference(TD)informationinto coordinates.Using this information,it generates acourse anddistance to adesignated -- "X'intfix.LORAN-Cinstallationisapprovedonanindividualbasis.If aparticularaircraft .:;::::"2-.ationis approved for IFR operations, there willbean entryintheairplane'sFlight Manual :-:-: .ement or theaircraft will have an FAA Form 337 (major repair or alteration)approving the : ORAN-Coriginallydevelopedas amarinenavigationalaidhasgainedwide acceptancein co=:::iation community in recent years. The chains were set up in the U.S. coastal areas. Originally wasagapinsuitable coverage in the midwest and southwestern U.S., andthis gap has been = :-.:withthecommissioningof anadditionalchain.LORANisapprovedforIFR inthe48 .:-::_guous states. During the approach phase, the receiver must detect a lost signal or a signal blink ::::.'110 seconds of the occurrence and warn the pilot of the event. LORAN-eisapprovedforVFR navigation.It isalsoapprovedfor IFR navigation,but is on an individual basis.A pilot may determine if a LORAN-e receiver isautl}orizedfor :?erations by consulting the Airplane Flight Manual Supplement or an FAA Form 337 (major alteration), in aircraft maintenance records, or possibly by a placard installed near or on the ax:::ol panel. Pilots must familiarize themselves with the above referenced documents to verify the a.. _val level of the LORAN-C receiver they are operating. 5::CTIONIAPPROACHSYSTEMS TheprimaryinstrumentapproachsystemintheUnitedStatesistheInstrumentLanding SyHem(ILS).Thesystemcanbedividedoperationallyintothreeparts:guidance,rangeand information (approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights). If any of the :::::.entsisunusable,theapproachminimumsmayberaisedortheapproachmaynotbe ::...'1orized at all. The guidance information consists of thelocalizer for horizontalguidance and the glide slope f.:- \ertical guidance.The localizer operateson one of 40 frequencies.Thelocalizer transmitter on one of 40 lLSchannelswithin the frequencyrangeof 108.10to111.95MHz.The \i::5e code identifier of the localizer is the letter "I" ()followed bythree other lettersunique 1::.:at facility.The portion of thelocalizer used for theILS3J'proachiscalled the front course. --e ;:>ortion of the localizer extending fromthe farend of the runwayiscalledthe back course. --=back course may be used for missed approach procedures or for a back course approach if one !:! ..:blished. Rangeinformation is usually provided by 75MHz marker beacons or. occasionally, by D?v.tE. --=:earefourtypesof markerbeaconsassociatedwithILSapproaches-theoutermarker.the =- ::!e marker, theinner marker and theback course marker.Flying over any marker beacon will iQ resultinbothvisualandauralindications.Theoutermarkerisidentifiedbyabluelightand continuousdashesin Morse codeat a rateof 2per second.Themiddlemarker is indicatedby a flashingamberlight andalternating dotsand dashesat arateof 2per second.Theinner marker flashes the white light and sounds continuous dots at 6 per second. The back course marker will also flash the white light and sound a series of 2-dot combinations. See Figure 2-6. VHF...,._ -""" ......101 1010 \tiiShtHL. RlcMIM 901011150Ht.-doj>tl.. CCUIS020'11or.a"-'AMBER WHITE WHITE Often, an ADF facility (called a compass locator) is associated with an ILS approach.Usually it is located at theouter marker,but occasionally it is co-located with the middle marker.An outer compasslocator is identified with the first 2 letters of thelocalizer identification group. A middle compass locator is identified with the last 2 letters of the localizer. 40 _.! =.:.:.e marker is out of service, the middle compass locator or PAR (Precision Approach ::::- :-;;substituted. The middle marker being inoperative does not affect minimums during a -m-;::-:: =-sapproach.Thevisualinformation portionof theILSconsistsof approachlights, *" _;.::j centerline lights and runway lights. --: . ::!lizer is very narrow. In fact a full scale deflection (CDI moving from the center to full ,..:.:: :ight) is only about 700 feet at the runway threshold. :.._=:--:::: aircraft willrequire different ratesof descent to stay on glide slope.A goodruleof ..;:::at the verticalspeed infeet per minutewill require a descent rate of about 700feet per :.! : J( 5 = 700). --= .Jwest approach minimums that can be used for a normal (Category I)ILSapproach are a :F - : : feet and1 800 feet RVR.A Category ll ILSapproachwillhaveminimums aslow asa :.C:: : : : :feet and a visibility requirement of 1 200 feet RVR. The approach has to be approved for :.:::!';:::IIminimums.Inadditiontosuitablelocalizer,glideslopeandmarkerbeacons,the !!.I_ .:_:-:lightsystem,HighIntensityRunwaylights(IDRL),TouchdownZoneLights(TDZL), -=-=l.CenterlineLights (CL) and Runway Visual Range (RVR), Radar, VAS!and Runway End (REIL) are not required components of a Category II approach system. :-:ctescend below the DH from a Category II approach, the pilot must be able to see one of the .:__: the runwaythreshold, the threshold markings,the thresholdlights, the touchdown zone - ::: :vuchdown zone markings, thetouchdown zone lights,or the approach light system, except =.:: :may not descend belowl 00 feet abovethetouchdown zone unless theredterminating -z.."""':::.he red side row bars are distinctly visible and identifiable. 5Jme airportshave Category IliA approaches.This typeof approach hasa requiredvisibility : .:ttle as 700 feet RVR, and no DH. :besimplifieddirectionalfacility(SDF)andthelocalizer-typedirectionalair(LDA)are systemsthatgivealocalizer-typeindicationtothepilot,butwithsomesignificant :.=::ences. TheLOA is essentially alocalizer,but itisnot aligned within3 of therunwayasa :-:2iizer mustbe.Thelocalizercanbeanywidthfrom3to 6wide.If theLDAiswithin30 , :-::-;.ight-in minimums will be published for it; ifnot, only circling minimums wiUbe published. The s:::; : mayor may not bealigned with the runway.The main differencebetween it and a localizer is at either 6 or 12. TheMicrowave Landing System(MLS) isenvisionedastheeventualreplacementfor the 5 system. It gives an ILS-likeindication of azimuth andglide slopebut hasseveral advantages _. ;:theolderILS.SeeFigure2-7below.TheMLSprovidesazimuth,elevationanddistance toaircraft.In addition,it has expansion capability toincludeselectable back azimuth ==.:jata transmission. It alsohas the operational flexibility toinclude selectable glide slope angles ::..:boundariestoprovide obstructionclearance in the tenninalarea Theusablecoveragearea is -greater than an ILS. Azimuth coverage includes at least 40 either side of the centerline out to : . '\:vt and up to 20 000 feet altitude. Ifa back azimuth isinstalled, it covers similar dimensions out -: -The glide slope extends out to similar distances and elevations and can be extended up to 41 15.Theidentifierof thepresentMLSsystems(InterimStandard:VU..S)istheletterM(--) followedby a unique three-letter code. Ifdata transmission is included with the :MLS, it will include MLS status, airport conditions and weather. Coverage Volumes , 'f ' ' ' I , ' ' 'Wh4n lr>Stallad' ' '

,, ' , ' '-,--40" Figure 2-7MIS Coverage Areas The front azimuth coverage extends: A.Laterally, at least 40 on either side of the runway; B.In elevation, up to an angle of 15 and to at least 20 000 feet; C.In range, to a distance of at least 20 NM. The back azimuth provides coverage as follows: A.Laterally, at least 40 on either side of the runway; B.In elevation, up to an angle of 15; C.In range, to a distance of at least 7 NM from the runway stop end. 20 NMI TheMLSprovidesprecisionnavigation guidanceforexact alignment anddescent of aircraft on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth, elevation, and distance. StandardMLSconfigurationcanbeexpandedbyaddingoneormoreof threefollowing functionsorcharacteristics:backazimuth,auxiliarydatatransmissions,andlargerproportional guidance. The MLS back azimuth transmitter is essentially the same as the approach azimuth transmitter. However,theequipment transmitsat asomewhat lower data rate becausetheguidanceaccuracy requirements are not as stringent as for the landing approach. Agreatdealof datacanbetransmittedovertheMLS.ThisincludesMLSstatus,airport conditions and weather. The MLS has capability which allows curved and segmented approaches, selectable glide path angles,accurate3-Dpositioningof theaircraftin space,andtheestablishmentof boundariesto ensure clearance from obstructions in the terminal area 42 s::CTION JGLOBAL POSITIONINGSYSTEM :he GlobalPositioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based radio navigational,positioning,and =--=::ansfer system. The GPSreceiver verifies the integrity (usability) of the signals received form .";PS constellation through RAIM, to determine if a satellite is providing corrupted information. - ::.:Jut RAIMcapability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position. TfRAIM .....-:: available, another type of navigation andapproach system mustbe used, another destination - or the trip delayeduntil RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. The authorization to _.:GPStoflyinstrumentapproachesislimitedtoU.Sairspace.Theuseof GPSinanyother -:;-ace must be expressly authorized by the FAA Administrator. Ifavisualdescentpoint(VDP)ispublished,itwillnotbeincludedinthesequenceof .. ::.-points.Pilotsareexpectedtouse normal piloting techniques forbeginning the visual descent. :- ;databasemaynotcontain all of thetransitions or departuresfromall runwaysandsome GPS -e-:eivers donot contain DPSinthedatabase.TheGPSreceiver must beset to terminal (1 NM) :..rse deviationindicator (COl) sensitivity andthe navigation routescontainedin the database in -:er toflypublishedIFR charted departures andDPS.TerminalRAIMshould beautomatically :-:videdby the receiver. Terminal RAIM for departure maymotbe available unless the waypoints .:! part of the active flight plan rather than proceeding direct to the flfStdestination. Overriding an :...:.Jmatically selected sensitivity during an approach will cancel the mode annunciation. The RAIM == CDI sensitivity willnot ramp down,and the pilot should not descend to lviDA,but flytothe - ssed approach waypoint (MAWP) and execute a missed approach. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure :-:-cedures and missed approaches use a 20:1 obstacle clearance surface (OCS), which is double the ::;;d-wing OCS, and turning areas are based on this speed as well. TheGPSoperationmust beconductedin accordancewiththe FAA-approvedaircraft flight (AFM) or flight manual supplement Flight crewmembers must be thoroughly fan1iliar with :e particular GPSequipment installed in the aircraft, the receiver operation manual,and the AFM _- flight manualsupplement.Air carrier and the commercialoperators must meet theappropriate ;:Jvisions of their approved operations specifications. Thepilotmustbethoroughlyfamiliarwith theactivationprocedurefortheparticular GPS t.:eiver installed in the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action after the MAWP. Activating the =:ssed approach prior to the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to immediately change toterminal =: )JM) sensitivity andthe receiver will continue tonavigate to the MAWP. The receiver willnot :_Jt action to sequence past the MAWP. Turns should not begin prior to the MAWP. A GPS missed !::;roachrequirespilotactiontosequencethereceiverpasttheMAWPtothemissedapproach :.: :tion of theprocedure.If the missed approach isnot activated, the GPSreceiver willdisplay an : .::ension of the inbound final approach course and the ATD will increase fromthe MAWP until it is -sequenced after crossing the MAWP. 43 Any requiredalternate airport must have approvedinstrument approach procedure other than GPS,which is anticipated tobeoperational and available at the estimated time of arrival and with which the aircraftis equipped to fly.Missed approachroutingsin which the trackisvia a course rather than direct to the next waypoint require additional action by the pilot to set the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs required is especially.critical during this phase of flight Properly certified GPS equipment may be used as a supplemental means ofiFR navigation for domesticenroute,terminaloperationsandcertaininstrumentapproachprocedures(lAPS).This approval permits the use of GPSin a manner that is consistent with current navigation requirements as well as approved air carrier operations specifications. Use of a GPS for IFR requires that theavionics necessary to receiveaUof the groundbased facilitiesappropriate forthe routetothedestination airport and any required alternate airport must be installed and operational. SECTIONKAIRPORTLIGHTING ANDMARKING A rotating beacon not only aids in locating an airport at night or in low visibility, but also helps toidentify which airport isseen. Civilian airports have a beacon that alternately flashes green and white. A military airport has the same green and white beacon but the white beam is split to give a dual flash of white. A lighted heliport has a green, yellow and white beacon. Figure 2-8 shows the basic marking and lighting for a runwaywith a non-precision approach. The threshold is marked with 4 stripes on either side of the centerline. 1 000 feet from the threshold, a broad "fiXed distance .. marker is painted on either side ofthe centerline (A). The runway lights are white for the entire length ofthe runway (as are the centerline lights if installed). The threshold Is lit with red lights. (;(1-,t\',.,.,_.,.-t 0\\hlhr .,"" t>Y"'Iaw A OO QO OOOuOvOOfll) '-. - =-. 0--!:'\.This reduces the induced drag.If the wing Oev.right at groundlevelthere wouldbeno allandthcretore alarge reductionininduced drag.I his ground effect reduces induced dra; (and :_t..,ereo:etotal drug) andincreaseslif\. As anairplanenics out of groundciTccton take-off.theincreasedinduceddrag willrequire a higher angle of attack. The ground eflcct falls ''ith Jltirude SECTIONCFLI GHTCONTROLS lt isverydilliculltomovethenightcontrolsurfacesof jet aircraftwith justme\:hanical and aerodynamicforces.Flightcontrolsareusuallymo,cdb)hydraulicactuatorsanddividedinto primaryflightcontrolsandsecondaryoratL'\iliru:nightcontrols.Themostcommoncontrol arrangementontheconventionalairplaneisaileronsonthemainwingforrollcontrolanda horizontaltai l knownasthestnbililcrwithmoveableelevatorsforpitchcontrol.Thereisalsoa verticalfinwithurudderfordirectionaloryawcontrol.(orauxiliary)flightcontrols 54 include tabs, trailing-edge flaps, leading-edge flaps,and slats. ROLLCONTROL Roll Control is provided by the ailerons and flight spoilets. When the ailerons are deflected the downgoing aileron increasesthecamber of one wing. Theup-going aileron decreasescamber on theotherwing.Theresultisanasymmetriclift betwee.nthewings.Thiscausestherollrateto increase away fromthe wing with the greater lift It is important to note that as long as a net moment (lift times distance) exists between the two wings the aircraft will roll faster and faster. The exact mhc of controls is determined by the aircraft's flight regime.In low speedflightallcontrolsurfacesop,!ratetoprovide thedesiredrollcontrol. Whentheaircraftmovesintohigherspeedoperations,controlsurfacemovementisreducedto provide approximately the same roll response to a given irtput through a wide range of speeds. Many aircraft have two sets of ailerons-inboard andoutboard.Theinboardailerons operate in allflight regimes.Theoutboardailerons work onlywhenthe wingflapsare extendedandare automatically locked out when flaps are retracted. This makes good roll response in low speed flight with the flaps extended and prevents excessive roll and wing bending at high speeds when theflaps :ll'e retracted. SPOILERS The spoiler willdisrupt (separate)theboundarylayer, therebyincreasing drag and "spoiling" .!ft on the part of thewing affected by the spoiler. If raised on only one wing, they aidrollcontrol :y causing the lift of that wing drop.If the spoilersraisesymmetrically inflight,theaircraft can =::herbeslowedinlevelflightor can descendrapidlywithout anincreasein airspeed.When the :?oilers rise on the ground at hlgh speeds, they destroy the wing's lift that puts more of the aircraft's \'eight on its wheels which makes the brakes more effective. Often aircraft havebothflightandgroundsr,oilers.Theflight spoilersareavailablebothin J ght and on the ground. However, the ground spoilers canonly beraised when theweight of the l::'craft is on the landing gear. When the spoilers deploy on the ground, they decrease lift and make brakesmoreeffective.Inflight,agroun.d-sensingswitchonthelandinggearprevents : : ?loyment of the ground spoilers . . QRTEXGENERATORS The vortex generators isdesigned tostick upout of theboundary layer into the freestream. It :::1eratesturbulencewhichre-energizestheboundarylayer andprevents flowseparation and the .:.endant pressure drag (review drag as required). When located on the upper surfaceof a wing, the . ::ex generatorspreventshock-inducedseparationfromthewingastheaircraftapproachesits =:!cal Mach number. This increases aileron effectiveness at high speeds. 55 TABS Another way of changing the amount of forcethepilot must applyto thecontrolcolumn is through servo and anti-servo tabs. In this system the control column is directly connected to the control surface but a tab is geared tothemovementof thecontrolsurface .sothatit either assiststhemovementof thecontrol,or counters the movement of the control. Thus, the controls can be made to feel heavier or lighter than theywouldotherwise.Servotabsareonthetrailingedgeof thecontrolsurfaceandare mechanically linked to move opposite the direction of the surface.If the tab moves up, the surface moves down. Theuseof trimmingtabsisonemethodof relievingaerodynamicloadbymeansof a secondarycontrolsurfaceattachedtot h t ~endof theprimarysurface.Trimmingtabsmustbe operated by acontrol mechanismin therequired direction.Thismay be done manuallybycables connected to a control wheelin cockpit, or electricallyby servomotors attached to the cable. Trim tabs must be moved in the opposite direction to that of the primary control surface. Anti-servotabsmovein the samedirection astheprimarycontrol surface(seeFigure3-4). This means that as the control surface deflects, the aerodynamic load is increased by movement of the anti-servo tab. This helps to prevent the .control surface from moving to a full deflection. It al;o makesahydraulically-boostedflightcom'rolmoreaerodynamicallyeffectivethanitwould otherwise be. NOSEUP PITCl1NOSE-DOWN PITCH Figure 3-4Anti-servo Tabs Opposes Further Movement and Provides "Feel" Somejet aircrafthavecontroltabsforusein theeventof lossof allhydraulicpressure. Movement of the control wheel moves the control 1t.abwhich causes the aerodynamic movement of the controlsurface.The control tabis used only during manualreversion, that is, with theloss of hydraulic pressure. They work the same as a servo ta1? but only in the manual mode. SECTION0HIGH-LIFT DEVICES Swept wing jet aircraft are equipped with some hig:h-lift devices including leading edge flaps, slots or slats, and trailing edge flaps. All of the high-lift devices are to increase lift at low airspeeds 56 ~:o delay stall until a higher angle of attack. -EADINGEDGEDEVICES The two most common types of leading-edge devices are slats and Krueger flaps. The Krueger :":apextends fromtheleading edgeof thewing,increasing the camber of thewing.The slat also e:\."tendsfromthe wing's leading edge but it creates a gap or slot This slot allows high energy from .:z1der the wing toflowover the top of the wingthat delays stalltoa higher angleof attack than would otherwise occur. It is common to find Krueger flaps and slats on the same wing. TRAILINGEDGEFLAPS The primary purpose of flaps is to increase the camber of the wing. A flap which increases the wing camber without forming a slot, as described below, is called a plain flap. A flapwhich moves back opening a slot when extended is called a fowler flap. SECTIONETURN When an airplane is in a level turn it is in a state of acceleration. However, all the acceleration is confined to a planeparallelto the horizon. Therefore,thevertical component of thelift vector must completely balance the weight vector which is verticalbydefinition (see Figure 3-5).When the pilot rolls theairplane into a turn, he must increase the total lift of thewing so that the vertical component is equal to the airplane's weight by increasing the angle of attack. If no compensation is made for the loss of vertical component of lift in a turn, the aircraft will sink. L i ww 30' Bank Angle r ? ~ w 70' Bank Angle Figure 3-5Tile Steeper the Bank, the Greater the Lift Force Required from the Wings Load factor is the ratio of the weight supported by the wings to the actual weight of the aircraft. On the ground or in unacceleratedflight the load factoris one. Conditions which can increase the loadfactorareverticalgusts(turbulence)andlevelturns.Inalevelturn,theloadfactoris dependent only on theangle of bank.Airspeed, turn rate or aircraft weight have noeffect onload factor. Rate of turn is the number of degrees per second at which the aircraft turns, 57 w = ~ v T=21tL_ gtany where:w-rate of tum; T- time to tum; y-angle of bank; V- velocity. Thetimetotumisproportionaltovelocityandinverselyproportionaltoangleof bank.In other words,it takeslonger timetotum at ahigh speed,butless timetoturn at a largeangleof bank. v-R=-gtany Radius of turndepends on threevariables: g, velocitysquared(V"),angle of bank.Noticein the development of the radiusof turn equationthat theweight (J)canceledout of theequation. This is a veryimportant observationsince it means that thesize of the aircraft has no effect on the radius of tum. Thus, two aircraft flying at the same angle of bank andvelocity will make the same radius of tum even if one is1 000timeslarger thantheother. Radius of tum depends on velocity squared andis inversely proportional to the tangent of the angle of bank. SECTIONFVMc P-FACTOR When the aircraft slows down, theangleof attackmustincrease. Whenthishappenstheplaneof rotationofthepropellersisno longer at right anglestotheTAS. Asaresultthedowngoingblade and upgoing blade on the propeller each operate at a different angle of attack. The downgoingblade willbe atagreaterangleof attackand therefore willproduce more thrust (see Figure 3-6). 58 Relabv. Aknow UpgomQ Blade Figure 3-6Down Going Prop Blade Produces More Thrust with the Tail on the Ground CRITICALENGINE Because of''P-Factor'' on most propeller-driven airplanes,theloss of one particular engine at high angles of attack wouldbe more detrimental toperformance thanthe loss of the other. One of the engineshasitsthrustlinecloser tothe aircraft centerline. The loss of thisengine wouldmore adversely affect the performance and handling of the aircraft; therefore this is the "critical engine". Forunsuperchargedengines,VMcdecreasesasaltitudeisincreased.Stallsshouldneverbe practicedwithoneengineinoperativebecauseof thepotentialforlossof control.Engineout approaches and landings should be made the same as normal approaches and landings. Banking atleast 5into the good engine ensures that theairplane willbecontrollableat any speed above the certificatedVMc, that the airplane will bein a minimum drag configuration for best climb performance, and that the stall characteristics will not be degraded.Engine out flight with the ballcentered is never correct. Theblueradiallineontheairspeedindicatorof alight,twin-engineairplanerepresent maximum single-engine rate of climb. SECTIONGHIGHSPEEDFLIGHT MACHNUMBER Mach numberisthe ratioof TASandthespeedof sound.Therefore,if youaretraveling at exactlythespeedof soundyour Mach number isl.O.Mach8meansyour speedis80 %of the speed of sound, etc. The dragincreaselargely when the air flowsaround therurcraft exceedsthe speedof sound (Mach1.0). Because lift is generated by accelerating air across theupper surface of the wing,local air flowvelocitieswillreachsonicspeedswhiletheaircraft Machnumberisstillconsiderably below the speed of sound. With respect to Mach cruise control,flight speeds can be dividedinto three regimes-subsonic, transonicandsupersonic.Subsonic-allflowevei)'Whereontherurcraftislessthanthespeedof sound.Transonic flowbegin at critical Mach number and some but not all the local air flow velocities are Mach1.0or above.When allthelocal Mach numbers surrounding an aerofoil exceeds Mach 1.0, thenthe flow at that timeis considered tobe supersonic.In general tenns thesubsonic bandextends up to about Mach 0.75, the transonic regime between Mach 0.75 and Mach 1.20. CRITICALMACHNUMBER Alimiting speed for a subsonic transport rurcraft is itscritical Machnumber (McRir).That is the speed at which air flow over the wing first reaches, but does not exceed, thespeed of sound. At 59 MCRlr there may be sonic but no supersonic flow. Theless airflow is accelerated across the wing,the higher thecritical Mach number (i.e., the maximum flow velocityiscloser to the aircraft's Mach number). Twoways of increasing MeRIT in jet transport designs are togive the wing alower camber andincreasewing sweep. A thin airfoil section(lowercamber)causeslessair flowacceleration.Thesweptwing design hastheeffect of creatingathinairfoilsectionbyinducingaspanwiseflow,thusincreasingtheeffectivechord length. MACHTUCK Astheaircraftmovesintosupersonicflight,theaerodynamiccenterandcenter of pressure, both move back. The nose of the aircraft always tends topitch nosedown asthe aircraft transitions fromsubsonictosupersonicspeed.Thistendencyiscalledthe"Mach Tuck".Thistendencyis further aggravated in sweptwing aircraft because the center of pressure moves aft as the wing roots shock stall.Whenanairplane exceeds its critical Mach number, a shock wave formson the wing surface that can cause a phenomenon known asshock stall.If the wing tips of a sweptwing airplane shock stallfirst,thewing's center of pressure would moveinwardandforwardcausing a pitchup motion. Although a sweptwing design gives an airplane a higher critical Mach number (and therefore a higher maximum cruise speed), it results in some undesirable flight characteristics. One of these is a reducedmaximumcoefficient of lift.Thisrequiresthatsweptwingairplanesextensivelyemploy high lift devices, such as slats and slotted flaps, to get acceptably low take-off andlanding speeds. Another disadvantage of thesweptwing design isthe tendency,atlowairspeeds.forthewing tipstostallfrrst.Thisresultsinlossof aileroncontrolearlyinthestall:andinverylittle aerodynamic buffet on the tail surfaces. Dutch roll tendencyistypicalof sweptwing designs.If such anairplane yaws,theadvancing wing is at a higher angle of attack and presents a greater span totheau- stream than the retreating wing. This causes the aircraft to roll in the direction of the initial yaw andsimultaneously to reverse its direction ofyaw.When the yaw reverses, the airplane then reverses its direction of rolland yaw again.This roll-yaw coupling isusually dampedout bytheverticalstabilizer.But athigh speeds andin turbulence, thismay not be adequate, so most aircraft are alsoequipped with a yaw damper to help counteract any Dutch roll tendency. 60 CHAPTER4PERFORMANCE Inthefollowingchapterwewillpresenttheconceptionrequiredtounderstandthe performanceof transportation aircrafts.Furthermore,this chapter will concentrate on the methods to calculate the performance of transportation aircrafts. The exams willinclude both conception test and methodtest. In the exams, all questions are single-choice test, in which you should ftnd out the only one right choice from three answers. In terms of an aircraft, performance can be defined as a measure of the ability of the aircraft to carryoutaspecifiedtask.In thischapter theexpression"performance" willbetakentorefer to tasksrelatingto theflightpath of theaircraft mostlyrather thantothoseinvolvingitsstability, controlor handlingqualities.For aciviltransportflightoperation,theflightpath consistsof a numberof elements,or maneuvers,whichmakeupthetotalmissionbutwhichcanbe analyzed separately, these are, take-off, climb, cruise, descent and landing, with additional maneuvers such as turning or flying a holding pattern. Performance can be used as a measure of thecapabilityof theaircraftinmanyways.Inthe case of a civil transport aircraft it determines an element of the cost of the operation of the aircraft and henceit contributestoitseconomic viabilityasa transport vehicle.Performancecan also be regarded asa measure of safety.Whil.stan aircraft has an excess of thrust over drag it can increase itsenergybyeitherclimbing or accelerating;if thedrag exceedsthethrust thenitwill be losing energy asit either deceleratesor descends. In safeflight,theaircraft must not becommittedtoa decreaseof energythatwouldendangerit sothat,atallcriticalpointsinthemission,thethrus1 availablemustexceedthedrag;thisisaconsiderationoftheperformanceaspectofthe airworthiness of the aircraft. Airworthiness and performance areintimately associated. However, in any conflict between efficiency and flight safety the airworthiness criterion relating to the safety of the aircraft must be considered to be dominant In this chapter, wewiUmainly consider Part 25of China Civil Aviation Regulations (CCAR 25) which is almost identical to Part 25of the AmericaiJ counterpart of FederalAviationRegulations (FAR25),both of which relate to large civil transpor1 aircraft. SECTIONAENGINEPERFORMANCE There are twobasic formsof engine used for aircraft propulsion: the power-producing engine, 61 whichproducesshaftpowerthatisthenturnedintoapropulsiveforcebyapropeller,andthe thrust-producing engine, which produces its propulsive force directly by increasing the momentum ofthe airflow through the engine. Obviously,thepower-producingengineincludesbothreciprocating engine andturboprop engine.Meanwhile,theusualformof thrust-producingengineistheturbojet engine,although rocketscouldbeincludedinthiscategory.Thetypeof engineselectedforaparticular airplane designdependsprimarilyonthespeedrangeof theaircraft.Thereciprocatingengineismost efficientforaircraftwithcruisingspeedsbelow 250 MPH(milesperhour),whiletheturboprop engineworksbestinthe250 MPHto450 MPH rangeandtheturbojetengineismostefficient above 450MPH. Manifold pressure (MAP) is a measurement of the power output of a reciprocating engine. It isbasically the pressurein the engine's air inlet system. In anormally-aspirated (unsupercharged) engine, the MAP will dropastheaircraft climbs toaltitude.This severelylimits a piston-powered airplane's altitude capability. Most piston-powered airplanes flownbyair carriers are turbocharged.Onthis type of engine, exhaust gas fromtheengine isused as a power source for a compressor that in tum raises the MAP at anygiven altitude. The flow of exhaust gas to the turbocharger is controlled by a device called a waste gate. Turbocharging allows an aircraft to flyat much higher altitudes than it would be able to with normally-aspiratedengines.Thetermcriticalaltitudeisusedtodescribetheeffectof turbochargingontheaircraft'sperformance.Thecriticalaltitudeof aturbochargedreciprocating engine is the highest altitude at which a desired manifold pressure can be maintained. Thepilotsofreciprocating-engine-poweredaircraftmustbeverycarefultoobservethe published limits on manifold pressure and engine RPM. In particular, high RPM andlow MAP can produce severe wear, fatigue and damage. Both turboprop engines and turbojet engines are types of gas turbine engines. All gas turbine enginesconsistof anairinletsection,acompressor section,thecombustionsection,theturbine sectionandtheexhaust.Air enterstheinletat roughlyambienttemperatureandpressure. Asi1 passes through the compressor the pressure increases and so does the temperature due to the heat o1 compression.Bleedairistappedoff thecompressor forsuchaccessoriesas airconditioning and thermal anti-icing. The section connecting the compressor and the combustionsectionsiscalled the diffuser. In thediffuser,thecrosssectional area of theengineincreases.Thisallowstheairstreamfromthe compressor to slow and its pressure to increase. In fact, the highest pressure in the engine is attainec at this point. Next,the air enters thecombustionsection whereitismixed with fuelandthemixturei! ignited. Note that thereis no needforan ignition system that operates continuously(such as th( sparkplugsinapistonengine)becausetheuninterruptedflowof fuelandairwillsustair combustionafteraninitial"lightoff''.Thecombustionof thefuel-airmixturecausesagrea 62 increasein volumeandbecause thereishigher pressure at the diffuser, the gas exits through the turbine section.The temperature of the gas rises rapidlyasit passes fromthe front tothe rear of the combustion section. It reaches its highest point in the engine at the turbineinlet.This turbine inlet temperature(TIT)isusuallythelimitingfactorintheengineoperation.Inmanyengines, TITismeasuredindirectlyasexhaustgastemperature(EGT).Themaximumturbineinlet temperatureisamajorlimitationon turbojet performance,andwithout cooling,itcouldeasily reach up to 4 000 op, far beyond the limits of the materials used in the turbine section. To keep the temperature down to an acceptable 1 100 "Fto 1 500 "F, surplus cooling air fromthe compressor is mixed aft of the burners. The purpose of the turbine (s) is to drive thecompressor (s) and they are connected by a drive shaft. Since the turbines take energy fromthe gas, both the temperature and pressure drop. The gases exit the turbine section at very high velocity into the tailpipe. The tailpipe is shaped so that the gas is accelerated even more, reaching maximum velocity asit exits into the atmosphere (see Figure 4-1below). I o:s.. F>J""I' t aJ He,..,. Figure 4-1Turbojet Engine Combinationsof slowairspeedandhighengineRPMcancauseaphenomenoninturbine engines called compressor stall. This occurswhen theangle of attack of theengine'scompressor blades becomes excessiveandtheystall. If a transient stall condition exists, the pilot will hear an intermittent"bang"asbackfiresandflowreversals inthecompressor takeplace.If thetransient conditiondevelopsintoasteadystatestall,the pilotwillhear aloudroar andexperiencesevere engine vibrations. The steady state compressor stall has the most potential for severe engine damage, which can occur literally within seconds of the onset ofthe stall. If acompressorstalloccursinflight,thepilot should reducefuelflow,reduce theaircraft's angleof attackandincreaseairspeed.Thatmeans,recoverymustbeaccomplishedquicklyby reducing throttle setting, lowering the airplane angle of attack, and increasing airspeed. Theturbopropisaturbineenginethat drivesaconventionalpropeller.It candevelopmuch more power per pound than can a piston engine and is more fuel efficient than the turbojet engine. Compared to a turbojet engine, it is limited to slower speeds andlower altitudes (25000 feet to the tropopause).Thetermequivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP) isused todescribe thetotalengine 63 output This term combinesits output in shaft horsepower (used todrive the propeller) andthe jet thrust it develops. Asthe density altitude is increased,engine performance will decrease.When the air becomes less dense,thereisnot as much oxygen available for combustion andthe potential thrust output is decreasedaccordingly.Densityaltitudeisincreasedbyincreasingthepressurealtitudeorby increasingtheambienttemperature.Relativehumiditywillalsoaffectengineperformance. Reciprocating enginesin particular will experiencea significant loss of brake horsepower (BHP). Turbine engines arenot affected asmuch by high humidity andwill experience verylittleloss of thrust. SECTION8TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE All conventional aircraft flights start at the point of departure with a take-off. In this phase, the aircraftistransferredfromitsstationary,ground-borne,stateintoasafeairbornestate.Sincethe maneuver takes place in close proximity to the ground, and at low airspeed, there is relatively high risk to the safety of the aircraft. The maneuver must be carried out in a manner that will reduce the risk of an incident occurring to an acceptably low level of probability. Intheconventionaltake-off maneuver,theaircraftisacceleratedalongtherunwayuntilit reaches a speed at which it can generate sufficient aerodynamic lift toovercomeits weight It can then lift off the runway and start its climb. During the take-off, consideration is given to the need to ensure that the aircraft can be controlled safely and the distances required for the maneuvers donot exceed those available. In this section,wewill discusstake-off performance terminology,which mainlyincludes the definitions of somedistances and airspeeds,andthe methods to calculate "V'' speeds andtake-off power. TAKE-OFFPERFORMANCETERMINOLOGY Thespaceavailablefortake-off islimitedbythedimensionsof therunwayandthearea beyond the runway in the take-off direction. The runway is defined as a rectangular area of ground suitablypreparedforan aircrafttotakeoff or land.At theendof therunway,theremaybea stopway or clearway. Clearway- a plane beyond the end of a runway which does not contain obstructions and can beconsideredwhencalculatingtake-offperformanceofturbine-poweredtransportcategory airplanes.Thefirstsegmentof thetake-off of aturbine-poweredairplaneisconsidered complete whenit reachesa height of 35feet above the runwayandhas achievedV2 speed (take-off safety speed). Clearway may be used for the climb to "35feet (see Figure 4-2). For turbine-powered airplanes, a clearwayis anarea beyond the end of the runway,centrally 64 locatedabouttheextendedcenterlineandunderthecontrolof theairportauthorities.Clearway distance may be usedin the calculation of take-off distance. Stopway -an area designated for use in decelerating an aborted take-off. It cannot be used as apartof thetake-off distancebut canbeconsideredaspartof theaccelerate-stopdistance(see Figure 4-2 below). Figure 4-lTake-off Runway Definitions A stopway is an area beyond the take-off runway,not anyless wide than the runway, centered upontheextendedcenterlineof therunway,andabletosupporttheairplaneduringanaborted take-off. Regulationrequiresthat a transport category airplane's take-off weight be such that, if at any timeduringthetake-off runthecriticalenginefails,theairplanecaneitherbestoppedonthe runwayandstopwayremaining,orthatitcansafelycontinuethetake-off.Thismeansthata maximumtake-offweightmustbecomputedforeachtake-off.Factorsthatdeterminethe maximumtake-off weightforanairplaneincluderunwaylength,wind,flapposition,runway braking action, pressure altitude and temperature. In additionto the runway-limited take-off weight,eachtake-off requiresacomputationof a climb-limited take-off weight that will guarantee acceptable climb performance after take-off with an engineinoperative.Theclimb-limitedtake-off weightisdeterminedbyflapposition,pressure altitude and temperature. Whentherunway-limitedandclimb-limitedtake-offweightsaredetermined,theyare comparedtothemaximum structural take-off weight. The lowest of thethree weights is thelimit that must be observed for the take-off. If the airplane's actt;al weight is at or below the lowest of the three limits, adequate take-off performance is ensured. If the actual weight is above any of the limits a take-off cannot bemadeuntil the weight is reducedor one or more limiting factors(runway, flap setting, etc.) is changed to raise the limiting weight After the maximum take-off weight is computed and it is determined that the airplane's actual weightiswithinthelimits,thenV1 (take-off decisionspeed),VR(rotationspeed)andV2 are computed.Thesetake-offspeedlimitsare contained inperformance charts and tables of the airplaneflightmanual,andareobservedonthe captain'sairspeedindicator.Bydefinitionthey are indicated airspeeds (see Figure 4-3). Figure 4-3Take-off Speeds When the aircraft starts the take-off at rest on the runway,take-off thrust is set andthebrakes 65 released.The excess thrustacceleratestheaircraft along the runwayand,initially,thedirectional control needed to maintain heading along the runway would be provided by the nose-wheel steering Thisisbecausetheruddercannotprovidesufficientaerodynamicyawingmomenttogive directionalcontrolatverylowairspeeds.Astheairspeedincreasestherudderwillgain effectiveness andwill take over directional control fromthe nose-wheel steering. However, should an engine fail during the take-off run the yawing moment produced by the asymmetric loss of thrust will havetobeopposed bya yawing moment producedby therudder. Therewillbe an airspeed below which the rudder will not be capable of producing a yawing moment large enough to provide directionalcontrolwithoutassistancefromeitherbrakesor nose-wheelsteeringor a reducingin thrust on another engine. This airspeed is known as the Min.imum Control Speed, Ground, VMcG If an engine failure occurs before this airspeed is reached, the take-off run must be abandoned. During the ground run thenose wheel of the aircraft isheld on therunway tokeepthepitch attitude, and hence the angle of attack in the ground run,ag, is low.This will keep the lift produced bythewingtoasmallvaluesothat thelift-dependentdragisminimizedandtheexcessthrust available for acceleration is maximized. As the aircraft continues to accelerate, it will approach the lift-off speed,Vwy,at which it can generate enough lift to become airborne. Just before the lift-off speedisreached,theaircraft isrotatedinto a nose-up attitude equal to thelift-off angle of attack. The rotation speed,VR..must allow time for the aircraft torotate into the lift-off attitudebefore the lift-off airspeedandbecomesairborne;thisisthe endof the groundrun distance,S0.Thelift-off speedmust allowa sufficient marginover thestallingspeed to avoidaninadvertent stall,anda consequentlossof heightThismaybecausedbyturbulenceintheatmosphereor anylossof airspeed during the maneuvering of the aircraft after the lift-off.The lift-off speed will usuallybe takentobenotlessthan1.2Vs1,whereVs1 isthestallingspeedof theaircraftinthetake-off configuration. This will give a lift coefficient at lift-off of about 0.7 Ctmaxand provide an adequate marginof safetyoverthestall.If theaircraftisover-rotatedto agreaterangleof attackatthe rotation speed then lift-off can occur too soon and the aircraft start the climb at too low an airspeed. This can occur if, for example, the elevator trim control is set incorrectly or turbulence produces an unexpectednose-uppitchingmoment.Theminimumspeedatwhichtheaircraftcanbecome airborne is known as the minimum unstuck speed, VMu It occurs when extreme overrotation pitches the aircraft up to the geometry limited angle of attack with the tail of the aircraft in contact with the runway. Tests are usually required to measure the take-off performance in this condition. During thetake-off run,shouldanenginefailbetweentheminimum controlspeed(ground) and the rotation speed, the decision either to abandon or continue the take-off will have tobemade. Thisdecisionisbasedonthedistancesrequiredeithertostoptheaircraftortocontinueto acceleratetothelift-offspeedwithoneengineinoperative.Therewillbeapointduringthe accelerationalong the runwayatwhich thedistancesrequiredbythetwo options are equal.This pointisrecognizedbytheindicatedspeedof theaircraft andisknownasthetake-otT decision speed,V1 The decision speed also determines the minimum safelength of runway fromwhich the aircraftcan takeoff.If anenginefailsbeforethedecisionspeedisreachedthenthetake-off is 66 abandoned, otherwise the take--off must be continued. Oncethelift-off hasbeenachievedtheaircraftmustbeacceleratedtothetak&-e>ff safety speed (V1). This is the airspeed at which both asafe climb gradient and directional control can be achievedin thecaseof anengine failureintheairbornestate;thisphaseof thetake-off pathis known as the transition. The ability to maintain directional control in the climb is determined by the Minimum Control Speed, Airborne, VMcAThe minimum control speed, airborne, will be greater than theminimumcontrolspeed,ground,VMcG,sincetheaircraftisnot restrainedinrollbythe contact between the landing gear and the runway. In the event of an engine failure in the climb, the aircraft willdepart in yaw,which willcausethe aircraft to rolland enter aspiral diveif the yaw cannot be controlled. The take-off iscompletewhen theLowest part of the aircraft clearsa screen height of 35ft above the extended take-off surface. The distancebetween the lift-off point and the point at which the screen height is cleared is known as the airborne distance, SA. The total take-off distancerequiredwill be thesum of theground run distance,So,and the airborne distance, SA.Toensure that the take-off is performed safely, the take-off distances will be suitablyfactoredtoallowforstatisticalvariationin thetake-offperformanceof theindividual aircraft and in the ambient conditions. V1 (tak&-e>ffdecisionspeed)isthespeedduringthetake-offatwhichtheairplanecan experience a failure of the critical engine and the pilot can abort the take-off and come to a full safe stopontherunwayandstopwayremaining,or thepilotcancontinuethetake-off safely.If an engine fails at a speed less than Vhthe pilot must abort; if the failure occurs at a speed above VI>the pilot must continue the take-off. The take-off decision speed, VI>is the calibrated airspeed on the ground at which, as a result of enginefailureorotherreasons,thepilotisassumedtohavemadeadecisiontocontinueor discontinue the take-off.V1 is alsothe speedat which the airplane can be rotated fortake-off and shown to be adequate to safely continue the take-off, using normal piloting skill, when the critical engine issuddenly madeinoperative.VEFis thecalibratedairspeedat which the criticalengineis assumed to fail.VEFmust be selected by the applicant but must not be less than 1.05VMcor, at the option of the applicant, not less than VMcG It is important to know that the critical engine failure speed is an obsolete term forV1 which is now called take-off decision speed. Va(rotation speed) is the lAS at which the aircraft is rotated toits take-off attitudewith or without an engine failure.VRis at or just above V1 V1 (tak&-e>ff safety speed) ensures that the airplane can maintain an acceptable climb gradient with the critical engine inoperative. VMv(minimum unstick speed) is the minimum speed at which the airplane may be flown off the runwaywithout atailstrike.This speedisdeterminedbymanufacturer's tests andestablishes minimumV1 and VRspeeds.The flight crew does not normally compute theVMUspeed separately. (see Figure 4-3). V1 iscomputedusingtheactualairplanegrossweight,flapsetting.pressurealtitudeand 67 temperature.Raisingthepressurealtitude,temperatureorgrossweightwillallincreasethe computedV1 speed. Lowering any of those variables will lower the V1 speed. Awindwillchangethetake-off distance.Aheadwindwilldecreaseitandatailwindwill increase it While a headwind or tailwind component does affect the runway limited take-off weight, i