Basic Concepts for Understanding Systems

©1999 Addison Wesley Longman Slide 1.1

Basic Concepts for UnderstandingSystems

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Table 2.1 Processing Résumés Using Resumix



CUSTOMER

Manager who needs to hire an employee

Applicant who receives responses about a job application

Government agency that receives reports about compliance to equal opportunity guidelines



PRODUCT

List of applicants who fit the criteria

Selected data items about each applicant

Automatically generated rejection letters



BUSINESS PROCESS

Major Steps:

•Define the criteria for selecting applicants

•Receive résumés

•Scan résumés and extract data

•Select applicants meeting criteria and forward their résumés to the hiring manager

•Send out rejection letters

•Track the hiring process

•Store applicant data for future searches

Rationale:

Instead of finding appropriate candidates by searching through paper résumés, extract the information on the résumés and do the search automatically.



PARTICIPANTS

Human resources employees

Manager doing the hiring

INFORMATION

Description of job opening

Scanned résumés converted into a database format

List of qualified applicants

TECHNOLOGY

Résumix software

Scanner

Unidentified computers


Figure 2.1Examples of Models


Figure 2.2Viewing a firm as a system


Figure 2.3Primary processes for a hypothetical restaurant


Figure 2.4Business processes and functional areas of business


Figure 2.5Information technology, information systems, and work systems


Table 2.2Roles of information Systems within Work Systems

Bar code scanners and computers identify the items sold and calculate the bill

Work system supported by the information system: Performing customer checkout

Aspects of the work system not included in the information system: Establishing personal contact with customers, putting the groceries in bags

University registration system permits students to sign up for specific class sections

Work system supported by the information system: Registering for classes

Aspects of the work system not included in the information system: Deciding which classes to take and which sections to sign up for in order to have a good weekly schedule

Word Processing system used for typing and revising chapters

Work system supported by the information system: Writing a book

Aspects of the work system not included in the information system: Deciding what to say in the book and how to say it


Table 2.2Roles of information Systems within Work Systems

Interactive system top managers use to monitor their organization’s performance

Work system supported by the information system: Keeping track of organizational performance

Aspects of the work system not included in the information system: Talking to people to understand their views about what is happening

System that identifies people by scanning and analyzing voice prints

Work system supported by the information system: Preventing unauthorized access to restricted areas

Aspects of the work system not included in the information system: Human guards, cameras, and other security measures


Figure 2.6The WCA framework for thinking about any system in business


Figure 2.7Who is a toy factory’s customer?


Figure 2.8Relationship between data, information, and knowledge


Table 2.3Issues Raised by Five Perspectives for Understanding a Work System

ARCHITECTURE•What are the components of the system that performs the work and who uses the work product?•How are the components linked?•How do the components operate together?

PERFORMANCE•How well do the components operate individually?•How well does the system operate? (How well is the work performed?)•How well should the system operate?

INFRASTRUCTURE•What technical and human infrastructure does the work rely on? •In what ways does infrastructure present opportunities or obstacles?

CONTEXT•What are the impacts of the organizational and technical context?•In what ways does the context present opportunities or obstacles?

RISKS•What foreseeable things can prevent the work from happening, can make the work inefficient, or can cause defects in the work product?•What are the likely responses to these problems?


Figure 2.9From work system architecture to customer satisfaction


Table 2.4 Architecture, Perspective #1



CUSTOMER

Customer’s entire cycle of involvement with the product

Requirements

Acquisition

Use

Maintenance

Retirement



PRODUCT

Components

Information content

Physical Content

Service content



BUSINESS PROCESS

Process operation:

•Processes providing inputs

•Sequence and scheduling of major steps

•Processes receiving the outputs

Process characteristics:

•Degree of structure

•Range of involvement

•Level of integration

•Complexity

•Degree of reliance on machines

•Linkage of planning, execution, and control

•Attention to exceptions, errors, and malfunctions



PARTICIPANTS

Formal and informal organization:

Job responsibilty

Organization chart

INFORMATION

Major data files in the database:

Data organization and access

TECHNOLOGY

Major components:

Hardware

Software


Table 2.5Performance, Perspective #2



CUSTOMER

Customer Satisfaction



PRODUCT

Cost

Quality

Responsiveness

Reliability

Conformance to standards and regulations



BUSINESS PROCESS

Rate of output

Consistency

Productivity

Cycle time

Flexibility

Security



PARTICIPANTS

Skills

Involvement

Commitment

Job satisfaction

INFORMATION

Quality

Accessibility

Presentation

Prevention of unauthorized access

TECHNOLOGY

Functional capabilities

Ease of use

Compatibility

Maintainability


Table 2.6Comparing Vague Descriptions, Measurements, and Interpretations

ACCURACY OF INFORMATIONVague description: The information doesn’t seem very accurate.Measurement: 97.5% of the readings are correct within 5%.Interpretation:This is (or is not) accurate enough, given the way the information will be used.

SKILLS OF PARTICIPATIONVague description: The sales people are very experienced.Measurement: Every salesperson has 5 or more years of experience; 60% have more than 10 years.Interpretation:This system is (or is not) approptiate for such experienced people.

CYCLE TIME OF BUSINESS PROCESSVague description: This business process seems to take a long time.Measurement: The three major steps take an average of 1.3 days each, but the waiting time between the steps is around 5 days.Interpretation:This is (or is not) better than the average for this industry, but we can (or cannot) improve by eliminating some of the waiting time.

QUALITY OF THE WORK SYSTEM OUPUTVague description: We produce top quality frozen food, but our customer’s aren’t enthusiastic.Measurement:65% of our customers rate it average or good even though our factory defect rate is only.003%Interpretation: Our manufacturing process does (or doesn’t) seem O.K., but we do (or don’t) need to improve customer satisfaction.


Table 2.7Infrastructure, Perspective #3



CUSTOMER

Technical and human infrastructure the customer must have to use the product



PRODUCT

Infrastructure related to information content

Infrastructure related to physical content

Infrastructure related to service content



BUSINESS PROCESS

Infrastructure related to internal operation of the process

Infrastructure related to inputs from other processes

Infrastructure re;ated to transferring the product to other processes



PARTICIPANTS

Shared

human infrastructure

INFORMATION

Shared

information infrastructure

TECHNOLOGY

Shared

technology infrastructure


Table 2.8Context, Perspective #4



CUSTOMER

Issues in the customer’s environment that may affect satisfaction or use

Business and competitive climate



PRODUCT

Substitute products

Ways the customer might bypass this type of product altogether



BUSINESS PROCESS

Organizational culture

Concerns of stakeholders

Organizational policies and initiatives

Government regulations and industry standards



PARTICIPANTS

Incentives

Other responsibilities and job pressures

INFORMATION

Policies and practices regarding information sharing, privacy, etc.

TECHNOLOGY

Technology policies and practices

Technology that may become available soon


Table 2.9Risk, Perspective #4



CUSTOMER

Customer dissatisfaction

Interference by other stakeholders



PRODUCT

Inadequate or unreliable products

Fraudulent products



BUSINESS PROCESS

Operator error

Sloppy procedures

Inadequate backup and recovery

Mismatch between process requirements and participant’s abilities

Unauthorized access to computers, programs, data



PARTICIPANTS

Crime by insiders or outsiders

Inattention by participants

Failure to follow procedures

Inadequate training

INFORMATION

Data errors

Fraudulent data

Data theft

TECHNOLOGY

Equipment failure

Software bugs

Inadequate performance

Inability to build common sense into information systems


Figure 2.10Steps in systems analysis for business professionals


Table 2.10Definitions of Topics in a System Snapshot



CUSTOMER

Product used by: Internal or external customers who use or receive direct benefit from the product

Other stakeholders: People who have a significant stake in the work system or its product even though they do not use the product directly and do not participate directly in the work system

Infrastructure requirements: Infrastructure the customer should have to use the product effectively



PRODUCT

Information content: The aspects of the product that consist of information

Physical content: The aspects of the product that consist of physical things

Service content: The aspects of the product that consist of services performed for specific customers



BUSINESS PROCESS

Major steps: Listing the major steps in this business process

Rationale: The overriding idea or approach that determined the process would be performed using the current approach rather than another

Processes providing inputs: External processes outside the work system that produce inputs of information, physical things, or services needed in order for this business process to operate

Processes receiving the product: The customer’s processes that receive and use the product of this work system



PARTICIPANTS

People who perform the work

Shared human infrastructure

INFORMATION

Created or modified within this system

Received from other work system

TECHNOLOGY

Technology within the system

Shared technology infrastructure


Table 2.11The 10 Issues in the Work-Centered Analysis Method

Systems analysis step

1. Define the problem

2. Describe the current work system in enough depth

and

3. Design potential improvements

4.Decide what to do

Corresponding issues for thinking about a system

Issue 1: Problem Definition

Issue 2: Improvements from product changesIssue 3: Improvements from process changesIssue 4: Improvements related to work system participantsIssue 5: Improvements from better informationIssue 6: Improvements from better technologyIssue 7: Improvements from shared infrastructureIssue 8: Improvements related to the business contextIssue 9: Improvements from risk reduction

Issue 10: Recommendation


Table 2.12 Common Systems Analysis Pitfalls Related to Elements of the WCA Framework


Table 2.13Common Pitfalls Related to the Five Perspectives

ARCHITECTURE

PERFORMANCE

INFRASTRUCTURE

CONTEXT

RISKS

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Basic Concepts for Understanding Systems