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Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

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This report offers a template for water efficiency in housing developments, as a contribution to the sustainability of the proposed growth under the Sustainable Communities Plan. The background study consulted key players from the many different groups that have a role in the creation of new communities. The report is based on research interviews with stakeholders in the construction, development, water, planning, academic, government and NGO sectors. Stakeholders were asked for their perceptions of how water efficiency could be included in new build, planning and the development within the Sustainable Communities Plan growth areas. Particular focus went to the opportunities for water efficiency in the development areas, how best practice can be standardised and what policy mechanisms would help achieve this.

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Page 1: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

better buildings

designing for water efficiency

“green alliance...

Page 2: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

better buildings: designing for water efficiency

by Caroline Read

Published by Green Alliance, March 2005, £20

Artwork and printing by Calverts

Printed on Revive matt – 75 per cent post-consumer waste.

ISBN 0-9549757-0-7

© Green Alliance 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the priorpermission in writing of Green Alliance. Within the UK, exceptions are allowedin respect of any fair dealing for the purposes of private research or study, orcriticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Design and Patents Act,1988, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the termsof the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.

This book is sold subject to condition that it shall not, by way of trade orotherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without thepublisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that inwhich it was published and without a similar condition including the conditionbeing imposed on subsequent purchaser.

Green Alliance40 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W 0REtel: 020 7233 7433 fax: 020 7233 9033email: [email protected]: www.green-alliance.org.uk

Green Alliance is a registered charity number 1045395.Company Limited by guarantee, registered number 3037633

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acknowledgements

We would like to thank Thames Water for supporting the project. I am grateful to all the interviewees and consultees, who gave me the benefit of their experience.Particular thanks go to the project Steering Group for their valuable input. Andthanks to those at Green Alliance who contributed to the project, especially PeterLockley, Joanna Collins and Rebecca Willis.

The recommendations presented in this report are put forward by Green Allianceand do not necessarily represent the position of project partners or the steeringgroup members.

steering group

Steff Wright, Gusto Homes

George Martin, BRE

Peter Spillett/Esther Thompson,Thames Water

Jacob Tompkins, Water UK

Peter Jiggins, Defra

Elliot Robertson/David Calderbank, Environment Agency

green alliance

Green Alliance is one of the UK’s foremost environmental groups. Anindependent charity, its mission is to promote sustainable development by ensuringthat the environment is at the heart of decision-making. It works with senior peoplein government, parliament, business and the environment movement to encouragenew ideas, dialogue and constructive solutions.

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contents

executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

the case for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

about this project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

government action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

perspectives on water efficiency: interview findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

the water supply industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

the development industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

the construction industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

manufacturers of water-efficient technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

local government and planning sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

policy makers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

can buildings perform better?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

getting the policy right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

planning for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

regulating for water efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

using price signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

labelling and consumer awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

a better business case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

list of interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

notes and references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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executive summary

This report offers a template for water efficiency in housing developments, as acontribution to the sustainability of the proposed growth under the SustainableCommunities Plan.

the case for water efficiency

Water resources in the south east of England are not sufficient to cope withincreasing demand.The introduction of substantial housing targets over currentgrowth and the impacts of climate change exacerbate the problem. Leakage and thepotential for flooding, particularly in the Thames Gateway, are also factors that needto be considered in planning. Leakage reduction impacts significantly on demandmanagement. Flooding impacts on the potential structure of developments and theuse of brownfield areas.

about this project

This study has consulted key players from the many different groups that have arole in the creation of new communities. It is based on research interviews withstakeholders in the construction, development, water, planning, academic,government and NGO sectors. Stakeholders were asked for their perceptions of howwater efficiency could be included in new build, planning and the developmentwithin the Sustainable Communities Plan growth areas. Particular focus went to theopportunities for water efficiency in the development areas, how best practice canbe standardised and what policy mechanisms would help achieve this. There is alsoa clear need to tackle water efficiency in the existing building stock, but this isbeyond the scope of the report.

government action

The Government has several policies that cover water efficiency, including PlanningPolicy Statement 1 – Delivering Sustainable Development, Changing Patterns: UK framework forsustainable consumption and production and Directing the flow, the Government’s statement onthe future of water policy.The EU Water Framework Directive is another policy areawhere water supply/demand balance issues are to be addressed.The Governmenthas also been active in response to stakeholder concerns about housing targets inthe south east and east of England under the Sustainable Communities Plan (SCP). Severalreviews and reports have been commissioned into the SCP, with the SustainableBuildings Task Group specifically focussing on environmental sustainability issues. Insupport of the Building Act 1984, the introduction of the Sustainable and Secure Building Actlast year, has highlighted the need to include water efficiency within the buildingregulations to support sustainable construction policy.

stakeholder perspectives

All the stakeholders who provided input into this study make a contribution todevelopment and consider water issues to some extent as part of their business. The

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variation in perceptions of water efficiency and water conservation was marked,demonstrating an inconsistency in the importance placed on water as a resource.The water industry recognises the serious water supply and water treatment coststhat will arise from the increase in development. Developers asked for a clear

business case to be made to include waterefficiency mechanisms and manufacturersconcluded there was little market yet for thetechnology.The construction industry is dividedinto the minority of those that can and themajority of those that don’t. Local Authorities

in the growth areas recognised the need to consider water resources, but stressedthat water, being excluded from of the planning process, was a major barrier todealing with development issues. Policy makers and experts outlined the need todrive this forward.

can buildings perform better?

The technology to increase water efficiency in new build is available. From thesmallest changes in flow rates of taps and showerheads, to installing an integratedrainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling system, the technology exists tosignificantly reduce domestic consumption. Case studies such as BedZed and theKingsmead Primary School demonstrate state-of-the-art integrated water efficiencytechnology, while the slightly more mundane dual flush toilet can still save asignificant amount of water.

getting the policy right

Getting the policy right is an important step to creating sustainable communities.This report recommends a combined, comprehensive approach to water efficiency,to share the responsibility between sectors, encourage cross-fertilisation of ideas,and promote practical, profitable changes.

Four area’s have been identified as key to the success of introducing waterefficiency into new housing developments: planning for water; supporting planningand providing benchmark standards through regulations; improving consumerawareness through financial and community drivers; and presenting a strongbusiness case for water efficiency in the construction and technology market. Withinthese areas we have developed a series of recommendations that will contribute tothe uptake of water efficiency in new build.

recommendations

planning for water efficiency

● Government should provide a clear policy for water as a materialconsideration in planning.

● Planning Authorities need to be empowered to request water efficiencystandards.

● The Code for Sustainable Buildings needs to be comprehensively underpinnedby regulation.

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“ this report recommends a

combined, comprehensive

approach to water efficiency”

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● Water companies need to become statutory consultees to provide advice onthe resource constraints during the development of Regional Plans.

regulating for water efficiency

● There needs to be a substantial efficiency improvement in the minimumstandards set in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (1999)applying to washing machines and dishwashers and the addition ofminimum standards for other fittings, including hand basin taps andshowerheads.

● The Building Regulations should include water efficiency.● Enforcement of building regulations needs to be improved and resourced.

using price signals

● There needs to be a stronger push for universal metering.● There is a need for progressive charging structures, to support low-income

households and provide a scaled system of tariffs for high users.● Reduced VAT should be provided for water efficient products, alternative

supply products and their installation.● Stamp duty reductions need to be applied to resource efficient homes.● Expansion of the Green Landlords Scheme to cover water efficient products.

labelling and consumer awareness

● The proposed national voluntary water consumption labelling scheme forwater-using appliances, fittings and fixtures should be mandatory.

● Public awareness could be encouraged by a Water Saving Trust.

a better business case

● There needs to be a clear definition of the business case to include waterefficiency measures in development.

● More effective communication is a must between the different industriesinvolved to breach the knowledge gaps and support change

● The Government needs to set a progressive procurement agenda for thegrowth areas that accounts for the resource limitations.

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introduction

Resources such as water and energy play a major role in the life of a building. Ifbuildings operate efficiently, this lowers the stress on the natural environment –both through reducing the amount of resource needed, and through reducingpollution.There has been a good deal of debate about energy efficiency inbuildings, and policy put forward to achieve it. But water resources need to beconsidered too.The more we build, the more our water resources are stretched.Water consumption is influenced in part by the occupant’s behaviour. Much can bedone, however, through the design and structure of the building and its fixtures,fittings and appliances.

The Government is now embarking on a major new house building initiative,the Sustainable Communities Plan.This plan will have major implications for waterresources in the south east of England, where the bulk of the housing growth isproposed. But it also provides an excellent opportunity to stimulate the market formore water-efficient housing. Sustainable Communities presents an opportunity toinvestigate the role of water in planning and the development process.

the case for water efficiency

“The forefront of demand management is water efficiency.”Water industry representative

Water is a vital resource for both economy and environment. Water abstractionfor use in homes, buildings and industry is vital to our economy and quality of life– yet, if not managed carefully, can have negative impacts on wetland environmentsand biodiversity.

Global water consumption has risen almost tenfold since 1900i. As cities growbigger, we rely more on a centralised supply of water which is so removed from theinhabitants’ own life experience that most people do not stop to contemplate wherethe water comes from as it pours out of their taps, or less still, where it goes.Thishas resulted in a massive increase in per capita domestic water consumption, withserious consequences for the environment.

Increasing consumption has been seenacross the developed world as wealth increasesand technology develops. It is now normal tohave hot water available on demand and thusshower times can be lengthened and they canbe used more frequently.This changing patternof water use has also been coupled with the

widespread uptake of high-water usage fittings, such as increased bath sizes andpumps used to increase shower pressure, for example. Even with the increasinguptake of energy efficient appliances, that by definition use less water, the domesticconsumption of water continues to rise. Houses are now fitted with high-waterusage devices as standard and the increase in popularity of home gardeningcontributes to high-demand through the summer months.

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“ increasing consumption has

been seen across the developed

world as wealth increases and

technology develops”

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water availability in the south east and east of England

“There is already a 10 per cent over abstraction in the south east.”Government representative

“Water resource use in the south east is affecting biodiversity now…snipe are down to two breedingpairs in Hertfordshire.”Environmentalist

The south east of England, where the Government plans to build an extra200,000 homes above current growth targets by 2016 as part of the SustainableCommunities Planii has less annual rainfall per head of population than Istanbul.The previous Regional Planning Guidance target of 900,000 new homes brings thetotal new homes in the area to over a million. Although the average annual rainfallfor England and Wales is around 900mm, in a dry year the south east may receiveonly around 260mm.The summer months are predicted to get drier as climatechange accelerates.

Much of the water available in the south east has already been allocated underabstraction licences. Licences are a requirement under the Water Resources Act 1991,for almost everyone who wants to take water from a river, stream, canal orunderground sourceiii. The Environment Agency provide licences to applicants, whoare then entitled to abstract water from the stated source annually for a set period of time.The licences are determined for the water available. However, water flowsare variable and high abstraction generally coincides with hot weather. Particularlyin dry years, the lack of natural water flows remaining after abstraction causedetrimental impacts on the health and biodiversity of waterways.

The limited water resources for the south east are stretched across a highlyconcentrated population. With the exception of London, the south east consumesmore water per head of population than anywhere in the UK, and the figurescontinue to riseiv.

While drinking and cooking account for only a fraction (four per cent) ofhousehold water consumption, combined with personal, kitchen and clotheswashing this still leaves approximately 40 per cent of household water use forpurposes that do not require the water to meet the stringent standards required fordrinking water.The supply system is currently set up so that all water comes intoproperties from the mains pipe, which is from one retriculated source, and the usedwater leaves via the sewer system.

Increasing water consumption puts a massive stress on the water supply andtreatment system. Increasing wastewater volumes require more processing, which isresource and cost intensive, contributing to cumulative environmental impacts fromthe industry.There is also an issue of where and how the sewerage that will begenerated from the proposed developments in the south east will be treated.Therehas been no mention of wastewater treatment plants within the growth areas.

Leakage is also another issue that poses a challenge for the London area. Ageingpipes and acidic soils are a major cause of leakage. Leakage reduction has been amajor factor in demand management strategies of water companies in the recent

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past. Companies worst affected by the ageing infrastructure, have extensive budgetsto replace mains and install monitoring systems, however the predicted lossesremain high. Monitoring of the abstraction system is a condition of licencing, butleakage has yet to be adequately addressed universally.

Flooding is also a major issue in south east England and must be addressed aspart of the entire water-urban interaction.The Sustainable Communities Plan

identifies the Thames Gateway as a major growth area.However, building density in the area is already greaterthan intended for flood defence purposes.The severalflood defence gates, including the Thames Barrier, arebeing used more frequently now than ever before.TheEnvironment Agency is concerned that increasingdevelopment on the Thames floodplain will worsen thesituation. It was noted at a Fabian Policy Network

meeting in January 2005 that 12 per cent of Local Authorities currently allowdevelopment on flood plains contrary to the Environment Agency’s advice.

The drive to regenerate brownfield land, which is important in sustainingcommunities socially and aesthetically and protecting the green belt, can behampered by flood risk.There are cases, such as in Ashford, where development onhigh flood risk brownfield is continuing in a style that is designed to allow forperiodic flooding events. Design solutions will need to be extremely well researchedand supported to allow development to the degree proposed in the SustainableCommunities Plan.

adapting to climate change

Climate change is predicted to reduce summer rainfall by 15 to 60 per cent by2080vi, with shorter more intense rainfall activity in the winter. Planning for watersupply, flooding and sewage therefore needs to take account of climate changepredictions.The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Commons Select Committee’sreport Climate Change,Water Security and Floodingvii describes the lack of attention theGovernment has paid to water shortages as a result of climate change in theirdevelopment plans, and highlights the need for society to manage water demand.

Climate change scenarios also present serious wastewater treatment and riverwater quality challengesviii. Wetlands are particularly vulnerable in the south east, asclimate change brings drier summers.The peak in demand for water at these timesincreases the concentration of pollutants released into the environment, due to thelow natural flows.This is already a reality in the south east, but will become a lotworse with rising summer temperatures.

It is clear that there is a need to focus on reducing water demand if moredevelopment is to occur in the south east of England. One obvious way to addressthis is moving water efficiency beyond a niche market to bring it to themainstream.This report puts forward recommendations for policy that will lead togreater consideration of water efficiency, and greater use of water-savingtechnologies.

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“ wetlands are particularly

vulnerable in the south

east, as climate change

brings drier summers”

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about this project

This study has consulted key players from the many different groups that have arole in the creation of new communities. Stakeholders were asked for their perceptionsof how water efficiency could be included in new build, planning and developmentwithin the Sustainable Communities Plan growth areas. Particular focus went to theopportunities for water efficiency in the development areas, how best practice can bestandardised and what policy mechanisms would help achieve this.

Initial desk research was undertaken in consultation with the project SteeringGroup comprising senior members of the water and construction industries, theBuildings Research Establishment, ODPM, Defra and the Environment Agency, toprovide a framework for consultation.

To identify how different industries and skill-sets can operate collectively, weconsulted broadly across the water, construction, manufacturing and developmentindustries; local, regional and national government; regulators, the academiccommunity, and NGO’s.

We held 16 interviews with water industry representatives, technologyspecialists, developers, designers, construction industry representatives, governmentregulators, planning community representatives and manufacturers. In addition tothis, a series of informal meetings were held with local authorities, regionalplanners, government officials, eco-homes assessors, green groups and the projectsteering group (see list on page 34).

Stakeholders were asked to specify what opportunities and barriers theyperceived to including water efficiency and flood mitigation measures within theplanning process and through building and water regulations. We also looked atperceptions in the market place, where water efficiency currently sits withinbuilding and development design, and the potential for change.

government action

“The 25 per cent reduction [in per capita water consumption] figure [in the document CreatingSustainable Communities: Making it happen] is aspirational.”Government Planner

The Government is already committed to action on water efficiency.There areseveral relevant initiatives underway:

Planning Policy Statement 1: Delivering Sustainable Development, the recentlyrevised planning guidance outlines the Government’s objectives for the planningsystemix. It includes four aims for sustainable development comprising socialprogress, environmental protection, natural resource use and economic growth.

Changing Patterns: UK framework for sustainable consumption and productionx

outlines the UK’s commitment to improve the ‘resource productivity’ of theeconomy – that is, to achieve greater economic output with less environmentalimpact. The Government acknowledges the need to intervene on market failure,identified as the inefficient use of resources in combination with the costs of

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environmental degradation, but has no clear strategy for the very diffuse issuesassociated with consumption.

Directing the flow, the Government’s statement on the future of water policyxi,recognises the need for more attention to go to reducing demand in addition toresource development.The twin track approach provides mechanisms to addresswater demand management. However, there is still no incentive to change existingdevelopment practices whilst the current approach, does not enforce changes inconstruction practices or support demand management programmes. Without moreemphasis on sustainable demand management, companies will continue to investpredominantly in increasing supply.This needs to change to meet the goals withinDirecting the flow.

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) will shortly be implemented in the UK.The WFD calls for an integrated approach to water management with the objectiveof attaining ‘very good’ ecological status within whole river basin systems. Inpractice, this will mean that river basins are treated as one for managementplanning.This sets some real challenges for demand management within individualcatchment systems that have high demand, such as those feeding the GreaterLondon area.The WFD should be fully operational by 2012 and thus considerationof how sustainable water management is to be addressed in the growth areas shouldalready be factored into the Sustainable Communities Plan and regional plans.TheEnvironment Agency will have to consider whether the river basins will be able tosupport the projected abstraction in the water company resource plans withoutadverse impacts to ecological status (and also the associated effluent discharges tothe river basin). But currently, there does not seem to be a link-up betweenimplementation of the WFD and the planning for urban growth.

The Sustainable Communities Planxii significantly increases the number of newhomes planned in specified growth areas across the UK, with a commitment to200,000 over the already agreed 900,000 in the greater south east of England.The decision to undertake such large-scale development provides a significant

financial opportunity to the development andconstruction industries, and the communities in whichexpansion is planned. If directed towards environmentalsustainability outcomes, this increase in developmentcould be harnessed to improve the long-term viability ofhousing design and thus change the way communitiesunderstand, value and use water.The ODPM reportCreating Sustainable Communities: Making it happenxiii states that‘achieving water savings of 25-30 per cent in newhousing is feasible and is crucial to achieving asustainable water supply and tackling climate change’.

However, clear policy and action on this has yet to materialise.The House ofCommons Environmental Audit Select Committeexiv best summed up thesustainability progress of delivering sustainable communities as ‘the environmentalimpacts of the proposed increase in house building deserve much greaterconsideration than they have yet received from Government.’

The Sustainable Communities Plan provides £22 billion to drive housing growthin four key areas: the Thames Gateway, Ashford, the London-Stansted-Cambridge

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“ without more emphasis

on sustainable demand

management, companies

will continue to invest

predominantly in

increasing supply”

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corridor and Milton Keynes-South Midlands.The rationale of the plan is to meet thehousing needs in the regions of high demand. £350 million of this is earmarked tospeed up planning, while £5 billion will go into affordable housing and £2.8billion to bring council homes up to a decent standard.

In response to concerns about the Sustainable Communities Plan (SCP), severalreviews have been commissioned into its economic, social and environmentalsustainability.

The Barker Reviewxv was jointly commissionedby the ODPM and Treasury following the launch ofthe SCP.The review aimed to identify the responseof the housing market to the SCP. At the same time,the ODPM also commissioned the Egan Reviewxvi toidentify what skills and training would benecessary to deliver sustainable communities. SirJohn Egan made the first definition of ‘sustainablecommunities’ in his review. Similarly to KateBarker, he found a serious shortage of skills,particularly in the construction industry, to maintain the growth targets of the SCP. Akey recommendation from the Egan Review was the need for a National Centre forSustainable Construction to bridge the knowledge gaps identified betweenconstruction and sustainable development.The ODPM has announced thedevelopment of an Academy in Leeds to fill this role.

The Sustainable Buildings Task Group was set up as a joint government initiative,by Defra, ODPM and the DTI, following the Better Buildings Summit in October2003. Better Lives, Better Buildings, was published in May 2004 and identifies howGovernment and industry could improve the sustainability of new and refurbishedhousing.The report identified the urgent need to make changes to the buildingregulations and one of the main recommendations was to set up a Code for

Sustainable Buildings based on the eco-homes standard. A voluntary code iscurrently being investigated by the ODPM. Water consumption was identified as akey issue for the first time and a target of 25 per cent savings was recommended forbuilding regulation standards.

The issue of a Water Saving Trust, having been debated since 1997, was alsoconsidered and supported by the Sustainable Buildings Task Group. A study into thefeasibility of a Trust has been commissioned by the Environment Agency and isproposed to promote public awareness of water supply issues, in the same vein asthe Energy Saving Trust.

There have been some positive steps forward on regulation as well. On 16September 2004 Andrew Stunell MP’s Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act wasgiven Royal Assent and now enables building regulations to include environmentalsustainability and social priorities. Although there was always the opportunitypresented within the Building Act 1984 to include water conservation inconstruction it was never empowered with regulations.The challenge is to make fulluse of this enabling act by addressing sustainability issues within the BuildingRegulations. In October 2004 Part L of the Building Regulations (conservation offuel and power) was revised to include requirements for improved energy efficiency.

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“ the environmental impacts

of the proposed increase in

house building deserve much

greater consideration than

they have yet received from

Government”

Page 14: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

With the Building Regulation Part G (Hygiene) now under its periodic review thereis the potential to incorporate water efficiency as an aspect of these regulations.

The challenge for reaching a sustainable supply/demand balance in the growthareas is to link government initiatives and to get them to work for water efficiency.This report sets out the opportunities to achieve more water-sensitive planningframeworks, and to link any new policy incentives with practical measures to reducewater consumption.

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perspectives on water efficiency:

interview findings

Through this project, we have consulted the key players in the planning andconstruction of developments, and those that hold technical knowledge aboutsupply and demand of water and water-related technologies.Their perspectivesprovide an overview of how water is addressed in the design and planning fordevelopments; what best practice technologies are available and how they operate;water supply and demand; water as a function of communities; and the regulatoryand planning framework under which water is provided to communities.

Although all the stakeholders make a contribution to development and mustconsider water issues to some extent, the variation in perceptions of waterefficiency and water conservation was marked. Below we outline the key issuesraised for each group.

the water supply industry

● Companies within the proposed growth areas, particularly in the south east of England and the London-Stansted-Cambridge Corridor, are facing seriouswater supply and water treatment costs, where lack of available water willrequire major investment.

● The industry cites a need to raise awareness of the realities of water scarcity – that the UK has the lowest proportion of water per head of population inthe EU.

● Concerns were raised about wastewater treatment not being considered inplanning within the SCP growth areas.

● Companies feel they are under increased pressure to reduce demand andpromote water efficiency without financial support for broader-scaleprogrammes.

● Water companies see value in addressing water efficiency through theplanning process, to factor in issues of supply and demand for water.

● Metering of new connections is now standard for most water companies.However there were concerns that metering would not provide a reduction inuse though poor quality metering and low public profile.The issue of thecurrent housing stock was also raised, and that retrofitting is the biggestchallenge for metering and demand management.

the development industry

● Developers asked for a clear business case to include water efficiencymechanisms in development.They feel that a level playing field is required, sothat progressive developers are not hit with a premium for providing efficiency.

● There is a perception that there are too many different guidelines and schemesfrom the different local and regional authorities. Developers would prefer onenational, high profile scheme that could be used as an incentive to investors. Inaddition to this, large variation in the attitudes within planning departmentscauses an uneven playing field for development across local boundaries.

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Page 16: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

● Because the consumer is separate from the investor, there is no push todeliver on the running costs or whole life value of buildings, and thusresource efficiency is not a priority.

● Brownfield sites offer lower returns, as more investment is needed to develop.

the construction industry

● Sustainable construction methods are proven, and could be cost-effective ifthe market is stimulated. However, the lack of demand for sustainablebuildings provides no stimulation in the mainstream industry to acquire theskills to deliver.

● Construction contractors need to be consulted early on in the design processto deliver the more advanced technologies, such as greywater recycling andrainwater harvesting, which is a change in traditional contractorarrangements.

● Changes to regulations are seen by the construction industry as the mosteffective way to raise the bar for minimum water efficiency standards, as thisis what they use to deliver the mainstream least-cost building options.

● However, there is little desire to include environmental requirements withinthe many other regulated requirements that are already not rigorouslymonitored and enforced.

● The construction sector is dominated by small to medium sized enterpriseswith little resources or desire to include water efficiency in their ‘standard’product.

manufacturers of water-efficient technologies

● The manufacturing industry cited the lack of a sufficient market in the UK asthe reason for under-investment in water efficient technologies.

● The lack of UK development of this technology also affects uptake,reinforcing the self-fulfilling cycle of investment and demand.

● The industry identified a need to educate consumers and put basicregulations in place to stimulate the market.

local government and planning sector

● Some planners consider all water issues the realm of the water utilities, whilstothers see the need to address water supply, demand and flood management.However, the lack of capacity and technical knowledge of water issues wasidentified as a major drawback to change in the planning community.

● Planners see the need for clear leadership from central Government and aclear national best practice standard for Planning Authorities as the way toaddress the lack of resources.

● Authorities identified their lack of statutory authority to require waterefficiency in planning applications as a major constraint to delivering desiredefficiency standards.They also identified difficulties in enforcement,particularly in the climate of urgent development under the SCP.

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Page 17: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

● Enforcement was also identified as an issue for under-resourced buildinginspectors and it was suggested that Building Control Officers have otherpriorities, such as health and safety.

● Traditionally there has been poor communication between environmentalorganisations and experts in the planning process, though this is now startingto change very slowly.

● It was highlighted that there is a need for planners to account for the impactof climate change, and that this has predominantly not been the case to date.

policy makers

● Government regulators identified the lengthy time it takes to changeregulations and how the specific details of more complex technologies can be incorporated.

● There is an urgent need to update existing water fittings regulations and todevelop minimum efficiency standards within the building regulations tosupport planning.

● The inclusion of water efficiency in building regulations is currently beingconsidered in the review of Part G, Hygiene.

● More effective communication is needed between the different industriesinvolved to bridge the knowledge gaps and support change, and will be afocus of the National Academy for Sustainable Construction.

● Raising public awareness of water use and water supply is very important and could be addressed through the proposed Water Saving Trust.

● Links should be made between flooding and water efficiency, both in atechnological context and through broader water cycle considerations for planning.

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can buildings perform better?

“The technical solutions are there; it is the framework holding us back.”Sustainable developer

Technical solutions to water efficiency already exist. Even without changingconsumer behaviour, construction standards have been shown to play a significantrole in reducing the environmental impacts of urban development. WWF’secological footprint analysisxvii demonstrates that resource-efficient housing, withoutconcerted efforts by inhabitants to reduce their consumption, still makes a positiveimpact. An eco-home ‘very good’ standard house can reduce water demand by 39per cent of an average home, without consumer activities needing to change.Actively changing behaviour and installing more advanced technologies reduces theoverall ecological footprint, by also reducing the amount of energy required toprovide potable water and treat waste.The more commonly quoted theoreticalsavings from water efficient buildings indicate 20-30 per cent is achievable.This is predominantly taken up through reductions in the flush volumes of toilets,and secondly through efficiency gains in white goods such as dishwashers andwashing machines.

Very little empirical data is available on efficiency gains through fixtures andfittings such as taps and toilets. A programme funded by Essex and Suffolk Waterthree years ago installed the simplest technological changes for taps, toilets andshowers in a new housing development at Haybridge, near Maldon.This resulted ina five per cent water saving above ‘regular’ products. In addition to providing someempirical data, this study highlighted the limited interest in water efficiency, as theinitiative was not taken up by any other developer, even though the option wasavailable to them at no cost. Another examples is the Greenwich Millennium Village,which achieved a 20 per cent reduction in water consumption simply throughspecification of water efficient taps, showers, toilets and white goods.

Up to 50 per cent of the water used in homes does not need to be treated to thestandards required for potable water. Rainwater harvesting or greywater recyclingsupply to the toilet would reduce internal domestic demand by approximately 30per cent. Rainwater harvesting involves capturing rain water that lands on the roof

and storing it in a tank for later use, whilegreywater recycling involves treating andre-using water from the shower, bath andsinks. Water use in the garden can alsonow be provided by underground dripfeeds that are more efficient and can usegreywater or non-potable water supply.

Rainwater harvesting systems, along with the other water recycling systems,need to be designed into development plans from the outset, as their installationrequires burial of large tanks and dual-pipe plumbing into dwellings.The RainwaterHarvesting Association (UKRHA) reports that rainwater harvesting reduces mains-water usage by around 50 per cent in a typical domestic application. Given the lowcost of water, though, this still incurs long payback times. However, for commercial

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“ rainwater harvesting or greywater

recycling supply to the toilet would

reduce internal domestic demand

by approximately 30 per cent”

Page 19: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

applications where there is a large roof area and high water usage, harvestingprovides a capital cost payback period in as little as two to three years.

The public perception of greywater recycling tends to be negative. However, thetechnology is now so advanced that accelerated combined wastewater and sludgetreatment units are designed to even recycle black water (sewerage)xviii. A successfulexample of recycling is the BedZED 100 unit development in Sutton, which set up awater company to supply and treat wastewater onsite. The treatment plant operatesas a ‘living machine’ with an extended aeration activated sludge producing non-potable supply for toilet flushing and irrigation.This process has demonstrated thattechnology can include community participation and build awareness. Becausesubstances and objects harmful to the wastewater treatment process must be keptout of the drainage system, the onsite Green Water Treatment Plant requiredbehavioural change. Residents responded well to this and the plant has beensuccessfully operating for two years. The average per capita consumption of theresidents is 108 litres per day, 28 per cent lower than the average in England andWalesxix. It is true, of course, that someone who lives in an environmentaldevelopment like this one is more likely to be willing to change their behaviour.However, long waiting lists for BedZED indicate that there is a market for more.

Green roofs are another technology that have been proven internationally, andhave potential in the UK. Green roofs act as excellent water capture surfaces thatcan retain up to 75 per cent of run-off in the short termxx. Storm water capture isbecoming increasingly important as rain events become heavier and moreconcentrated as a result of the changing climate. The impermeable surfaces thatpredominate in urban environments provide little room for rain to be absorbedinto the ground, and so the storm water drains act as the only mechanism toremove excess water. The increasing intensity of storm events can result inlocalised flooding where the drains cannot cope with the quantity of water.Planning requirements in Germany have led to 14 per cent of flat roofs havinggreen roof systemsxxi. Interest in green roofs grew out of biodiversity concerns,but their use for storm water capture is now becoming a driving factor. Otherbenefits of green roofs include extended roof life through protection of thewaterproofing membrane, thermal insulation, reduction in the albedo effect(reflected heat from hard surfaces leading to increase in smog and air-bourneparticles), improved air quality, reduction in costs of drainage, noise and soundinsulation, and improved aesthetics. However, in addition to the obstacle of minorincrease in capital cost for installation, product warranty is identified as asignificant barrier to the increased uptake. According to Trevor Butler of BDP,

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Box 1 – Kingsmead Primary School, Leftwich, was completed in July 2004.

Cheshire County Council recognised the need to provide a new school with 150places with the potential for expansion, in response to major housing developments inthe area. In collaboration with White Design and Willmott Dixon they developed a planto produce an exemplar sustainable construction project which could deliver a learningand teaching environment and stimulate options for future developments in Cheshire.

The design includes provision for rainwater harvesting from the roof surface,supplying toilet flushing and irrigation, water efficient fittings and sustainable drainagelandscaping.The school cost £2.4M, but running costs were reduced by 50 per cent.

Page 20: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

technologically green roofs should outlast traditional roofs, providing increasedwarranties would give a market advantage to manufacturersxxii.

the links between flooding and water efficiency:

Many experts recognise there is a need to change the way we deal with stormwater to alleviate the effects of flooding.Traditional pipe drainage removes waterand wastewater from areas of high-use.The water is then deposited downstream,affecting the environment with pollutants and silt, and potentially disrupting salinitylevels and natural water flows.The channelling operation of the pipes also meansthat, during storm events, water flow is rapid with the potential to cause seriousdamage once pipe capacity is breached. Some urban planning and developmentdesigns are considering better use of rain as a resource. An example is the BedZEDdevelopment, where porous car parking surfaces and green roofs minimise runoff.To capture the remaining runoff a previously dry ditch has been enhanced into anattractive and biodiverse water feature at the front of the site. However these typesof landscape designs are not yet standard features of developments. Climate changewill add an extra dimension to this with more intense and less frequent stormevents predicted. We need to adapt to the changes in climate and utilise our winterwater capacity to counter the summer shortages. We also need to do this within anenvironmental framework that supports the natural habitat within and surroundingthe cities.

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDs) are techniques of water managementthat mimic natural drainage processes where water is dispersed through the groundslowly into a watercourse without serious impact on the environment.The CITBFuture Skills online directory best describes the three key objectives of SUDS as‘reducing the amount of water runoff from a site, slowing the runoff to preventflooding, and treating and cleansing surface water before it enters naturalwatercourses. A variety of techniques are used, on their own or in combination, toachieve these objectives.’The methods include permeable pavement (for example incar parks), gravel beds, slips, swales, grass lined depressions and retention ponds (aspart of the green landscape within urban areas).These features, from the small-scaleswales (often in the form of depressions along the edges of roads) to large retention

ponds, can be landscaped into the environment asaesthetic and practical green infrastructure at thedesign stage of developments, such as isdemonstrated at BedZED.Together, rainwaterharvesting, grey-water recycling, green roofs andSUDs slow-drainage infrastructure can provide an

integrated approach to aquifer recharge, storm water storage and additional non-potable water supply.There are already industries providing for niche markets withpermeable surfaces combined with water storage systems that provide slow drainageand non-potable supply.

Because SUDs use the natural environment as part of the drainage system,technical knowledge and an understanding of the geology and hydrology of thelocation are essential to achieve the desired results.This means that all SUDs systemsneed to be tailored to each location, which limits their desirability to developers, ascosts are unknown until thorough investigations can be made. As a way of bridging

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“ many experts recognise there

is a need to change the way

we deal with storm water”

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the gap in technical knowledge, the Construction Industry Research and InformationAssociation runs a campaign to promote good practice in the use of SUDs.

The Government has acknowledged the need to consider SUDs in sustainablecommunities. The ODPM’s Greening the Gateway publication acknowledges theimportance of green spaces as functional and attractive aspects of the urbanenvironment.To promote better drainage and storm water management in theThames Gateway, Greening the Gateway outlines an approach integrating RegionalPlanning Guidance for the South East (RPG 9) and Planning Policy Guidance 25Development and Flood Risk. However, there is still little evidence of SUDs beingintegrated into development plans on any significant scale.To add to this, the debateover who would have the responsibility for maintenance and ownership continues.

This brief review suggests that the technology required to achieve significantimprovements in water efficiency already exists.Yet its inclusion in building design andconstruction is extremely rare. Mainstream construction tends towards meeting thebuilding regulations at lowest cost and greatest efficiency. Most house builders do notget involved in the long term service contracts needed to support the more complextechnologies such as rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling systems.Wherebuilders do not wish to diversify their skills, there are other options available todevelopers, such as at BedZED where water-recycling contractors operate onsiteprocessing, but any such scheme needs to be planned into a development at the outset.

Currently water efficiency design in buildings is provided as a niche marketbecause there is little demand for the technology. Developers are reluctant to add itto standard dwellings as it is not widespread and it requires an up-front expense.Consequently there is little knowledge about it in the market place and thus littledemand for it. To break this cycle, there needs to be a strong business case forchanging the context of water use in the community.

Water should be seen not as a commodity delivered on demand, but as avaluable local resource. Local and regional authorities need to consider water inplanning; the developers need to be incentivised to extend their designs to includewater efficiency, dual purpose supply and onsite treatment considerations; andbuilders need to develop their knowledge and work closely with technologicalexperts through development projects.

The following section puts forward a framework that would provide the stimulusto make this step-change in the development of more water efficient communities.

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Box 2 – Wessex Water Operations Centre, Bath.

The Wessex Water Operations Centre at Bath is a three winged office block,The large roof area is used to collect rainwater in three 80m3 tanks for toilet flushing.

There is an integrated water management system onsite to manage discharge ofstormwater. Porous paving is used to drain water into soakaways or a 600m3 storage tankto feed an irrigation system and water features.

The initial cost of the rainwater harvesting and SUDs integrated system was higherthan installing a traditional drainage system, but it has reduced mains water demand by95 per cent and deals with runoff on site.

The development won ‘Building of the Year’ award from the Royal Institution ofChartered Surveyors in 2002.

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getting the policy right

To make significant and long lasting changes to the way buildings and theiroccupants consume water there needs to be a widespread change in attitude to thevalue of water. Clear leadership from Government in planning, legislative support,stimulation of the market and consumer awareness are necessary to support agenuine increase in the water efficiency of our homes and buildings.The followingsections identify areas where positive changes can be made to deliver waterefficiency as part of sustainable communities.

planning for water efficiency

“The planning system plays an important role in encouraging developers…Planning needs to set firmcriteria and conditions and design briefs to include water efficiency.”Government representative

Part of the process of privatising the water industry placed statutoryresponsibility for water supply and wastewater treatment on water companies.Thecapital investment plans and water pricing scales proposed by water companies tomaintain supply and demand are reviewed and monitored by the Office of WaterRegulation on a five yearly cycle. In view of this, the current planning system doesnot require planners to consider resource issues provided by utilities. However,planners have a public duty to provide regional plans that will enhancecommunities. Traditionally this has been regarded as economic growth, but with thepublic swing to greater consideration of quality of life issues governments have hadto adopt a different approach.The Sustainable Communities Plan has opened theway for social and environmental considerations to be included in the planningsystem from the top down.The Challenge is to make this happen.

Government should provide a clear policy for water as a material

consideration in planning.

Traditionally, water has not been a factor in planning decisions. With the impactof climate change and increasing population, water can no longer be considered anunlimited resource.This is starting to be acknowledged by Government and

progressive Local Authorities. To drive thisforward there needs to be clear policy on anational level that water is a materialconsideration in planning.This will not onlyprovide a clear signal that water is an importantaspect of development, but will require the lessprogressive Local Authorities who chose not toconsider water as part of their planning processto change practices.

There is also a need to factor in the lifecycle of the development, so that changesin water availability into the future, due to climate change, for example, are part ofthe decision-making process. There is scope within planning guidance for theoperation of buildings and the operation of the areas around buildings to be

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“ there is scope within planning

guidance for the operation of

buildings and the operation of

the areas around buildings to

be considered”

Page 23: Better buildings: designing for water efficiency

considered.This means that planning guidance could, for example, include theprovision for storage of water over the winter, to use in the drier summers expectedas climate change takes hold.

This could be achieved through provision of a clear policy statement from theGovernment that would lead to better understanding of expectations and betterplanning for the future. PPS23 covering Planning and Pollution Control could be themost appropriate place to include water efficiency.This will require a broader skillset for planning departments and will inevitably involve more communication withother technical experts.

Planning Authorities need to be empowered to request water efficiency

standards.

It is a real concern that the drive for rapid development in the growth areas willhave serious effects on the ability for Local Authorities to consider and implementthe type of development that will meet sustainable targets. Even with theestablishment of local delivery agencies, such as Cambridgeshire Horizons, andurban development corporations, such as Thurrock Development Corporation, todrive the delivery of additional housing and regeneration, there is still an issue oflegal empowerment to demand water efficiency through planning.

Finding a balance between guidance and regulation is a key factor in successfulgovernance.The establishment of local delivery agencies has provided much neededsupport for the increased housing targets, including responsibility for guidance onsustainable development. Cambridgeshire Horizons, for instance, has written asustainability guidance document that includes water efficiency and sustainabledrainage. But without underpinning legislation or a clear mandate, the guidancereads like a wish list. This lack of statutory authority means that Local Authorities areat the mercy of developers who are not legally required to deliver on requests forwater efficiency. It is also a route out for those authorities who do not have thedesire or capacity to deal with resource issues.

There is an obvious opportunity to introduce water efficiency into the buildingregulations.This will provide Local Authorities with the regulatory support they needto demand resource efficiency in development designs prior to planning approval.

With clear policy from Government and regulatory support through the buildingregulations, Local Authorities will be better empowered to request water efficiencystandards in development.

The Code for Sustainable Buildings needs to be comprehensively underpinned

by regulation.

Developers acknowledge that the planning process is moving towards moreconsideration of sustainability. An issue identified by developers is that when applyingfor planning permission, each authority has a different set of guidelines forsustainability, meaning that the recognition and profile of each scheme is limited.Developers, as for-profit organisations, would prefer that any additional items requiredfor sustainability be saleable, that is, used to increase the value of investment. As such,a nationally recognised, quality assured and high profile efficiency standard as abenchmark for sustainability would be preferred. Many recognised the high profileand flexibility of the BREEAM and eco-homes system as a good example of a saleable

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standard. Local Authorities also expressed the desire to avoid ‘reinventing the wheel’on sustainability guidance. Some feel that a national code with implementationsupport in terms of knowledge resources would make the job of including waterefficiency in local planning much more attractive and practical.

The Sustainable Buildings Task Group recommended the development of aunified Code for Sustainable Buildings, to include minimum standards for waterefficiency.The Code would be based on the BREEAM eco-homes system. A review bythe Environment Agency on the BRE eco-homes standardsxxiii indicates that theapproach to water is sound and flexible enough to suit different use.

We support the ODPM’s development of such a Code by the end of 2005 andrecommend that it is underpinned by regulations setting real targets that arepractical and achievable, rather than the aspirational reduction target of 25 per cent.This would pull all the regulations and planning policy together to provide anationally applicable set of standards, as well as make the transition to sustainabilityin construction and develop a more marketable commodity.The underpinningregulations will also lead to increased coverage of the Code, as support forregulatory compliance.

Water companies need to become statutory consultees to provide advice on

the resource constraints during the development of Regional Plans.

It is a consequence of some irony that the major growth area identified by theGovernment for economic success is also the driest area in the UK. It is astonishing,then, that water utilities were not consulted as part of the initial development of the SCP.This has consequently been addressed with water companies providing their input through the National Planning Forum and Water UK membership of the Sustainable Buildings Task Group.

The water industry has the knowledge and expertise of local water supply issues and water-efficiency measures available.The inclusion of water companies as statutory consultees during the formulation of regional plans would make use of their expertise and formalise their role in planning. But equally as important,this would support the consideration of water as a fundamental part of the planning process.

regulating for water efficiency

“Regulation provides a level playing field for industry.”Sustainable developer

In order to provide the benchmark to raise the standard of water efficiency innew build, regulations need to support planning. Historically, the regulationsgoverning water provision in buildings are borne of the need to address health andsafety and infrastructure issues.These issues remain important. However, with theprojected increase in housing numbers and effects of climate change, there is nowalso a need to address water efficiency in water provision regulations.

Regulations would provide underpinning efficiency standards and provide theroom for regions to operate their policy expectations as a practical tool. The legal

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instruments that govern water in the built environment include the Water IndustryAct 1991, the Water Act 2003, Water Supply and Fittings Regulations 1999, theWater Supply (Water Quality Regulations 2000 and 2001, and the BuildingRegulations (Part G Hygiene).

There needs to be a substantial efficiency improvement in the minimum

standards set in the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (1999)

applying to washing machines and dishwashers and the addition of minimum

standards for other fittings, including sink taps and showerheads.

Water efficient products are currently perceived as higher in price than theirconventional alternatives because they are niche. Increasing the standards for waterefficiency of household appliances, fixtures and fittings would help overcome this.It would provide a market for more efficient designs, leading to reductions in waterconsumption regardless of consumer behaviour. Leading manufacturers couldmeanwhile continue to improve their technology, to lead the market and maintaintheir competitive edge.

As identified by the Sustainable Buildings Task Group, the minimum standardsregulations could be applied to products through the 1999 Water FittingsRegulations.The potential for increased resource efficiency through raisingminimum standards for water-using appliances is that they will cover both newbuild installations and retrofitting of the existing housing stock. With consumptionrates rising more rapidly than new housing growth, it is extremely important toprovide resource efficient products for retrofit.

On their own, the water fittings regulations do not apply directly tomanufacturers. The regulations were developed to prevent undue water consumptionand the prevention of contamination of the water distribution system.Theregulations apply at the point of installation of the fitting rather than their sale ormanufacture, thus, the onus is on the person who installs the product to complywith the regulations. Improving the standards within these regulations to addresswater efficiency would not directly affect manufacturing standards. For example,you could still sell a high-water use washing machine but it would be illegal toinstall it. Therefore, these regulations would need to be incorporated into newbuilding regulations that enforce design specifications.The efficiency standardswould then provide the technical information that is to be applied through thebuilding design.This would influence the uptake of more water efficient appliancesand provide manufacturers with benchmarks for design.

Building Regulations should include water efficiency.

In addition to the inclusion of minimum water efficiency standards outlinedabove, identification of water efficiency in the construction and whole lifecycle ofbuildings should be included within the Building Regulations. It has been suggestedthat water efficiency could be considered in the current review of Part G (Hygiene)of the Building Regulations. We strongly recommend that water conservationbecomes a fundamental part of the Building Regulations, with the potential forderogation only where water supply is abundant.This would drive a step change inthe construction industry and the manufacture of water efficient products through amassive increase in demand, at the same time as increasing the water efficiency ofnew buildings.

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An example of how Building Regulations could be used to drive change in theconstruction industry is in the State of Victoria in Australia. From July 2005,Victoriawill require all new build to include water saving measures and 5 star-rated (energyefficient) standards, including the option of rainwater harvesting or solar hot waterheating.This will provide an estimated 25 per cent saving for water.

Enforcement of Building Regulations needs to be improved and resourced.

For the regulatory framework to be effective it needs to be complied with.Thereis a degree of non-compliance with the current Building Regulations that wasattributed by stakeholders to various systemic issues.These included the growinggap between the broad range of requirements and the resources within BuildingControl, the lack of skills and poor practices during construction and the lack ofenforcement, perpetuating the cycle of non-compliance. Research from ODPMsuggests two thirds of houses tested failed Part L of the Building Regulations.

The Government is currently looking into how Building Control could be mademore effective and this will be a key factor in improving the efficiency of buildingsthrough regulations.

In addition to monitoring during construction, a fundamental component ofBuilding Control, measures need to be put in place to verify claims made at initialstages of development with the actual running of buildings. Plumbing has asignificant effect on the water consumption of appliances. If the plumbing is notinstalled to the design specification or poor practices are used, the water efficiencystandards can be compromised.

If the enforcement of water efficiency regulations is to work there will need tobe clear responsibility for delivery.This may involve changes to the way contractswork between developers and builders. For example, building contractors may needto be involved in long-term service contracts to support the more complextechnologies, such as rainwater harvesting and grey-water recycling systems. Somedevelopers, like Gusto Homes, do offer these services, but most builders’ just aim tomeet the Building Regulations at lowest cost and greatest efficiency.

using price signals

“There are no fiscal incentives for sustainable homes or for consumers to demand them.”WWF – One Million Sustainable Homes

Using price signals is a good way to stimulate the public into purchasing waterefficient buildings and appliances.The key areas where pricing signals can be createdare through providing consumers with the ability to reduce their costs throughreduced consumption.This involves the widespread use of meters, creating effectiveand innovative pricing structures and incentivising water efficient products throughprice reductions for efficiency and price premiums for inefficiency. Pricing signalshave been used effectively for energy efficiency. Intensive energy users have improvedtheir energy efficiency significantly as a result of tax allowances supported byregulatory changes.VAT reductions on energy efficiency have also been successful inthe Government’s drive to meet emission reduction targets. Water, as a commodity,can be incentivised along the same lines.

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There should be a stronger push for universal metering.

“There is a strong environmental case for universal water metering, particularly in south and east England.”Policy Studies Institute research discussion paper 21xxiv

Metering is an important step towards stimulating public awareness. Although itdoes not necessarily lead to massive reductions in consumption, particularly inmore affluent areas, it does raise awareness of water as a quantifiable resource.

Universal metering provides consumers with the means to manage their use. Itfacilitates usage-based pricing that can safeguard low-income customers and deterhigh-use. Metering has been shown to reduce consumption and stimulate theuptake of water efficient technologies. Metering also provides water companies witha more accurate record of household consumption and helps detect the location ofleaks in the system.

The UK and Ireland are the only countries in the OECD not to have universalmeteringxxv. However, the Water Industry Act 2000 gives all household customerswith individual supply the right to a water meter fitted free of charge. Some watercompanies, notably Anglian, promote metering to customers and most provide aninstallation programme, though some are difficult to find on their websites.

In 2002, only 21 per cent of households inEngland and Wales were metered.There is significantregional variation, with the highest level (53 per cent)in Anglia and the lowest in Portsmouth. Watercompanies aim to meter 55 per cent of homes in thesouth east by 2020, within their water resourcesplans. However water companies and the Environment Agency doubt that this willbe met without significant extra effort. Achieving an increase in the rate of fittingmeters to existing homes will require a firmer commitment from water utilities andGovernment. Achieving universal metering would then provide a level playing fieldfor the introduction of consumption-based charging.

There is a need for progressive charging structures based on use, to support

low-income households and provide a scaled system to deter high users.

Current water charges in the UK are predominantly based on a mixture of therateable value of the house and a flat standing charge.This means that watercharging, unlike all other utilities (gas, electricity and phone) is not based on usage.Of the OECD countries, the UK was judged to be second only to Mexico onregressive water charging that is burdensome on the poor.

If the housing stock is metered, there is an opportunity to bring in moreinnovative charging mechanisms that can have dramatic effects on consumption.The Water Services Association of Australia found a 17 per cent reduction in percapita consumption for a selection of major Australian water utilities following theintroduction of consumption-based pricing. Studies in the UK estimate an initialreduction of 10 per cent following meteringxxvi.

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“ universal metering provides

consumers with the means

to manage their use”

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Careful consideration of the effects on low-income households, and safeguardsto protect resource poverty, need to be considered as part of the solution. However,progressive tariff charging and more appropriately costed pricing provideshouseholds with the ability to manage their water and water bills more effectively. Italso provides the financial incentive to install water saving technologies. It has beenargued that metering is not as cost effective as retrofitting toilets, but as SimonDresner and Paul Etkins argue how are the public going to be persuaded to do sowithout the incentive of reduced costsxxvii.

The important role played by metering in encouraging water conservation andaddressing demand issues should be supported by a fair and equitable chargingstructure. WaterVoice identify four principlesxxviii that metered charging need tofollow:

● Helping promote awareness of consumption;● Providing incentive to conserve water;● Ensuring charges reflect costs of providing water and sewerage services and;● Keeping cross subsidies to a minimum and transparent.

Innovation in water charging can also be used to provide an economic stimulus toaddress flooding and encourage the property-owning public to be responsible fortheir property’s impact within the local community. A good example is the system ofwater charging in Germany where charges are based on the impermeable surfacespace of a property.This is to address run-off and encourage rainwater harvesting, toreduce the local impacts of flooding.The charges do not greatly affect residentialhousing, but provide an economic stimulus to large commercial areas to considersustainable urban drainage and rainwater harvesting as a means to reduce their costs.

The growth area development planned for the south east and east England willalso have an affect on the cost to current residents. New infrastructure and treatmentfacilities will be needed to support the population growth. How this will effect allcustomers will need to be addressed by Ofwat and the water companies.

Reduced VAT should be provided for water efficient products, alternative

supply products and their installation.

Reducing VAT on accredited supplies, such as has been effectively introduced forenergy efficient products, provides not only reduced costs for new build but impactson the retrofitting market. Even with the proposed housing increase in the southeast, the existing housing stock will still be the major problem for demandmanagement.

Reducing VAT on water efficient appliances will provide financial incentive forconsumers when replacing products. It also provides builders with an incentive touse water efficient products in the original design.

For the more substantial water efficiency technologies,VAT reductions will be anincentive to developers, who view the up-front costs of these features as a majorbarrier to their inclusion.

The Water Technology List, developed by Defra and the Inland Revenue inpartnership with Envirowise, provides businesses with an incentive to promotereduced water consumption through product purchases.The benefits are that

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businesses can expect to gain an initial cash boost through an Enhanced CapitalAllowance, as well as an ongoing cost saving on water bills. For this to be effectiveabove retrofitting, water efficient specifications must be included in the initialbuilding design, which will require a change in focus from end-user to investor.

The Government will have to convince the EU that VAT reductions on waterefficiency products are within the competitiveness agreement. Reduced VAT onrepair and maintenance would also have an impact on the existing housing stock,but may be more difficult to convince on competitiveness grounds.

WWF also suggest reduced VAT could be applied to new homes meeting ‘verygood’ water efficiency standard.

Stamp duty reductions should be applied to resource efficient homes.

“Recent research shows that almost nine out of ten consumers are dissatisfied with the present [realestate] system.”The Home Information Pack

There is a 70 per cent owner-occupier rate in the UK (according to RICS).Thehousing market could therefore have a great influence on the uptake of waterefficiency measures.This is also an area where consumers are dissatisfied with theamount of information available prior to sale.

The running costs of a house are generally one of the last things on a buyer’smind in the stressful and often rushed process of buying a home.They do, however,significantly contribute to domestic costs overtime. As such with the addition of all the legalfees and survey charges associated withpurchase, small differences in house price tendto play a major factor in decisions, rather thanpotential savings.

The desire for more backgroundinformation about properties by buyers hasbeen taken seriously by Government.The provision of more information on theenergy efficiency of houses through the Home Information Pack is a majoradvancement in the ability of homebuyers to take advantage of reduced runningcosts. The massive response (87 per cent in favour of sustainable construction) tothe home buyers’ survey run by WWF as part of their One Million SustainableHomes Campaign, also demonstrates that the market is changing and consumers arebecoming more aware of the whole life cycle costs of houses.

However, to reach those who cannot afford the higher initial costs, reducedstamp duty – coupled with standardised provision of information to consumers for all housing sales – would bring about greater understanding of running costs asa major consideration when buying.This also follows the principle of ‘polluterpays’, and provides the incentive for efficiency gains to be seen as value addinginvestment. As suggested by WWF, the Code for Sustainable Buildings could providea standard for compliance.

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“ reducing VAT on water efficient

appliances will provide financial

incentive for consumers when

replacing products”

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Expansion of the Green Landlords Scheme to cover water efficient products.

Private landlords have no incentive to reduce the running costs of housing.To address this, Budget 2004 announced a landlord’s energy saving allowance toprovide individual private landlords with up-front relief on capital expenditure to a value of £1,500 for specific energy saving installations in rented accommodation.This needs to be extended to the installation of water efficiency technologies.

The Government is also considering introducing a green landlord scheme, tolook at incentives for landlords – possibly through recognition of properties thatachieve a sufficient level of energy efficiency. Again, this needs to include waterefficiency in water scarce areas.

Landlords could be persuaded by providing tax incentives, such as Enhanced CapitalAllowances (like those that apply to energy efficiency technologies) to offset the cost ofinstallation or Domestic Business Allowances to offset the cost of installation.

labelling and consumer awareness

Consumer awareness needs to be taken seriously by all those involved in watersupply. At present, the public in the UK have an astonishingly low sense of the valueof water. For a water efficient housing market to prosper, the consumer will be oneof the fundamental drivers.

In general, builders provide the lowest-cost houses and manufacturers providethe lowest-cost appliances. Once the consumer starts demanding water efficiency,the market will provide. However, the vicious circle is that the consumer will notstart demanding something that they cannot comprehend.

The proposed national voluntary water consumption labelling scheme for

water-using appliances, fittings and fixtures should be mandatory.

“Labelling and information to consumers can drive changes in spending decisions and increase themarket or water efficient products.”Environmentalist

The Energy Label has transformed the white goods market in favour of higherenergy and water efficiencyxxix. Manufacturers have tended towards designingproducts to meet label requirements.The degree of water efficiency in electronicgoods therefore is not currently related to cost. Public awareness of energyefficiency has also increased as a response to labelling.

There is a wide range in the water efficiency of different household products.However, the more water efficient options may be overlooked by customers due tolow awareness of water issues and water prices, poor access to water efficiencyinformation during product selection and because products are often chosen bybuilders or plumbers, rather than by the party who will bear the ultimate runningcostsxxx. Labelling has been shown to be an effective means of communicating toconsumers at point of purchase. For example, energy efficiency ratings of appliancesare quoted as standard in advertising.

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Voluntary labelling can be effective if consumer demand already exists. However,as the energy efficiency labelling scheme demonstrates, there is good evidence tosupport compulsory labelling as a way of influencing the market.

In Australia, water issues have been in the public realm for some time,particularly since the droughts in the early 1990s.There has been a voluntary waterefficiency label in Australia since 1988, run by the WaterServices Association. Although it was set up as acomparative scale system underpinned by standards, thevoluntary nature of the programme meant that it operatedmore as an endorsement labelxxxi. This was due to the factthat the label had limited coverage and was predominantlyused by water companies to promote rebate schemes. Aftercost-benefit analysis was applied to the potential for amandatory scheme to increase the uptake of water efficient appliances, theAustralian Government has enacted legislation to support mandatory labelling.

The Government is currently investigating the potential to introduce a voluntarylabelling scheme for water efficiency in the UK. Although the transition mayeventually lead to a mandatory system, the proposed increase in development meansthat influencing the market in the short term is paramount. Manufacturers at theforefront of design would benefit from the introduction of increased standards,while it would act as a benchmark for the least efficient designs.

Public awareness could be encouraged by a Water Saving Trust.

The Government is currently investigating the potential of a Water Saving Trust,through a feasibility study commissioned by the Environment Agency.

The Energy Saving Trust co-ordinates campaigns and initiatives to educate thepublic on sustainable energy solutions. Its remit includes policy analysis, awarenessraising, provision of advice and support for innovation grants, informationprovision, accreditation and technical advice.

In order to make a concerted effort to get water conservation messages across tothe public, we support the development of a Water Saving Trust. The trust’s mainobjectives should include information programmes, providing funds to co-ordinateinitiatives, research and publicity.

a better business case

“Manufacturers have the capability to vastly improve the efficiency of all water using appliances,fixtures and fittings, but need the market stimulation to do this.”Sustainable developer

“The economics will need to be convincing to change behaviour.”Manufacturer

Increasing the demand for water efficient buildings is the route from a nicheindustry to mainstream. Good planning and regulatory frameworks are necessaryto support and encourage uptake of water efficiency, but the financial drivers will

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“ labelling has been shown

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consumers”

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determine the longevity of the industry. There are many ways of addressingdemand issues and a combined approach will be most successful. Providing abetter business case is going to be fundamental to stimulating increased waterefficiency in new build.

There needs to be a clear definition of the business case to include water

efficiency measures in development.

“Construction industry sits in between planners and consumers – so both planners and consumersare needed to set the right framework.”Industry expert

“Perceived Barrier to Sustainable Homes: Investors aren’t interested in sustainability, they want aquick return and maximum profits.”WWF One Million Sustainable Homes

Developers will not engage until they are convinced that water efficiencytechnologies in housing design will provide a financial incentive to investors.

Designers specialising in sustainable construction are niche and the reality is thatthe upfront costs of rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling are greater than astandard design. In the eyes of developers, this puts their creations into the realm ofpublic sector projects and high-cost homes, rather than mainstream.

However, that is not the end of the story.The Government commissioned aninvestigation into the cost-effectiveness of water efficient products in households.The study found that a significant level of water efficiency can be achieved withlittle or no over-cost to constructionxxxii. The decoupling of cost and efficiency wasattributed to energy efficiency labelling. It was found that in appliances that useelectricity and water, such as washing machines and dishwashers, reducing theamount of water that needs heating reduces the energy requirements.Thus, energyefficient appliances are, by default, water efficient. Manufacturers now produceappliances to energy standards across the spectrum of quality and price levels,resulting from the increase in demand for energy efficient products across theconsumer spectrum.

For the more technical measures that require up-front investment, the returns canstill be cost-effective.The more substantial systems such as rainwater harvesting andgrey-water recycling come with increased up-front costs. However, these systemsprovide reduced running costs over the life cycle of the building.The stumblingblock is that the initial investment in the property is typically unrelated to the personpaying the water bill.The long waiting lists for BedZED units demonstrates that thereis a market for sustainable housing and that consumers recognise that running costsand environmental impacts can be catered for in design.

Investors are also becoming increasingly interested in demonstrating theircorporate social responsibility. A report by WWF on the top 13 FTSE-listed housebuilders indicates that the majority of building companies are not addressingsustainability issuesxxxiii. This demonstrates that, far from being a market issue, themainstream construction industry is simply lagging behind as a sector.The example

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of the Essex and Suffolk Water funded water efficiency scheme in a new housingdevelopment at Haybridge concurs with this lack of interest in sustainability.Thecost-effective initiative trailed by the scheme was not taken up by any developers.

One of the major lessons of the BedZED development is that lifetime servicedelivery agents need to be engaged in the project from the earliest stages to ensurethat the communal systems can be operated effectively and at a profitxxxiv. Theselessons can be picked up by developers and incorporated into design.

Current payback on domestic rainwater harvesting systems can be up to 10-20years which is ineffective for the short term investor or buy-to-let market. However,as water prices increase and with an increased level of metering, payback periodswill reduce. Larger schemes can pay back in less than five years, which shouldprovide a big incentive for commercial development. A recent study by ThamesWater found that large-scale systems provide much better returns.There isconsiderable potential to encourage the market to move towards water efficientproducts, through a change in attitude to how our houses operate.

With the support of legislation, leadership through planning and the increasingpublic awareness, not only of the environmental benefits, but the cost-efficiency of more sustainable homes, a clear business case can be made for improvinghousing operation.

Communication between industries must be improved to bridge the

knowledge gaps and support change

“The sustainable housing agenda is stuck in a vicious circle of blame…with developers, builders,investors and users.”Industry expert

“The sustainable construction industry needs more people with the right skills and knowledge todeliver the technology.”Sustainable developer

Throughout this project, stakeholder repeatedly stressed the need to improvecommunication and cross-sector skills sharing.

As Sir John Egan found in his review of sustainable communities, an increase inskills is needed in the construction industry to provide the technological deliverythat developers will be requesting. In this research, it was perceived that mostdevelopers tack on efficiency, be it for energy or water, as an after-thought to theirdesign plans. One example of this is insulation. When a house is designed poorly,insulation may have the reverse effect and require energy intensive air conditioning.This is a fault with many office buildings.

Resource efficiency measures play an integral part in the operation of thebuilding and need to be considered at the outset. With rainwater harvesting,greywater recycling, green roofs and onsite wastewater treatment, the technologyrequires major landscaping and installation, as well as dual supply plumbing.Thisrequires developments to be a collaborative product between designers, builders,technology experts and landscapers from the outset. Although there are good

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examples of building companies with all of these skills, communication will beessential for others.

A National Academy for Sustainable Communities Skills, to be established inLeeds, may provide an effective communication hub for the construction sector.This will be useful to bridge knowledge gaps and support more case studies of bestpractice. Careful attention to how the communication channels operate within theconstruction industry will be fundamental to the success of the Academy, as practicalimplementation is the key to changing practices.

The Government needs to set a progressive procurement agenda for the

growth areas that accounts for the resource limitations.

“The Private Finance Initiative can and should be used as a lever to transform the constructionsector in the UK towards greater sustainability of products and practices.”PFI: meeting the sustainability challenge, Green Alliance.

The Government can lead from the front by making the right procurementdecisions. Procurement can be used to provide best practice examples ofconstruction and design, and stimulates the market for environmental technologies.

A recent European Commission reportxxxv points out that “If all European publicauthorities opted for efficient toilets and taps in their buildings, this would reducewater consumption by 200 million tonnes.” If UK public buildings had waterefficiency targets, this would reduce demand significantly and provide a strongmessage to the commercial sector.The introduction of water efficient technologiesin public facilities, such as the Kingsmead Primary School, also providesopportunities for learning and public awareness raising within the local community.This promotes the objectives of sustainable development through publicprocurement and links to the sustainable consumption agenda, providing a cross-sectoral approach.

Private Finance Units could set programme-specific water efficiency standardsand targets in water scarce areas. Public buildings, school and hospitals could berequired to collect data on the water efficiency performance that would provide animproved evidence base for whole-life value models in future.

One of the key aims of the Code for Sustainable Buildings was for it to be arequirement of doing business with Government.This would bring water efficiencyinto the approvals process of public procurement and PFI, as well as into the mindsof the public through their experiences with the public sector.

Another key benefit to including water efficiency in public procurement is theboost it would provide to the technology and sustainable construction markets. Thiswould result from the increased demand for water efficiency measures in new buildand the resulting interest from the private sector and consumer through raisedpublic awareness.

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list of interviews

Aquality Trading & Consulting Ltd – Lutz Johnen

BRE – Martin Shouler

Cambridgeshire Horizons – Peter Studdert

Countryside Agency – Joanna Russell

Essex and Suffolk Water – Dr Clare Ridgeway

Gusto Homes – Steff Wright

Imperial College Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering – David Butler

Newton Industrial Group Ltd – John Howarth

Ofwat – Nicola Simpson

Skanska – Robert Lambert

Stanhope – Rob Watts

Thames Gateway London Partnership – Alex Nickson

Thurrock County Council – Clare Lambert

Town and Country Planning Association – Robert Shaw

Taylor Woodrow – Katherine Hyde

Water UK – Jacob Tompkins

White Design – Linda Farrow

consultation

BRE – George Martin

Cambridge City Council – Sally Pidgeon

CIWEM – Nick Reeves and Ilana Cravitz

DEFRA – Peter Jiggins and Robin Mynard

Environment Agency – Elliot Robertson and David Calderbank

Faber Maunsell – Tom Randall

ODPM – Paul Williams and Claire Skipsey

Thames Water – Dr Peter Spillett, James Page and Esther Thompson

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notes and references

i The Gobal Water Crisis – Why Save Water? Savewater.com.au

ii Sustainable communities: Building for the future, ODPM, February 2003.

iii http://www.waterexchangeuk.com/index.htm

iv State of the Environment 2004 South East England, Environment Agency, 2004.

vi State of the Environment 2004 South East England, Environment Agency, 2004.

vii Climate Change,Water Security and Flooding Environment Food and Rural AffairsCommittee, September 2004.

viii Quote from Graham Setterfield – Chairman of South East Water ResourcesForum.

ix PPS1 – Delivering Sustainable Development, ODPM, February 2005.

x Changing Patterns: UK framework for sustainable consumption and production, Defra,September 2003.

xi Directing the Flow – Priorities for Future Water Policy, Defra, November 2002.

xii Launched by Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott in January 2003

xiii Creating Sustainable Communities: Making it happen, ODPM, 2003.

xiv Housing: Building a Sustainable Future, Environment Audit Committee, January 2005.

xv The Barker Review of Housing Supply; Final Report, Kate Barker, March 2004.

xvi The Egan Review: Skills for Sustainable Communities, Sir John Egan, April 2004.

xvii One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway, A WWF-UK One Million Sustainable HomesCampaign report, 2002.

xviii Can we keep the water flowing? Bob Foster, Aquarius Rainwater Systems,Building for the Future, Volume 14, No. 1, Summer 2004, page 17.

xix Demand Management Bulletin, Environment Agency, Issue 64, April 2004.

xx Creating Sustainable Communities: Greening the Gateway.A greenspace strategy for the ThamesGateway, ODPM, January 2004.

xxi Demand Management Bulletin, Environment Agency, Issue 64, April 2004.

xxii The growth of Green Roofs, Sustain’ Magazine,V05, i05, 2004, page 25.

xxiii Environment Agency review of the BRE eco-homes standards.

xxiv Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, SimonDresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.

xxv Improving water management: Recent OECD experience, 2003, Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development – referenced in Towards the Design of anEnvironmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresnerand Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.

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xxvi National Metering Trials Working Group 1993 referenced in Towards the Design ofan Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, Simon Dresner and PaulEtkins, Policy Studies Institute 2004.

xxvii Towards the Design of an Environmentally and Socially conscious water metering tariff, SimonDresner and Paul Etkins, Policy Studies Institute, 2004.

xxviii Metering:WaterVoice Policy Statement, November 2004.

xxix The economics of water efficient products in the household. Prepared for the EnvironmentAgency by Elemental Solutions, Author: Nick Grant, June 2003.

xxx A Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme for Australia – Final Report, Prepared for theAustralian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, by GeorgeWilkenfeld and Associates Pty Ltd with Artcraft Research, Energy EfficientStrategies and Tomorrow Today, June 2003.

xxxi A Mandatory Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme for Australia – Final Report.

xxxii The economics of water efficient products in the household. Prepared for the EnvironmentAgency by Elemental Solutions, Author: Nick Grant, June 2003.

xxxiii Building towards Sustainability: performance and progress among the UK’s leading house-builders.WWF.

xxxiv Chris Shirley-Smith, Water Works UK, presentation at Planning for Water,21 October, 2004.

xxxv Buying Green! – A handbook on environmental public procurement – EU Commission,August 2004.

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Green Alliance40 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W 0REtel: 020 7233 7433 fax: 020 7233 9033email: [email protected]: www.green-alliance.org.uk