B. R. Ambedkar

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar ([bʱiːmraːw raːmdʑiː aːm-beːɽkər]; 14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularlyknown as Babasaheb, was an Indian jurist, economist,politician and social reformer who inspired the ModernBuddhist Movement and campaigned against social dis-crimination against Untouchables (Dalits), while also sup-porting the rights of women and labour. He was Indepen-dent India’s first law minister and the principal architectof the Constitution of India.[4][5][6][7]

Ambedkar was a prolific student, earning a law degreeand various doctorates from Columbia University and theLondon School of Economics, and gained a reputationas a scholar for his research in law, economics and po-litical science. In his early career he was an economist,professor, and lawyer. His later life wasmarked by his po-litical activities; he became involved in campaigning andnegotiations for India’s independence, publishing jour-nals advocating political rights and social freedom forDalits, and contributing significantly to the establishmentof the state of India. In 1956 he converted to Buddhism,initiating mass conversions of Dalits.[8][9][10][11]

In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civil-ian award, was posthumously conferred uponAmbedkar.[12][13][14][15] Ambedkar’s legacy includesnumerous memorials and depictions in popular culture.

1 Early life and education

Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town andmilitary cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces(now in Madhya Pradesh).[16] He was the 14th andlast child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, a ranked army of-ficer at the post of Subedar and Bhimabai Murbad-kar Sakpal.[17] His family was of Marathi backgroundfrom the town of Ambavade (Mandangad taluka) inRatnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra. Ambed-kar was born into a poor low Mahar (dalit) caste, whowere treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination.[18] Ambedkar’s ancestors hadlong worked for the army of the British East India Com-pany, and his father served in the British Indian Armyat the Mhow cantonment.[19] Although they attendedschool, Ambedkar and other untouchable children weresegregated and given little attention or help by teachers.They were not allowed to sit inside the class. When theyneeded to drink water, someone from a higher caste hadto pour that water from a height as they were not allowedto touch either the water or the vessel that contained it.

This task was usually performed for the young Ambed-kar by the school peon, and if the peon was not availablethen he had to go without water; the situation he later inhis writings described as “No peon, NoWater”.[20] He wasrequired to sit on a gunny sack which he had to take homewith him.[21]

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the family moved toSatara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambed-kar’s mother died. The children were cared for by theirpaternal aunt, and lived in difficult circumstances. Threesons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daugh-ters – Manjula and Tulasa – of the Ambedkars wouldgo on to survive them. Of his brothers and sisters, onlyAmbedkar passed his examinations and graduated to highschool. His original surname Ambavadekar comes fromhis native village 'Ambavade' in Ratnagiri district.[22] HisBrahmin teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond ofhim, changed his surname from 'Ambavadekar' to hisown surname 'Ambedkar' in school records.[22]

2 Higher education

2.1 Matriculation

In 1897, Ambedkar’s family moved to Bombay whereAmbedkar became the only untouchable enrolled atElphinstone High School. In 1906, his marriage to a nine-year-old girl, Ramabai, was arranged.[2]

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and inthe following year he entered Elphinstone College, whichwas affiliated to the University of Bombay, becoming thefirst untouchable to do so. This success provoked celebra-tions among untouchables and after a public ceremony, hewas presented with a biography of the Buddha by DadaKeluskar, the author and a family friend.[2]

2.2 Degree in Economics and Political sci-ence

By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and po-litical science from Bombay University, and prepared totake up employment with the Baroda state government.His wife, by then 15 years old, had just moved his youngfamily and started work, when he had to quickly return toMumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February1913.[23]

1

2 3 OPPOSITION TO UNTOUCHABILITY

Ambedkar as a student.

2.3 Postgraduation in Economics,Columbia University

In 1913, he moved to the United States. He had beenawarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (Sterling)per month for three years under a scheme established bySayajirao Gaekwad III (Gaekwad of Baroda) that was de-signed to provide opportunities for postgraduate educa-tion at Columbia University in New York City. Soon af-ter arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hallwith Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who was to be a lifelongfriend. He passed his M.A. exam in June 1915, majoringin Economics, and other subjects of Sociology, History,Philosophy and Anthropology. he presented a thesis, An-cient Indian Commerce.

2.4 Economics, Columbia University

In 1916 he completed his second thesis, National Divi-dend of India-A Historic and Analytical Study for anotherM.A., and finally he received his PhD in Economics in1927[24] for his third thesis, after he left for London. On 9May, he read his paper Castes in India: Their Mechanism,Genesis and Development before a seminar conducted bythe anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser.

2.5 London School of Economics

In October 1916, he enrolled for the Bar course at Gray’sInn, and at the same time enrolled at the London School

of Economics where he started working on a doctoral the-sis. In June 1917, he returned to India because his schol-arship from Baroda ended. His book collection was dis-patched on different ship from the one he was on, and thatship was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine.[23]He got permission to return to London to submit his the-sis within four years. He returned at the first opportu-nity, and completed a master’s degree in 1921. His the-sis was on the “The problem of the rupee: Its origin andits solution”.[25] In 1923, he completed a Doctorate inEconomics, and the same year he was called to the Barby Gray’s Inn. His third and fourth Doctorates (Ll.D,Columbia, 1952 and Ll.D., Osmania, 1953) were con-ferred honoris causa.

3 Opposition to untouchability

Ambedkar as a barrister in 1922

As Ambedkar was educated by the Princely State of Bar-oda, he was bound to serve it. He was appointed MilitarySecretary to the Gaikwad but had to quit in a short time.He described the incident in his autobiography, Waitingfor a Visa.[20] Thereafter, he tried to find ways to make aliving for his growing family. He worked as a private tu-tor, as an accountant, and established an investment con-sulting business, but it failed when his clients learned thathe was an untouchable.[26] In 1918, he became Professorof Political Economy in the Sydenham College of Com-merce and Economics in Mumbai. Although he was suc-

3

cessful with the students, other professors objected to hissharing a drinking-water jug with them.[27]

Ambedkar had been invited to testify before theSouthborough Committee, which was preparing theGovernment of India Act 1919. At this hearing,Ambedkar argued for creating separate electoratesand reservations for untouchables and other religiouscommunities.[28] In 1920, he began the publication ofthe weekly Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in Mum-bai with the help of Shahaji II (1874–1922), Maharaja ofKolhapur.[29]

Ambedkar went on to work as a legal professional. In1926, he successfully defended three non-Brahmin lead-ers who had accused the Brahmin community of ru-ining India and were then subsequently sued for libel.Dhananjay Keer notes that “The victory was resound-ing, both socially and individually, for the clients and theDoctor”.[30]

4 Protests

While practising law in the Bombay High Court, he triedto promote education to untouchables and uplift them.His first organised attempt was his establishment of thecentral institution Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, intendedto promote education and socio-economic improvement,as well as the welfare of "outcastes", at the time referredto as depressed classes.[31] For the defense of Dalit rights,he started many periodicals like Mook Nayak, BahishkritBharat, and Equality Janta.[32]

He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Commit-tee to work with the all-European Simon Commissionin 1925.[33] This commission had sparked great protestsacross India, and while its report was ignored by mostIndians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of rec-ommendations for the future Constitution of India.[34]

By 1927, Ambedkar had decided to launch active move-ments against untouchability. He began with publicmovements and marches to open up public drinking wa-ter resources. He also began a struggle for the right to en-ter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fightfor the right of the untouchable community to draw waterfrom the main water tank of the town.[35] In a conferencein late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classicHindu text, theManusmriti (Laws ofManu), for ideologi-cally justifying caste discrimination and “untouchability”,and he ceremonially burned copies of the ancient text.On 25 December 1927, he led thousands of followers toburn copies of Manusmrti.[36][37] Thus annually 25 De-cember is celebrated asManusmriti DahanDin (Manusm-riti Burning Day) by Ambedkarites and Dalits.[38][39]

In 1930, Ambedkar launched Kalaram Temple move-ment after three months of preparation. About 15,000volunteers assembled at Kalaram Temple satygraha mak-ing one of the greatest processions of Nashik. The pro-

cession was headed by a military band, a batch of scouts,women and men walked in discipline, order and determi-nation to see the god for the first time. When they reachedto gate, the gates were closed by Brahmin authorities.[40]

5 Poona Pact

In 1932, British announced the formation of a sepa-rate electorate for “Depressed Classes” in the CommunalAward. Gandhi fiercely opposed a separate electorate foruntouchables, saying he feared that such an arrangementwould divide the Hindu community.[41][42][43] Gandhiprotested by fasting while imprisoned in the YerwadaCentral Jail of Poona. Following the fast, Congress politi-cians and activists such as Madan Mohan Malaviya andPalwankar Baloo organised joint meetings with Ambed-kar and his supporters at Yerwada.[44] On 25 September1932, the agreement known as Poona Pact was signedbetween Ambedkar (on behalf of the depressed classesamong Hindus) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalfof the other Hindus). The agreement gave reserved seatsfor the depressed classes in the Provisional legislatures,within the general electorate. Due to the pact, the de-pressed class received 148 seats in the legislature, insteadof the 71 as allocated in the Communal Award earlier pro-posed by the British PrimeMinister RamsayMacDonald.The text uses the term “Depressed Classes” to denote Un-touchables among Hindus who were later called Sched-uled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act 1935,and the later Indian Constitution of 1950.[45][46]

6 Political career

In 1935, Ambedkar was appointed principal of theGovernment Law College, Bombay, a position he heldfor two years. He also served as the chairman of Govern-ing body of Ramjas College,University of Delhi, after thedeath of its Founder Shri Rai Kedarnath.[47] Settling inBombay (today called Mumbai), Ambedkar oversaw theconstruction of a house, and stocked his personal librarywith more than 50,000 books.[48] His wife Ramabai diedafter a long illness the same year. It had been her long-standing wish to go on a pilgrimage to Pandharpur, butAmbedkar had refused to let her go, telling her that hewould create a new Pandharpur for her instead of Hin-duism’s Pandharpur which treated them as untouchables.At the Yeola Conversion Conference on 13 October inNasik, Ambedkar announced his intention to convert toa different religion and exhorted his followers to leaveHinduism.[48] He would repeat his message at many pub-lic meetings across India.In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent LabourParty, which contested the 1937 Bombay election to theCentral Legislative Assembly for the 13 reserved and 4general seats, and secured 11 and 3 seats respectively.[49]

4 7 DRAFTING INDIA’S CONSTITUTION

Ambedkar published his bookAnnihilation of Caste in thesame year. It strongly criticised Hindu orthodox religiousleaders and the caste system in general,[50] and included“a rebuke of Gandhi” on the subject.[51]

Ambedkar served on the Defence AdvisoryCommittee[52] and the Viceroy’s Executive Councilas minister for labour.[52]

In his work Who Were the Shudras?, Ambedkar tried toexplain the formation of untouchables. He saw Shudrasand Ati Shudras who form the lowest caste in the ritualhierarchy of the caste system, as separate from Untouch-ables. Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his polit-ical party into the Scheduled Castes Federation, althoughit performed poorly in the 1946 elections for ConstituentAssembly of India. Later he was elected into the con-stituent assembly of Bengal where Muslim League wasin power.[53]

Ambedkar contested in the Bombay North first IndianGeneral Election of 1952, but lost to his former assis-tant and Congress Party candidate Narayan Kajrolkar.Ambedkar became a member of Rajya Sabha, probablyan appointed member. He tried to enter Lok Sabha againin the by-election of 1954 from Bhandara, but he placedthird (the Congress Party won). By the time of the secondgeneral election in 1957, Ambedkar had died.Ambedkar also criticised Islamic practice in South Asia.While justifying the Partition of India, he condemnedchild marriage and the mistreatment of women inMuslimsociety.

No words can adequately express the greatand many evils of polygamy and concubinage,and especially as a source of misery to a Mus-lim woman. Take the caste system. Every-body infers that Islam must be free from slav-ery and caste. [...] [While slavery existed],much of its support was derived from Islamand Islamic countries. While the prescriptionsby the Prophet regarding the just and humanetreatment of slaves contained in the Koran arepraiseworthy, there is nothing whatever in Is-lam that lends support to the abolition of thiscurse. But if slavery has gone, caste amongMusalmans [Muslims] has remained.[54]

7 Drafting India’s Constitution

Upon India’s independence on 15 August 1947, the newCongress-led government invited Ambedkar to serve asthe nation’s first LawMinister, which he accepted. On 29August, he was appointed Chairman of the ConstitutionDrafting Committee, charged by the Assembly to writeIndia’s new Constitution.[55]

Granville Austin described the Indian Constitutiondrafted by Ambedkar as 'first and foremost a social doc-

People paying tribute at the central statue of Babasaheb Ambed-kar in Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University inAurangabad.

ument'. ... 'The majority of India’s constitutional provi-sions are either directly arrived at furthering the aim ofsocial revolution or attempt to foster this revolution byestablishing conditions necessary for its achievement.'[56]

The text prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutionalguarantees and protections for a wide range of civil liber-ties for individual citizens, including freedom of religion,the abolition of untouchability, and the outlawing of allforms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for extensiveeconomic and social rights for women, and won the As-sembly’s support for introducing a system of reservationsof jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges formembers of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes andOther Backward Class, a system akin to affirmative ac-tion.[57] India’s lawmakers hoped to eradicate the socio-economic inequalities and lack of opportunities for In-dia’s depressed classes through these measures.[58] TheConstitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 by theConstituent Assembly.[59]

Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet in 1951, when par-liament stalled his draft of the Hindu Code Bill, whichsought to enshrine gender equality in the laws of inher-itance and marriage.[60] Ambedkar independently con-

8.1 Reserve Bank of India 5

tested an election in 1952 to the lower house of parlia-ment, the Lok Sabha, but was defeated in the Bombay(North Central) constituency by a little-known NarayanSadoba Kajrolkar, who polled 138,137 votes comparedto Ambedkar’s 123,576.[61][62][63] He was appointed tothe upper house, of parliament, the Rajya Sabha inMarch1952 and would remain as member till death.[64]

7.1 Opposition to Article 370

Ambedkar opposed Article 370 of the Constitution of In-dia, which granted a special status to the State of Jammuand Kashmir, and which was included against his wishes.Balraj Madhok reportedly said, Ambedkar had clearlytold Sk. Abdullah: “You wish India should protect yourborders, she should build roads in your area, she shouldsupply you food grains, and Kashmir should get equal sta-tus as India. But Government of India should have onlylimited powers and Indian people should have no rightsin Kashmir. To give consent to this proposal, would bea treacherous thing against the interests of India and I,as the Law Minister of India, will never do it.” Then Sk.Abdullah approached Nehru, who directed him to GopalSwami Ayyangar, who in turn approached Sardar Patel,saying Nerhu had promised Sk. Abdullah the special sta-tus. Patel got the Article passed while Nehru was on aforeign tour. On the day the article came up for discus-sion, Ambedkar did not reply to questions on it but didparticipate on other articles. All arguments were done byKrishna Swami Ayyangar.[65][66][67]

8 Economic planning

Ambedkar was the first Indian to pursue an doctoratein economics abroad.[68] He argued that industrializa-tion and agricultural growth could enhance the Indianeconomy.[69] He stressed investment in agriculture as theprimary industry of India.[70] According to Sharad Pawar,Ambedkar’s vision helped the government to achieve itsfood security goal.[71] Ambedkar advocated national eco-nomic and social development, stressing education, pub-lic hygiene, community health, residential facilities asthe basic amenities.[69] His DSc thesis “The problemsof Ruppee, its origin and solution (1923)" examines thecauses for the Rupee’s fall in value.[70] He proved the im-portance of price stability over exchange stability. Heanalysed the silver and gold exchange rates and their ef-fect on the economy, and found the reasons for the fail-ure of British India’s public treasury.[70] He calculated theloss of development caused by British rule.[72]

In 1951, Ambedkar established the Finance Commis-sion of India. He opposed income tax for low-incomegroups. He contributed in Land Revenue Tax and ex-cise duty policies to stabilise the economy.[70] He playedan important role in land reform and the state economic

development.[73] According to him, the caste system di-vided labourors and impeded economic progress. He em-phasised a free economy with a stable Rupee which Indiahas adopted recently.[70] He advocated birth control todevelop the Indian economy, and this has been adoptedby Indian government as national policy for family plan-ning. He emphasised equal rights for women for eco-nomic development.[70] He laid the foundation of indus-trial relations after Indian independence.[73]

8.1 Reserve Bank of India

Ambedkar was trained as an economist, and was a profes-sional economist until 1921, when he became a politicalleader. He wrote three scholarly books on economics:

• Administration and Finance of the East India Com-pany

• The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India

• The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and ItsSolution[74][75][76]

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), was based on theideas that Ambedkar presented to the Hilton YoungCommission.[74][76][77][78]

9 Second marriage

Ambedkar’s first wife Ramabai died in 1935 after a longillness. After completing the draft of India’s constitu-tion in the late 1940s, he suffered from lack of sleep,had neuropathic pain in his legs, and was taking insulinand homeopathic medicines. He went to Bombay fortreatment, and there met Dr. Sharada Kabir, a Brahmin,whom he married on 15 April 1948, at his home in NewDelhi. Doctors recommended a companion who was agood cook and hadmedical knowledge to care for him.[79]She adopted the name Savita Ambedkar and cared forhim the rest of his life.[3]

10 Conversion to Buddhism

Ambedkar considered converting to Sikhism, which en-couraged opposition to oppression and so appealed toleaders of scheduled castes. But after meeting with Sikhleaders, he concluded that he might get “second-rate”Sikh status, as described by scholar Stephen P. Cohen.[80]

Instead, he studied Buddhism all his life. Around 1950,he devoted his attention to Buddhism and travelled toCeylon (now Sri Lanka) to attend a meeting of the WorldFellowship of Buddhists.[81]While dedicating a new Bud-dhist vihara near Pune, Ambedkar announced he was

6 11 DEATH

Dikshabhumi, a stupa at the site in Nagpur, where Ambedkarembraced Buddhism along with many of his followers

writing a book on Buddhism, and that when it was fin-ished, he would formally convert to Buddhism.[82] Hetwice visited Burma in 1954; the second time to attendthe third conference of the World Fellowship of Bud-dhists in Rangoon.[83] In 1955, he founded the BharatiyaBauddha Mahasabha, or the Buddhist Society of In-dia.[84] He completed his final work, The Buddha and HisDhamma, in 1956which was published posthumously.[84]

After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monkHammalawa Saddhatissa,[85] Ambedkar organised a for-mal public ceremony for himself and his supporters inNagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the ThreeRefuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in thetraditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own con-version, along with his wife. He then proceeded to con-vert some 500,000 of his supporters who were gatheredaround him.[82][86] He prescribed the 22 Vows for theseconverts, after the Three Jewels and Five Precepts. Hethen traveled to Kathmandu, Nepal to attend the FourthWorld Buddhist Conference.[83] His work on The Buddhaor Karl Marx and “Revolution and counter-revolution inancient India” remained incomplete.[87]

11 Death

Since 1948, Ambedkar suffered from diabetes. He wasbed-ridden from June to October in 1954 due to medi-cation side-effects and poor eyesight.[82] He had been in-creasingly embittered by political issues, which took a tollon his health. His health worsened during 1955. Threedays after completing his final manuscript The Buddhaand His Dhamma, Ambedkar died in his sleep on 6 De-cember 1956 at his home in Delhi.A Buddhist cremation[88] was organised at DadarChowpatty beach on 7 December,[89] attended by halfa million grieving people.[90] A conversion program wasorganised on 16 December 1956,[91] so that cremationattendees were also converted to Buddhism at the sameplace.[91]

Annal Ambedkar Manimandapam, Chennai

Bust of Ambedkar at Ambedkar Museum in Pune

Ambedkar was survived by his second wife, who diedin 2003,[92] and his son Yashwant (known as Bhaiyasa-heb Ambedkar).[93] Ambedkar’s grandson, AmbedkarPrakash Yashwant, is the chief-adviser of the BuddhistSociety of India,[94] leads the Bharipa Bahujan Ma-hasangh[95] and has served in both houses of the IndianParliament.[95]

A number of unfinished typescripts and handwrittendrafts were found among Ambedkar’s notes and papersand gradually made available. Among these were Wait-ing for a Visa, which probably dates from 1935–36 andis an autobiographical work, and theUntouchables, or theChildren of India’s Ghetto, which refers to the census of1951.[82]

7

A memorial for Ambedkar was established in his Delhihouse at 26 Alipur Road. His birthdate is celebrated asa public holiday known as Ambedkar Jayanti or BhimJayanti. He was posthumously awarded India’s highestcivilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 1990.[96]

On the anniversary of his birth and death, and onDhamma Chakra Pravartan Din (14 October) at Nagpur,at least half a million people gather to pay homage to himat his memorial in Mumbai.[97] Thousands of bookshopsare set up, and books are sold. His message to his follow-ers was “educate, organise, agitate!".[98]

12 Legacy

A bookseller in Chaitya Bhoomi peddles Buddhist calendars andbooks by Ambedkar

Ambedkar’s legacy as a socio-political reformer,had a deep effect on modern India.[99][100] In post-Independence India, his socio-political thought isrespected across the political spectrum. His initiativeshave influenced various spheres of life and transformedthe way India today looks at socio-economic policies,education and affirmative action through socio-economicand legal incentives. His reputation as a scholar led tohis appointment as free India’s first law minister, andchairman of the committee for drafting the constitution.He passionately believed in individual freedom andcriticised caste society. His accusations of Hinduismas being the foundation of the caste system made himcontroversial and unpopular among Hindus.[101] His

conversion to Buddhism sparked a revival in interest inBuddhist philosophy in India and abroad.[102]

Many public institutions are named in his honour, andthe Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport inNagpur, otherwise known as Sonegaon Airport. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandharis also named in his honour. A large official portrait ofAmbedkar is on display in the Indian Parliament building.Ambedkar was voted the “Greatest Indian” in 2012 by apoll organised by History TV18 and CNN IBN. Nearly20 million votes were cast, making him the most popu-lar Indian figure since the launch of the initiative.[103][104]Due to his role in economics, Narendra Jadhav, a no-table Indian economist,[105] has said that Ambedkar was“the highest educated Indian economist of all times.”[106]Amartya Sen, said that Ambedkar is “father of my eco-nomics”, and “he was highly controversial figure in hishome country, though it was not the reality. His contri-bution in the field of economics is marvelous and will beremembered forever.”[107][108] Osho, a spiritual teacher,remarked “I have seen people who are born in the low-est category of Hindu law, the sudras, the untouchables,so intelligent: when India became independent, the manwho made the constitution of India, Dr. BabasahebAmbedkar, was a sudra. There was no equal to his intelli-gence as far as law is concerned – he was a world-famousauthority.” [109] President Obama addressed the Indianparliament in 2010, and referred to Dalit leader Dr. B.R.Ambedkar as the great and revered Human Rights cham-pion and main author of India’s constitution.[110]

Ambedkar’s political philosophy has given rise to a largenumber of political parties, publications and workers’unions that remain active across India, especially inMaharashtra. His promotion of Buddhism has rejuve-nated interest in Buddhist philosophy among sections ofpopulation in India. Mass conversion ceremonies havebeen organised by human rights activists in modern times,emulating Ambedkar’s Nagpur ceremony of 1956.[111]some Indian Buddhists regard him as a Bodhisattva, al-though he never claimed it himself.[112] Outside India,during the late 1990s, some Hungarian Romani peopledrew parallels between their own situation and that ofthe downtrodden people in India. Inspired by Ambedkar,they started to convert to Buddhism.[113]

13 In popular culture

Several movies, plays, and other works have been basedon the life and thoughts of Ambedkar. Jabbar Patel di-rected the English-language film Dr. Babasaheb Ambed-kar in 2000 withMammootty in the lead role. This biopicwas sponsored by the National Film Development Cor-poration of India and the government’s Ministry of So-cial Justice and Empowerment. The film was releasedafter a long and controversial gestation.[114] David Blun-

8 16 REFERENCES

dell, professor of anthropology at UCLA and historicalethnographer, has established Arising Light – a series offilms and events that are intended to stimulate interestand knowledge about the social conditions in India andthe life of Ambedkar.[115] In Samvidhaan,[116] a TVmini-series on the making of the Constitution of India directedby Shyam Benegal, the pivotal role of B. R. Ambedkarwas played by Sachin Khedekar. The play AmbedkarAur Gandhi, directed by Arvind Gaur and written by Ra-jesh Kumar, tracks the two prominent personalities of itstitle.[117]

Graphic novel Bhimayana: Experiences of Untouchabil-ity by Prabhakar Joshi narrates episodes of the life ofAmbedkar. It is in Pardhan-Gond Sanskrit style, com-prises 1,577 shlokas and is intended as an atonementfor the injustice done to the young Bhimrao by someteachers.[118] CNN named it one of the top 5 politicalgraphic novels.[119]

The Ambedkar Memorial at Lucknow is dedicated in hismemory. The chaitya consists of monuments showing hisbiography.[120][121]

Google commemorated Ambedkar’s 124th birth-day through a homepage doodle[122] on 14 April2015.[123] The doodle was featured in India, Argentina,Chile, Ireland, Peru, Poland, Sweden and the UnitedKingdom.[124][125][126]

14 Writings and speeches

The Education Department, Government of Maharashtra(Mumbai) published the collection of Ambedkar’s writ-ings and speeches in different volumes.[127]

• Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and De-velopment and 11 Other Essays

• Ambedkar in the Bombay Legislature, with the SimonCommission and at the Round Table Conferences,1927–1939

• Philosophy of Hinduism; India and the Pre-requisitesof Communism; Revolution and Counter-revolution;Buddha or Karl Marx

• Riddles in Hinduism[128]

• Essays on Untouchables and Untouchability

• The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India

• Who Were the Shudras?

• The Untouchables Who Were They And Why TheyBecame Untouchables ?

• The Annihilation of Caste (1936) (The 2014 anno-tated edition, published by Navayana in India, andVerso in North America, has an extended introduc-tion by Arundhati Roy)

• Pakistan or the Partition of India

• What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Un-touchables; Mr. Gandhi and the Emancipation ofthe Untouchables

• Ambedkar as member of the Governor General’sExecutive Council, 1942–46

• The Buddha and his Dhamma

• Unpublished Writings; Ancient Indian Commerce;Notes on laws; Waiting for a Visa ; Miscellaneousnotes, etc.

• Ambedkar as the principal architect of the Consti-tution of India

• (2 parts) Dr. Ambedkar and The Hindu Code Bill

• Ambedkar as Free India’s First Law Minister andMember of Opposition in Indian Parliament (1947–1956)

• The Pali Grammar

• Ambedkar and his Egalitarian Revolution – Strug-gle for Human Rights. Events starting from March1927 to 17 November 1956 in the chronologicalorder; Ambedkar and his Egalitarian Revolution –Socio-political and religious activities. Events start-ing from November 1929 to 8 May 1956 in thechronological order; Ambedkar and his EgalitarianRevolution – Speeches. (Events starting from 1 Jan-uary to 20 November 1956 in the chronological or-der.)

• Ambedkar’s Speeches and writing in Marathi

• Ambedkar’s Photo Album and Correspondence

15 See also• Deekshabhoomi

• Chaitya Bhoomi

• Statue of Equality

• List of civil rights leaders

16 References[1] Pritchett, Frances. “youth”. Columbia.edu. Archived

from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 17 July2010.

[2] Pritchett, Frances. “In the 1900s” (PHP). Retrieved 5 Jan-uary 2012.

[3] Pritchett, Frances. “In the 1940s”. Retrieved 13 June2012.

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[4] “Do we really respect Dr Ambedkar or is it mere lip ser-vice?".

[5] “Ambedkar in Modi’s quiver, says Gandhis insulted fatherof Indian Constitution”.

[6] “Home for Ambedkar 'house'".

[7] “The Constitution of India: Role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar”.

[8] “Religious conversion debate divides India”.

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[113] “Magazine / Land&People: Ambedkar in Hungary”. TheHindu (Chennai, India). 22 November 2009. Retrieved17 July 2010.

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[115] Blundell, David (2006). “Arising Light: Making a Docu-mentary Life History Motion Picture on Dr B. R. Ambed-kar in India”. Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism 7.Retrieved 17 July 2013.

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[116] Ramnara (5 March 2014). “Samvidhaan: The Making ofthe Constitution of India (TV Mini-Series 2014)". IMDb.

[117] Anima, P. (17 July 2009). “A spirited adventure”. TheHindu (Chennai, India). Retrieved 14 August 2009.

[118] Vedic scholar pens Ambedkar’s biography in Sanskrit.NDTV.com (10 July 2010). Retrieved on 12 August2012.

[119] Calvi, Nuala (23May 2011). “The top five political comicbooks”. CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2013.

[120] “DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR SAMAJIK PARIVARTANSTHAL”. Department of Tourism, Government of UP,Uttar Pradesh. Retrieved 17 July 2013. NEW ATTRAC-TIONS

[121] “AmbedkarMemorial, Lucknow/India” (PDF). RemmersIndia Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Brief Description

[122] http://lh3.googleusercontent.com/vk66VJ12cmvzjaxJJbWrpz8bDWPaRTxC5Ta6SNvi5hlUXlJfm3cH-yKHwzHG9pk3vWIz5cvYE-6xMiHGE_7s91fy_aLVBJqxSNWpf_E

[123] Gibbs, Jonathan (14 April 2015). [Doodle “B. R. Ambed-kar’s 124th Birthday: Indian social reformer and politicianhonoured with a Google Doodle"] Check |url= scheme(help). The Independent. Retrieved 14 April 2015.

[124] “B R Ambedkar 124th birth anniversary: Google doodlechanges in 7 countries as tribute”. The Indian Express. 14April 2015.

[125] “Google’s BR Ambedkar birth anniversary doodle on 7other countries apart from India”. dna. 14 April 2015.

[126] “B.R. Ambedkar, a hero of India’s independence move-ment, honoured by Google Doodle”. Telegraph.co.uk. 14April 2015.

[127] Ambedkar, B. R. (1979),Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, writ-ings and speeches, Mumbai: Education Dept., Govern-ment of Maharashtra, OL 4080132M

[128] “Riddle in Hinduism”. Ambedkar.org. Retrieved 17 July2010.

17 Further reading

• Michael, S.M. (1999). Untouchable, Dalits in Mod-ern India. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55587-697-5.

• Beltz, Johannes; Jondhale, S. (eds.). Reconstructingthe World: B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhism in India.New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

• Sangharakshita, Urgyen. Ambedkar and Buddhism.ISBN 0-904766-28-4. PDF

• Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). Ambedkar and Un-touchability. Analysing and Fighting Caste. NewYork: Columbia University Press.

• Omvedt, Gail. Ambedkar: Towards an EnlightenedIndia. ISBN 0-670-04991-3.

• Gautam, C. (May 2000). Life of Babasaheb Ambed-kar (Second ed.). London: Ambedkar MemorialTrust.

• Kuber, W. N.Dr. Ambedkar: A Critical Study. NewDelhi: People’s Publishing House.

• Bholay, Bhaskar Laxman (2001). Dr Dr. Baba Sa-heb Ambedkar: Anubhav Ani Athavani. Nagpur:Sahitya Akademi.

• Kasare, M. L. Economic Philosophy of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar. New Delhi: B. I. Publications.

• Ahir, D. C. The Legacy of Dr. Ambedkar. Delhi: B.R. Publishing. ISBN 81-7018-603-X.

• Ajnat, Surendra (1986). Ambedkar on Islam. Ja-landhar: Buddhist Publ.

• Fernando, W. J. Basil (2000). Demoralisation andHope: Creating the Social Foundation for Sustain-ing Democracy—A comparative study of N. F. S.Grundtvig (1783–1872) Denmark and B. R. Ambed-kar (1881–1956) India. Hong Kong: AHRC Publi-cation. ISBN 962-8314-08-4.

13

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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14 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Mahasabha, Tamilcinemadiary, Anurag Dongardive, शैलेस प्रधान, Smithzy, Gsoni1999, Sahebld, Pradeep bhuktar, Naik Rudresh, Er-ankit068, Sharmarishabh9710, Shanmukh2488, Amitkumar1990 and Anonymous: 1018

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