Bingham Centre Myanmar Project€¦ · Bingham Centre Myanmar Project . Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law . October - November 2014

Bingham Centre Myanmar Project

Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law

October - November 2014

www.binghamcentre.biicl.org

http://www.binghamcentre.biicl.org/

Table of Contents

Agenda…………………………………………………………………………3

Bingham Centre Constitutional Awareness Manual………………………..4

Constitutional Reform in Myanmar: Priorities and Prospects for Amendment

– Naina Patel and Alex Goodman…………………………………………..28

Executive Power in Myanmar – Professor Sir Jeffrey Jowell KCMG QC…57

Constitutional Transitions and the Role of the Military – Andrew

McLeod………………………………………………………………………..75

Exercising Executive Power in Myanmar: Constitutional Options for

Safeguarding the Rule of Law in Public Administration – Marcus Brand…84

Federalism in Asia – Rohan Edrisinha…………………………………….110

Access to Laws: Publication of the Law (Slides) – Gaythri Raman………123

Biographies of speakers……………………………………………………125

AGENDA

Friday 31st October

1630 Registration

1645 Opening Remarks Sir Jeffrey Jowell KCMG QC

1700- 18.45

Constitutional Amendment: section 436 and options for the amendment process This session will include two short talks on the amendment provisions in Myanmar’s Constitution as well as discussion and questions. Other countries considered will include France, South Africa, Indonesia and the UK Naina Patel and Alex Goodman

1915- 2030

Executive Power: selecting the President and Executive powers This session will include a short talk followed by discussion and questions. Other countries considered will include Argentina, Brazil, Turkey, Indonesia and the UK. Sir Jeffrey Jowell KCMG QC

Saturday 1st November

1000-1145

Constitutional transition: the military’s role in Myanmar’s transition to democracy. This session will include a short talk followed by discussion and questions. Other countries considered will include Spain, Egypt and Indonesia. Dr Andrew McLeod

11.45 LUNCH

12.30-12.45

The Priorities of the Myanmar People This session will include a short talk on the Bingham Centre’s Constitutional Bus Tour. U Aung Soe

1245- 1430

Mechanisms of Accountability: the Courts, Judiciary and administrative justice This session will include discussion and questions. Issues considered will include the powers of the Supreme Court to issue writs; Courts Martial; the Constitutional Tribunal and judicial appointments. Dr Marcus Brand

1430 BREAK

1445-1615

The Structure of the State: Myanmar’s options for a federalism/decentralisation This session will include a short talk followed by discussion and questions. Other countries considered will include India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Rohan Edrisinha

1615-1645

Publication of the Law This session will include a short talk on the importance of transparency and the publication of laws. Raman Gaythri of Lexis Nexis

1645-1700

Closing Remarks Sir Jeffrey Jowell KCMG QC

ConstitutionalAwareness Myanmar

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13


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23


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25


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26

Gaythri RamanLexisNexisT1-6 Jaya 33

Jalan Semangat, Section 1346100 Petaling Jaya

T 603 7882 3555F 603 7882 3501

E [email protected]

www.lexisnexis.com.my @LexisNexisMY #LN4ROL

Naina PatelThe Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law

Charles Clore House17 Russell SquareLondon WC1B 5JP

T020 7862 5151F020 7862 5152

E [email protected]


To learn more or for more information, contact:

27

Constitutional Reform in Myanmar: Priorities and Prospects


January 2014

Bingham Centre Working Paper No 2014/01


28

Authors and Acknowledgements

This paper was written by Naina Patel, Director of Training and Education at the Bingham Centre, together with Alex Goodman and Naomi Snider. We are also grateful to our anonymous donor for making the underlying project in Myanmar possible.

Citation

This paper should be cited as: N. Patel, A. Goodman and N. Snider, Constitutional Reform inMyanmar: Priorities and Prospects for Amendment (Bingham Centre Working Paper No 2014/01), Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law, BIICL, London, 2014.

Contact for this Document

Naina Patel Director of Education and Training Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law Charles Clore House 17 Russell Square London WC1B 5JP

Tel: +44 (0)20 7862 5154 Email: [email protected]

About The Bingham Centre

The Bingham Centre was launched in December 2010. The Centre is named after Lord Bingham of Cornhill KG, the pre;eminent judge of his generation and a passionate advocate of the rule of law. The Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law is an independent research institute devoted to the study and promotion of the rule of law worldwide. It is distinguished in the UK and internationally by its specific focus on the rule of law. Its focus is on understanding and promoting the rule of law; considering the challenges it faces; providing an intellectual framework within which it can operate; and fashioning the practical tools to support it. Email: [email protected]

Bingham Centre Working Papers are available at: www.binghamcentre.biicl.org

The Bingham Centre is a constituent part of the British Institute for International and Comparative Law (BIICL) (Registered Charity No 209425, Company Registration 615025), a leading independent research organisation founded over fifty years ago. www.biicl.org

29

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1/ jrefrmEdkifiH\ wwd,ajrmuf ESifY vuf&SdzGJUpnf;yHkjzpfonfU jynfaxmifpkor®w jrefrm EdkifiHawmf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' (]]zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'}}) udk jrefrmEdkifiHwGif tqdk;&Gm;qHk; obm0 ab;tEÅ&m,f jzpfaom qkdifuvHk; em*pf wdkufcwfNyD; (8) &ufcefYom &Sdcsdef? 2008 ckESpf arv (10)&ufaeUü jynfolUqE cH,lyGJ usif;yNyD; twnfjyKjyXmef;cJYygonf/ zGJYpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJcsdefwGif trsm;jynfol yg0ifrI r&SdcJY? odkUr[kwf r&Sdoavmufyif jzpfygonf/ jynfolUqEćH,lyGJ rusif;yrD wpfvtvdkwGifrS tqdkjyKpmom;udk xkwfa0cJYí rJqEe,f trsm;tjym;yif vufvSrf; rrD rod&SdcJYMuay1/

2/ odkUaomfvnf;? jrefrmEdkifiHonf rMumao;rDu zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifrIESifY pyfvsOf;í trsm; jynfoltm; tMuHjyKcsuf wifjy&ef urf;vSrf;um? trsm;yg0ifonfU 'Drdkua&pD usifYpOfokdU ta&;ygaom ajcvSrf; vSrf;cJYygonf/ 2013 ckESpf ZlvkdifvwGif jynfaxmifpkjrefrmEdkifiHawmf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&; yl;wGJ aumfrwD wpf&yfudk atmufyg&nf&G,fcsufrsm;jzifY zGJUpnf;cJYygonf2/

• jynfaxmifpk or®wEdkifiHawmf wnfwHYcdkifNrJa&;? wnfNidrfat;csrf;a&;ESifY om,mzGHUNzdK;a&; /

• wkdif;&if;om;rsm;ESifY vlrsdK;pkrsm; tMum; pnf;vHk;nDnGwfa&; wnfaqmufjcif;jzifY xm0&Nidrf;csrf;a&; azmfaqmifa&;/

• EdkifiHawmf wnfaqmufa&;twGuf 'Drdkua&pD jyKjyifajymif;vJrI azmfaqmifa&;/

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3/ xdktBuHjyKcsufaumufcHonfYumvtwGif;? Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law ("the Bingham Centre") rS jrefrmEdkifiHom;rsm; yg0iftBuHjyKa&; tm;ay;wkdufwGef;&ef vIyf&Sm;rI pDrHcsufwpf&yfwGif yg0ifaqmif&Guf cJYygonf/ Bingham Centreonf 2013 ckESpf atmufwkdbm ESifY 2013 ckeSpf 'DZifbmvtMum; jrefrmEdkifiH a'otESHUtjym;ü vltrsm; wufa&mufcJU onfU tvkyf½HkaqG;aEG;yGJrsm;wGif tultnDrsm; ay;cJYygonf/ xkdtvkyf½Hk aqG;aEG;yGJrsm;\ &v'ftjzpf aumfrwD xHodkU vl 500 ausmf tBuHjyKpmrsm; a&;om; ay;ydkUMu ygonf/ jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf jynfolrsm;\ OD;pm;ay;&yfrsm;udk Bingham Centre \ tawGUtBuHK t& atmufwGif tESpfcsKyf azmfjyxm;ygonf/

4/ odkUaomf?tvkyf½HkaqG;aEG;yGJaygif;ajrmufrsm;pGmü wufa&mufoltrsm;pku xkwfazmf wifjycJYaom jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf vwfwavmOD;pm;ay;&yfrSm zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyifqifa&;qkdif&m vkyfxHk; vkyfenf; BuD;av;cufcJrIudk jyifqif&ef yifjzpfonf/ rjyifqifEdkifvQif jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;vkyf&ef tvGef trif; cufcJvdrfYrnfjzpfonf/ trsm;jynfol pdk;&drfrIrsm;udk oabmaygufap&ef þjyifqifa&; vkyfxHk; vkyfenf; yg tydkif; (3) ydkif; aygif;pyfvkdufjcif;jzifY uREfkyfwkdU\ tjrifwGif MuD;av;cufcJapaMumif;udk urÇmwpfvTm;&Sd tjcm;EdkifiHrsm;\ zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'rsm;ESifY EIdif;,SOfMunfY&ef þpmwrf;jzifY wifjyxm; ygonf/ xkdtydkif; (3) ydkif;rSm-

1 B. Rogers, Burma: A Nation at the Crossroads (Random House, 2012), pp.205;7. 2 These aims reflect some of the goals of the Constitution of the Republic of Myanmar itself expressed in the Preamble as a resolution to “– steadfastly adhere to the objectives of non;disintegration of the union, non;disintegration of national solidarity, and perpetuation of sovereigntyH [to] stalwartly strive for further burgeoning the eternal principles namely justice, equality, and perpetuation of peace and prosperity of the National people”. 3 “Myanmar President Thein Sein supports changing constitution, making Suu Kyi eligible to lead’ (Australia Network News, 3 January 2014), available at http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014;01;02/an;myanmar;constitution/5182916.

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• zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'ygjyXmef;csufjyifqifa&;vTwfawmfvkyfxHk;vkyfenf;onf jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,ftm;vHk;\75 &mcdkifEIef;ausmfuausmfuausmfuausmfu oabmwl vufcH&ef vkdygonf/(yk'fr 436 zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya')

• zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\jyXmef;csuft&vTwfawmfwpf&yfpDüwyfrawmfom;udk,fpm;vS,f25&mckdifEIef;yg0iffonf/ vuf&SdtcsdefwGif jrefrmzGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya't& trsdK;om;vTwfawmfESifY jynfolUvTwfESpf&yf aygif;wGif (vTwfawmf ESpf&yfpvHk;wGif ukd,fpm;vS,ftjynfY &Sdonf[k ,lqí) a&G;aumufcH udk,fpm;vS,f 75&mcdkifEIef;ESifY wyfrawmfumuG,fa&;OD;pD;csKyfu trnfpm&if; wifoGif;onfU wyfrawmfom; udk,fpm;vS,f25&mcdkifEIef; yg0ifonf/ (yk'fr 109 (c) ESifY 141 (c) zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya')

• zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya't& t"du jyXmef;csufrsm; jyifqifrIudk jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmfrSoabmwlvufcHNyD;aemuf? jynfvHk;uRwf qEcH,lyGJ usif;yNyD; qErJay;ydkifcGifY&Sdol tm;vHk;\ xuf0ufausmfqErJjzifYom jyifqif&rnf/ (yk'fr 436 (u)zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya')

þjyXmef;csuftm;vHk;udkpkaygif;vkdufvQif?yxrOD;pGmwyfrawmfumuG,fa&;OD;pD;csKyfu trnfpm&if; wifoGif;onfU wyfrawmfom;udk,fpm;vS,frsm;onf rnfonfUjyifqif&ef tqdkjyKcsufudk rqkd ADwdktmPmjzifY y,fydkifcGifY&&Sdaejcif;? 'kwd,tcsuftaeESifY xdkodkU jyXmef;csufrsm;udkjyifqifEdkif&ef xdkADwdktmPmudk ausmfvTm;&½Hkru qErJay;ydkifcGifY&Sdol tm;vHk;onf xuf0ufausmfqE´rJjzifY oabmwl&rnfjzpfonf/

5/5/5/5/ odkUjzpfodkUjzpfodkUjzpfodkUjzpfíííí? þpmwrf;? þpmwrf;? þpmwrf;? þpmwrf;\\\\ yxryxryxryxr&nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'&nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'&nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'&nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' xdef;ausmif;onfUxdef;ausmif;onfUxdef;ausmif;onfUxdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drdkua&pD 'Drdkua&pD 'Drdkua&pD 'Drdkua&pD EdkifiHrsm;EdkifiHrsm;EdkifiHrsm;EdkifiHrsm;\\\\ pHEIef;rsm;tpHEIef;rsm;tpHEIef;rsm;tpHEIef;rsm;t&&&&???? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifa&; jyXmef;csufrsm;udk avYvmoHk;oyfjcif;jzifYjyifqifa&; jyXmef;csufrsm;udk avYvmoHk;oyfjcif;jzifYjyifqifa&; jyXmef;csufrsm;udk avYvmoHk;oyfjcif;jzifYjyifqifa&; jyXmef;csufrsm;udk avYvmoHk;oyfjcif;jzifY???? jrefrmEdkifiHjyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf OD;pm;ay;&yfrsm;udk jrefrmEdkifiHjyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf OD;pm;ay;&yfrsm;udk jrefrmEdkifiHjyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf OD;pm;ay;&yfrsm;udk jrefrmEdkifiHjyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf OD;pm;ay;&yfrsm;udk owfrSwf Edkif&efowfrSwf Edkif&efowfrSwf Edkif&efowfrSwf Edkif&ef vrf;ñTefrIay;&ef jzpfygonf/ vrf;ñTefrIay;&ef jzpfygonf/ vrf;ñTefrIay;&ef jzpfygonf/ vrf;ñTefrIay;&ef jzpfygonf/ 'kwd, &nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyifqifonfY enf;vrf;'kwd, &nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyifqifonfY enf;vrf;'kwd, &nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyifqifonfY enf;vrf;'kwd, &nf&G,fcsufrSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyifqifonfY enf;vrf;rsm;rsm;rsm;rsm;udk udk udk udk avYvmavYvmavYvmavYvmoHk;oyf&ef oHk;oyf&ef oHk;oyf&ef oHk;oyf&ef jzpfygonf/jzpfygonf/jzpfygonf/jzpfygonf/

6/6/6/6/ Bingham Centre taeESifY rnfonfU jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqif&eftm;ay;jcif;taeESifY rnfonfU jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqif&eftm;ay;jcif;taeESifY rnfonfU jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqif&eftm;ay;jcif;taeESifY rnfonfU jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqif&eftm;ay;jcif;? BuHaqmifjcif;? BuHaqmifjcif;? BuHaqmifjcif;? BuHaqmifjcif; jyKrnf jyKrnf jyKrnf jyKrnf r[kwfbJ? jrefrmEdkifir[kwfbJ? jrefrmEdkifir[kwfbJ? jrefrmEdkifir[kwfbJ? jrefrmEdkifiHom;rsm;Hom;rsm;Hom;rsm;Hom;rsm;\\\\ qE´tay:om vHk;0 rlwnfqE´tay:om vHk;0 rlwnfqE´tay:om vHk;0 rlwnfqE´tay:om vHk;0 rlwnfygonf/ygonf/ygonf/ygonf/

7/ þpmwrf;\ yxrtydkif;wGif zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk EdIif;,SOf cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf; azmfjyxm;NyD;? txufyg tydk'f (4)wGif azmfjycJYaom zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg tydk'frsm;onf urÇmwGif tjrpfpGJ cufcJqHk;jzpfaMumif; jyoxm;ygonf/ cJGjcrf;pdwfjzmrIt&? vuf&SdzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfonf vufawGUusjcif;r&SdaMumif;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'jzifYxdef;ausmif; onfU 'Drdkua&pD\ oabmw&m;rsm;ESifYa&m? tjcm;urÇmYEdkifiHwpf0ef;wGif usifYoHk;vsuf&SdonfY zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'trsm;pk\ pHEIef;rsm;ESifYyg udkufnDrI r&SdaMumif; jyoygonf/

8/ pmwrf;\ 'kwd,tydkif;wGif jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOf oHk;oyfcsufrsm; yg&SdNyD;? jrefrmEdkifiHtwGuf a&G;cs,fp&m vrf;oG,f (3) ck &SdaMumif;? (1)zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;ESifYtnD jyifqifjcif; (tif'dkeD;&Sm;\ jyifqifrIvkyfief;pOfudk oHk;oyfxnfYoGif;) (2)zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'topf vHk;vHk;vsm;vsm; jyefvnfa&;qGJ jyXmef;jcif; (awmiftmz&du\ jyifqifrI vkyfief;pOf oHk;oyfxnfYoGif;)? (3)zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg jyifqifa&; vkyfxHk; vkyfenf;ESifYtnD rvkyfbJ zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'\ t"du tydkif;rsm;udk jyifqifjcif; (om"u tjzpf jyifopfEdkifiHwGif ppfNyD;acwfumv jyifqifrI vkyfief;pOf) ponfU (3) csufudk azmfjy xm;ygonf/ cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrIt&? þa&G;cs,f&efenf;vrf; (3)&yfpvHk;onf w&m;0if onf[k ½IjrifMunfYEdkifaomfvnf;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twkdif; jyifqif&ef ueOD;BudK;yrf;rIonf jrefrmEdkifiHtwGif; Nidrf;csrf;om,ma&; wnfwHYap&ef taumif;qHk; jzpfrnf[k ,lq&ygonf/

31

9/ aemufqufwGJ (u)wGif jrefrmEdkifiHwGif; usif;ycJYonfU aqG;aEG;yGJrsm;rS Bingham Centre &&SdonfU tawGUtBuHKrsm;udk tusOf;rQ azmfjyxm;NyD;? aemufqufwGJ (c)wGif urÇmY EdkifiH rsm;\ zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'yg pyfvsOf;&mjyXmef;csufrsm;udk Z,m;rsm;jzifY azmfjy xm;ygonf/

zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOf

10/ uREfkyfwkdUwufa&mufcJYonfUtvkyf½HkaqG;aEG;yGJrsm;wGifyg0ifwufa&mufol trsm;tjym; ajymMum; cJUaom pdk;&drfrIudk axmuf&INyD;? þpmwrf;wGif zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg vuf&Sd vkyfxHk; vkyfenf;rsm;udk tjcm; urÇmYEkdifiHrsm;\ vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;ESifY wkdif;wmEdIif;,SOfjyum? acwfrD zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya' xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drdkua&pDEdkifiHrsm;\ trsm;vufcHNyD;jzpfonfU oabmw&m;rsm;ESifY rnfodkU udkufnDrI &Sdonf r&Sdonfudk ,SOfjyxm;ygonf/

11/ jrefrm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya't& rnfonfU ta&;BuD;jyXmef;csufrsm;udkjzpfap jyifqifjcif;rjyKrD? tqifY (3) qifY aqmif&Guf&rnfjzpfygonf/ yxrOD;pGm? jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmfrS jyifqifcsufudk vufcH aqG;aEG;&ef? jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f pkpkaygif;\ 20 &mcdkifEIef;u tqkdjyK&rnfjzpfygonf/ (yk'fr 435? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya')/ 'kwd,tqifYrSm? rnfonfUtqkdjyKjyifqifrI rqdk? jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f aygif;\ 75 &mcdkifEIef;ausmfu jyifqif&ef ueOD; oabmwl&rnfjzpfygonf/ (yk'fr 436 (u)ESifY (c)?zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya') wwd,tqifYrSm?zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg ta&;BuD; jyXmef;csufrsm;ESifY pyfvsOf;í tqkdjyKjyifqifcsufudk jynfvHk;uRwf qEcH,lyGJ usif;yNyD; qErJay; ydkifcGifY&Sdoltm;vHk;\ xuf0ufausmfqE´rJjzifY axmufcHrI&,l&ef xyfrHvkdtyfonf/ (yk'fr 436 (u) zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya')/ þjyXmef;csufrsm;onf jyifqif&efvTwfawmf\ 75 &mcdkifEIef; ESifY qEćH,lyGJ wkdU\ axmufcHrI&,l&efvkdonfU jrefrmEdkifiH 1974 zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'udk ydkrdk cdkifrmonfU yHkpHjzifY jyKjyif a&;qGJxm;jcif; jzpfaumif;jzpfEdkifygonf4/ þjyXmef;csufrsm;ESifY EdIif;,SOf&ef urÇmwpf0ef;&Sd tjcm;EdkifiH jyXmef;csufrsm;toD;oD;udk azmfjyxm;ygonf/ þae&mwGif uREfkyfwkdUtjrifwGif jyifqifa&; vkyfief;pOfwGif oufa&mufrI tBuD;qHk;&Sdrnf [k,lq&onfU jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOf\ 'kwd,ESifY wwd,tqifYrsm; 5udkom urÇmY zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfrsm;ESifY tav;ay; EdIif;,SOfxm;ygonf/

u/ u/ u/ u/ trsm;pkqE´trsm;pkqE´trsm;pkqE´trsm;pkqE´rJrJrJrJjzifY jyifqifjcif;/jzifY jyifqifjcif;/jzifY jyifqifjcif;/jzifY jyifqifjcif;/

12/ uREfkyfwkdUavYvmcJUonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'aygif; 189 ck (jrefrmEdkifiHtygt0if) teuf? 177 ckwGif jyifqifa&; vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm; yg&SdNyD;? vTwfawmfwGif; qE´rJtrsm;pkjzifY jyifqifrI jyKvkyf&ef vdkaMumif; jyXmef;xm;Muygonf/ EdkifiH trsm;pku ( vTwfawmf wpf&yf wnf; jzpfap? vTwfawmf ESpf&yf jzpfap)? vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,f 3 yHk 2 yHku oabmwl twnfjyKNyD;rS zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifrIrsm; jyKvkyfEdkifygonf/

13/ jrefrmEdkifiH rSvGJí rnfonfU urÇmYEdkifiH zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'urQ? 4if;wkdU\ rnfonfU zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyXmef;csufjzpfap vTwfawmfESpf&yf&Sdaom vTwfawmf ESpfck pvHk;6 rS udk,fpm;vS,f 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmausmausmausm f f f f oabmwlvufcHrSom jyifqifcGifY&rnf[k jyXmef;xm;jcif; r&Sday/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&;twGuf vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf oabmwlvufcH&ef vkdonfY tjcm;EdkifiH

4 The Constitution of Myanmar, 1974, Art. 194. 5 The requirement that 20% of the representatives of the Pyindaungsu Hlluttaw propose any amendment to the Constitution does not strike us as either exceptional or particularly onerous; there are certainly countries whose constitutions contain more onerous provisions for proposing an amendment, for example, the “more than 50%” requirement in Article 157 of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan.

6 See Annex B.

32

(3) EdkifiH &Sdaomfvnf;? xdkzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'(3) ckpvHk;\ jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfrsm;rSm jrefrmEdkifiHxuf jyifqif&ef vG,fulaom vkyfief;pOfrsm;jzpfygonf/ 7

• tZmbdkif*sefwGifjyXmef;csufrsm;jyifqifEdkfif&ef(Oya'jyKvTwfawmfESpf&yf&Sd udk,fpm;vS,faygif; 125 OD;teuf 76 &mcdkifEIef;rQESifY wlnDaom) trsm;pk qE´rJaygif; (95)ckjzifYwpfBudrfESifYwpfBudrf 6 v jcm;NyD; ESpfBudrfwkdif qE´jyK NyD;rS twnfjyK&rnfjzpfygonf/8

odkUaomf tZmbdkif*sefwGif vTwfawmf wpf&yfwnf;om &SdonfUtwGuf? vTwfawmfESpf&yfaygif;\ 75 &mckdifEIef;ausmf twnfjyK&ef vkdtyfaom jrefrmEdkifiH xuf9 jyifqifrItxajrmuf&ef ydkrdkvG,fulygonf/ xdkUtjyif? vTwfawmfwGif;ü cefUxm;udk,fpm;vS,f [lír&SdouJYodkU? ppfwyfwGifvnf; zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqif&ef tqkdjyKcsuf rsm;udky,fcsEdkifonfYtmPm r&Sdyg/

• bl&Gef'DwGifzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqif&eftqkdjyKcsufudk trsdK;om;vTwfawmf (National

Assembly)&Sd udk,fpm;vS,faygif;\ 5 yHk 4 yHk trsm;pkrJ? qD;edwf vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,faygif;\ 3 yHk 2 yHk rJwdkUjzifY twnfjyK&efvkdonf[k jyXmef;ygonf/10 ,if;EdkifiHwGifvnf;zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tqkdjyKcsufrsm;udk ppfwyfu y,fcsEdkifonfU tmPm tyfESif;xm;jcif;r&SdouJYodkU? t"du jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqif&ef qEcH,lyGJ usif;y&ef vkdtyfcsufvnf; ryg&Sday/

• tD&pfx&D;,m;EdkifiHwGif trsdK;om;vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,faygif;\ 75 &mcdkif EIef; trsm;pkrJjzifY twnfjyK jyifqif&efvkdonf/ xkdUtjyif aemufwpfESpfwGif? udk,fpm;vS,f tm;vHk;\5 yHk 4 yHk u wpfBudrf xyfrH twnfjyK&ef vkdygonf/ 11odkUaomfvnf;?tD&pfx&D;,m;onf tZmbdkif*sefuJYodkUyif vTwfawmfwpf&yf wnf;om &SdojzifY?jrefrmEdkifiHavmuf BuD;av;cufcJjcif; r&Sday/ xkdUtjyif? zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'jyifqifa&;tqkdjyKcsufrsm;udk y,fcsEdkifonfU tmPm r&Sd ouJYodkU? t"du jyXmef;csufrsm;jyifqif&ef tqdkjyKcsufrsm;udk qEcH,lyGJ usif;yNyD; xyfrHtwnfjyK&ef rvkdtyfay/

14/ atmufyg jyifqifa&;enf;vrf;rsm;rSm (jrefrmEdkifiH\ tjcm; xyfwkd;jyXmef;csufrsdK; ryg&SdbJvsuf? ,if;jyXmef;csufcsnf; oufouf MunfYvQifyif) jrefrmEdkifiH\ ]]75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf}} qkdonfY jyXmef;csuf eD;yg; jyif&efcufjcif;aMumifY rSwfom;zG,f aumif;ayonf/

• urÇmYEdkifiHrsm;teuf(17) EdkifiHwGif rnfonfUzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsuf rqdkjyKvkyfvkdygu? tenf;qHk; vTwfawmfwpf&yf&yfrS udk,fpm;vS,faygif;\ 75 &mcdkifEIef;wdwwdwwdwwdwdddd (75 &mcdkifEIef;ausmausmausmausmfr[kwf) axmufcHrJ &&Sd&efvkdaMumif; awGU&dS&onf/ 12

7 The Constitutions of Benin, Cote D'Ivoire, Kazakhstan, Niger and Togo provide that an amendment to the constitution may be passed either by a 4/5 majority of members of parliament or by a lesser majority followed by a referendum. The Constitution of Leichenstein requires that amendment be approved by either the unanimous vote of the members present of the Diet (Parliament) or by a majority of 3/4 of the members present at two successive sittings of the Diet.

8 The Constitution of Azerbaijan, Art. 156.

9 Venice Commission (2001), European Commission for Democracy Through Law) Report on Constitutional Amendment, Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 81st Plenary Session, Strasbourg, 11; 12 December 2009, Study no. 469 / 2008, available at http://venice.coe.int, at p.20 points out that “if a qualified majority is necessary in both chambers, as for example inthe German parliament, then this may in effect be a stricter requirement than 2/3 in a unicameral system.”

10 The Constitution of Burundi 2005, Arts. 297;300.

11 The Constitution of Eritrea 1997, Art. 59. 12 These are Algeria, Benin, Bhutan, Gambia, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Madagascar, the Maldives, Mongolia, Niger, Sao Tome, Russia, Rwanda, Sudan, Syria, Yemen and Taiwan.

33

xdkEdkifiHrsm;teuf (10) EdkifiHrSm vTwfawmf ESpf&yfr[kwf? wpf&yfwnf;om&SdojzifY? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyXmef;csufrsm;rSm jrefrmEdkifiH&Sd vTwfawmfESpf&yfpvHk;rS trsm;pkrJ 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf &&Sd&efvkdonfU jyXmef;csufavmuf wif;usyfcufcJrI r&Sday/ 13usef (7)EdkifiHteuf t,fvf*sD;&D;,m; ESifY blwefwkdUwGif vTwfawmfESpf&yf wpfaygif;wnf; xkdifNyD;? ukd,fpm;vS,faygif;\75 &mcdkifEIef; \ twnfjyKcsuf &&efvdkonf/ (xdkaMumifY xkdvkyfief;pOftwGuf vTwfawmfESpf&yfaygif;xdkifojzifY wpf&yfwnf; jzpfoGm;onfY oabm jzpfonf)14/ ½k&Sm;EdkfifiHwGif zuf'a&;&Sif;aumifpD0if pkpkaygif;\ 75 &mcdkifEIef;rS jyifqifcsufudk axmufcH&ef vkdNyD;? xkdjyifqifcsuf udk twnfjyK&ef 'l;rm;vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f pkpkaygif;\ 3 yHk 2 yHk xuf renf;? xyfrH twnfjyK&ef vkdtyfonf 15/ usef (3)EdkifiH (rm'*gpum16? ql'ef17ESifY ½l0rf'g18) rSmzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifrI tm;vHk; twGuf vTwfawmf ESpf&yfpvHk;\ qE´rJ 75 &mcdkifEIef; wdwwdwwdwwdwd twnfjyK axmufcH csuf vkdygonf/ xdk (3) EdkifiHpvHk;udk Freedom House rS ]]vGwfvyfaomEdkifiH}} [k rowfrSwfyg/19

•tcsdKzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'rsm;wGif jyXmef;csuf okdUr[kwf tajccHoabmw&m; tcsdKU (Oyrm- tajccHtcGifYta&;rsm;ESifYpyfvsOf;onfU tcsufrsm;)udk rnfonfUtcg? rnfonfU tajctaewGifrS jyifqifcGifY r&SdaMumif; twdtvif; jyXmef;xm;onf20/

• EdkifiH (12) EdkifiHwGif oD;jcm; uefYowfxm;onfY tajctaersm;? txl; tjrpfwG,faeonfUzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyXmef;csufrsm;21 odkUr[kwf tjcm; txl;tajctaersm;22twGufqEcH,lyGJ usif;yí twnfjyKjcif;tpm;?23 75 &mcdkifEIef; txd omrefxuf rsm;onfUqErJ &&SdNyD; twnfjyK&efvkdonfudk awGU&Sd&onf/

15/ rnfodkUyifjzpfap? xdkEdkifiHrsm;wGif jrefrmEdkifiH\ wif;usyfvSaom zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya' uJYodkU tajctaet&yf&yfwkdif;wGif vnf;aumif;? vTwfawmfESpf&yfpvHk;rSvnf;aumif;? ]]75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf}} trsm;pk qErJjzifY twnfjyK jyifqif&ef vkdjcif; r&Sday/

16/ vuf&SdjyXmef;csufrsm;udk wif;usyfxm;&jcif;rSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ tajccH oabm w&m;rsm; NrJNrHcdkifrmap&ef tmrcHcsuf &Sd&efjzpfonf24 / zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' usifYoHk;onfUpepfqkdonfrSm 'Drdkua&pD tpkd;&tmPmudk xda&mufpGm usifYoHk;&eftwGuf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'wpf&yf\ tajccH pnf;rsOf;rsm;onf

13 The Venice Commission Report (n 9) at p.20 points out “if a qualified majority is necessary in both chambers, as for example in the German parliament, then this may in effect be a stricter requirement than 2/3 in a unicameral system.” 14 The Constitution of Algeria 1963 (rev. 2008), Arts. 174;178; the Constitution of Bhutan, Art 35(2). 15 The Constitution of Russia 1993 (rev.2008), Art. 108. 16 The Constitution of Madagascar 2010, Art. 162. 17 The Constitution of Sudan 2005, Art. 224. 18 The Constitution of Rwanda 2003 (rev. 2010), Art. 193.

19 Freedom House rates Sudan as “Not Free” and Madagascar and Rwanda as “Partially Free.” Palau is rated as “Free”. See

Freedom House ‘Freedom in the World 2013’, available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%202013%20Booklet_0.pdf. 20 These include Azerbaijan, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey and the Ukraine. The Portuguese Constitution also states a number of fundamental principles which may not be altered by amendment. 21 The Bahamas, Dominica, Papa New Guinea, South Africa, St Lucia, Swaziland, the Solomon Islands and Trinidad and Tobago (the latter requiring the approval of two thirds of each house for ‘ordinary’ amendments to the constitution, but in relation to specified provisions, the approval of 75% of members of one house, and two thirds of the other is required). 22 Lebanon and Mauritania. 23 Burkina Faso and the Central African Republic. 24 Comparison of 1947 Union of Myanmar Constitution, 1974 Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution and 2008 Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution”, The New Light of Myanmar (27 October 2013), available at http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs16/NLM-2013-10-27-red.pdf.

34

wnfNidrfí worwfwnf;&Sd&ef? tvG,fwul jyifqifEdkifjcif; r&Sd&ef vkdonfrSefygonf25 / wpfcsdefwnf; rSmyif wpfcgw&H ydkrdkaumif;rGefonfY 'Drdkua&pD tkyfcsKyfrI jzpfap&eftwGufaomfvnf;aumif;? EdkifiHa&;? pD;yGm;a&; ESifY vlrIa&; jyKjyifajymif;vJrI ESifY vkdufavsmnDaxG &Sd&efaomfvnf;aumif;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'udk tajccHusus tajymif;tvJvkdtyfonfU tcgrsm; &Sdygonf26/ wpfbufu w&m;Oya' pkd;rdk;a&;ESifY tjcm;wpfbufu jynfolU'Drdkua&pD qkdonfY vkdtyfcsuf ESpf&yfpvHk;udk jznfYqnf;&ef? zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'rsm;onf wif;usyfrI ESifY ajymif;vG,f jyifvG,f &SdrI tMum; rdrdEdkifiH\ tajctaeESifY udkufnDpGm csdefcGifvQmnD&ef vdkygonf27/

17/ xdkodkU wnfNidrfrIESifY ajymif;vG,fjyifvG,f&SdrItMum; rSefuefonfU[efcsufnDap&ef rnfodkUowfrSwf &rnf[k yHkaoworwfwnf; r&Sdaomfvnf;? us,fjyefUpGmusifYoHk; aeMuonfU qifwl tavYtxrsm; &Sdygonf/ a,bl,stm;jzifY? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' trsm;pkonf vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,fpkpkaygif; \ 3 yHk 2 yHk jzifY twnfjyKcsuf &,l&ef qkdonfY vkdtyfcsufjzifY [efcsuf ñSdavY&SdMuygonf/ odkUaomf zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'qkdif&m jyifqifa&; twGuf jrefrmEdkifiH jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf\ twnfjyKcsuf &,l&rnf qkdonfY vkdtyfcsufrSm wif;usyfvGef;onfYtwGuf (vuf&Sd jyKjyif ajymif;vJa&; vkyfief;pOfumvtwGif; tvGefxl;jcm;onfUtajctaewpf&yf&yfrS wpfyg;) vuf&Sd vkyfief;pOft&qkdvQif jyifqif&ef vHk;0 jzpfEdkifajc &SdawmYrnf r[kwfay28/ þtaMumif;aMumifY? EdkifiH\ wnfNidrfat;csrf;a&;ESifY pnf;vHk;nDnGwfa&;udk a&S;&Iaom tm;jzifY ydkrdk ajymif;vG,f jyifvG,f&SdonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'uom zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya' xdef;ausmif;onfY 'Drdkua&pDEdkifiHtjzpf zGHUNzdK;wdk;wuf a&;udk taxmuftul jyKaprnf[k ,lqygonf/

c/c/c/c/ cefYtyfcH wyfrawmf vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;cefYtyfcH wyfrawmf vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;cefYtyfcH wyfrawmf vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;cefYtyfcH wyfrawmf vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;

18/ ESpfumvtwefMum 'Drdkua&pDjzpfxGef;aeonfUEdkifiHrsm;\ acwfopfzGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'rsm;wGif Oya'jyKvTwfawmfwGif; wyfrawmftcef;u@udk rMum;zl;ay29/ pifppfqkdvQif EdkifiHa&;tcef;u@wGif ppfwyfyg0ifrIudk twdtvif;wm;jrpfMuonf30/ tb,faMumifY qkdaomf? vTwfawmfwGif; ppfwyfyg0ifrI rSm ppfwyfESifY Oya'jyKtmPmudk zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya't& tESHUtjym;todtrSwfjyK oD;oefUcGJjcm;xm;&SdrIudk rxDrJYjrifjyK&m a&mufayonf/ (atmufygpmydk'frsm;wGif qufvufaqG;aEG;xm;onf)/ om"utm;jzifY? awmiftmz&du zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ yk'fr 198-210 wGif tmPm cGJa0 usifYoHk;rI tajccH oabmw&m;udk ]]trsdK;om;vHkNcHKa&;onf vTwfawmfESifY trsdK;om; tkyfcsKyfa&;tmPmatmufwGif &Sdonf}} [lí ppfwyf\tcef;u@ESifY 4if;\tmPmtuefYtowfrsm;udk tao;pdwf a&;qGJum? ppfwyftay: t&yfom;tzGJU\BuD;BuyfrIudk twdtvif; xnfYoGif; jyXmef;xm;ygonf/

19/ aemufqufwGJ (c)wGif azmfjyxm;onfU uREfkyfwdkU\ cJGjcrf;pdwfjzmcsuftusOf;csKyft&? (pOf;pm; okH;oyfonfYzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'aygif; 189 teuf) jrefrmEdkifiHtjyif ppft&m&Sd rsm;udk vTwfawmfwGif; cefYtyf&ef owfrSwfonfY EdkifiHrSm ,l*ef'gjzpfygonf/ vuf&SdtcsdefwGif ,l*ef'gppfwyfrS udk,fpm;vS,f (10) OD;udk ,l*ef'g vTwfawmfodkU wifwGif; cefUtyf xm;aomfvnf;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsuf rsm;udk y,fcsEdkifavmufonfY tmPm r&Sday 31/ aemufwpfzef oHk;oyfxdkufaomtcsufwpfcsufrSm? 1999

25 Z. Elkins, T. Ginsburg, and J. Melton, The Endurance of National Constitutions, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.82. 26 Venice Commission Report (n 9), 3. 27 27 Venice commission Report (n 9), 4. 28 Vote to Nowhere, The May 2008 Constitutional Referendum in Burma”, Human Rights Watch Report (May 2008), available at http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/burma0508webwcover.pdf. 29 See Annex B. 30 E.g. the Constitution of Malawi, s.51; the Constitution of Macedonia, Art. 64; the Constitution of Turkey, Art. 76; the Constitution of Venezuela, Art. 330; and the Constitution of Togo, Art 52 all disqualify serving members of the military from standing for election.

31 The Constitution of Uganda, s. 78 (c) states that Parliament shall consist of “such numbers of representatives of the army,youth, workers, 3persons with disabilities and other groups as Parliament may 3determine”. Currently, Ugandan forces have

35

ckESpfrwkdifrDu tif'dkeD;&Sm;ppfwyfonf Oya'jyKvTwfawmfwGif oD;oefY 100 ae&mESifY tjcm; tqifYjrifY tpdk;&&mxl;rsm;jzifY EdkifiHa&;tmPm BuD;cJYonf/ odkUaomf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifNyD; aemufwGif ppfwyf\w&m;0ifEdkifiHa&; tcef;u@ qHk;cef;wkdifcJYygonf32/,cktcg tif'dkeD;&Sm;vTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f tm;vHk;udk jynfolu a&G;cs,fwifa`rSmufNyD; tpdk;& &mxl; rsm;wGif wyfrawmfom;rsm;tm; cefUxm;jcif; r&SdawmYay/ tif'dkeD;&Sm; toGiful;ajymif;rIESifY wlnDyH?k jrefrmEdkifiHwGif jzpfajrmuf atmifjrif Edkifajc rnfodkU &SdyHkrsm;udk avYvm&ef? tif'dkeD;&Sm; tawGUtBuHKudk atmuf&Sd tydk'f 37-38 wGif tus,fw0ifY oHk;oyfxm;ygonf/

20/ xdkokdUqkd&mwGif? Oya'jyKvTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm; xdkodkU cefUtyfjcif;onf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'xdef;ausmif;onfY 'Drdkua&pD tajccHoabmw&m;rsm;ESifY qefUusifonf [k rqkdvkdyg/ zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'tawmfrsm;rsm;wGif vTwfawmfodkU (ppfwyfrS r[kwfonfU) udk,fpm;vS,f cefUtyfEdkifonfU jyXmef;csufrsm; a&;qGJxm;&Sdygonf33/ þodkU a&G;aumuf wifa`rSmufcH&jcif;r[kwfonfU udk,fpm;vS,f rsm;rSm a,bl,stm;jzifY?wkdif;jynf acgif;aqmifrS jzpfap? oD;jcm;vGwfvyfonfU &mxl;cefUtyfa&; aumfr&Sif rS jzpfap? cefUtyfjcif; jzpfNyD;? wkdif;&if;om;vlrsdK;pki,frsm;? odkUr[kwf uRrf;usifynm&Sifrsm; odkUr[kwf EdkifiHa&;t& cefUtyf cH&olrsm;jzpfMuonf/ xdkokdUcefUtyfjcif;rSmvnf; a,bl,stm;jzifY vlrsdK;pki,frsm;tm; umuG,f apmifYa&Smuf&ef &nf&G,fcsufjzifYaomfvnf;aumif;? Oya'jyK t&nftaoG; `rSifYwif&ef aomfvnf; aumif; cefYtyfjcif;jzpfonf[k ,lqEdkifaomfvnf;? trsdK;om; vHkNcHKa&; xdef;odrf;umuG,f&eftwGufawmY r[kwfay/

21/ odkUjzpfapumrl? Oya'jyKvTwfawmfwGif cefYtyfudk,fpm;vS,fae&m jyXmef;onfU EdkifiH trsm;pkrS txufvTwfawmfwGif cefUtyfcHudk,fpm;vS,fOD;a& enf;yg;vGef;ojzifYjzpfap?34 tjcm;enf;vrf;jzifY ygvDref\ twnfjyKaxmufcHcsuf &&SdEdkifojzifYjzpfap35? txufygvDrefvTwfawmfrScefUtyfcH udk,fpm;vS,f rsm;tm; Oya'pnf;rsOf;jzifY twdtvif; wm;jrpfxm; ojzifY jzpfap36? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsufudk vnf;aumif;? tjcm; taxGaxG Oya'jyKa&;wGifvnf;aumif; ADwkdtmPmjzifY y,fcsEdkifonfU tmPm r&Sdyg/ qdkif;iHUEdkifonfU tmPmom &Sdygonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifY (tm;vHk;cefUtyfcHcsnf;jzpfaom) NAdwdoQ txufvTwfawmfwGif xdktrwfrsm; oabmrwlonfU Oya'rlBurf;rsm;udk wpfESpftxd qdkif;iHU ydkifcGifY &Sdaomfvnf;? &moufyef y,fcsEdkifonfU tmPm r&Sday/ (tm;vHk; wifa`rSmufcH udk,fpm;vS,f rsm;jzpfonfY) atmufvTwfawmf u aemufwpfESpfcefUMumonfUtcg rlBurf;xyfrH wifcJYvQif? txuf vTwfawmf\ oabmwltwnfjyKcsuf &,l&efrvkdbJ? Oya'tjzpf twnfjyK jyXmef; Edkifonf/

22/ yHkrSeftavYtxt&? a&G;aumufwifa`rSmufcHygvDreftrwfrsm;onf]]aemufqHk;ydwfqHk;jzwf ydkifcGifY}} &Sdonf qkdaomfvnf;? >cif;csufrsm; &Sdygonf37/ Oyrmtm;jzifY-

the right to elect 10 representatives to Parliament. Whereas Myanmar’s Constitution mandates that the Military must have a certain number of seats Uganda’s Constitution is permissive and defers the issue to legislation. This means that military presence in Parliament is easier to reform in Uganda than Myanmar. The Uganda model has been subject to some concern, and explained according to its unique and chaotic constitutional history. It is, the literature notes, not a model that is widely recognized. 32 The Constitution of Indonesia 1945 (reinst. 1959, rev. 2002), Article 2(1). 33 These are Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belarus, Belize, Bhutan, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cameroon,, Canada, Gambia, Grenada, Guyana, India, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kuwait, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Papa New Guinea, Rwanda, Said Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenadines, Swaziland, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago , Uganda and Zimbabwe (see Annex B). 34 E.g. Algeria, India, Italy, Botswana, Belarus, Bhutan, Georgia, Gambia,, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Qatar, Uganda and Zimbabwe (see Annex B). 35 E.g. Burkina Faso (see Annex B). 36 E.g. UK, Grenada, St Lucia, Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, St Kitts and Nevis, Cambodia, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Ireland, Malawi, Namibia and Singapore (see Annex B). 37 E.g. Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bahrain, Brunei, Burkina Faso, Jordan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Kiribati and South Sudan (see Annex B).

36

• uae'gwGif? tm;vHk; cefUtyfcHudk,fpm;vS,frsm;\ qD;edwfvTwfawmfonf z,f'&,ftmPmpuf0ef;twGif;usa&mufonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqif a&; tqkdjyKcsufudky,fcsEdkifonfU ADwkdtmPm &Sdygonf/ (tjcm; zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyifqifcsufwkdUudkrl6 v txd qdkif;iHYxm;EdkifonfU tmPm &Sd aomfvnf; rwm;qD;Edkifay)/ odkUaomf? uae'gpepfwGif rSwfom; avmuf zG,faumif;onfU 'Drdkua&pDenf;usaom txdef;tñSdrsm;&Sdygonf38/

o þtmPmonf tvHk;NcHK oufa&mufrI r&SdbJ? z,f'&,f tpdk;& tmPmpuf0ef;txdom uefYowfxm;onf/

o þjyXmef;csufwGif jyqkdxm;onfrSm jynfolUtjrifwGif? qD;edwf vTwfawmftrwfrsm;onf 'Drdkua&pDenf;us a&G;aumufcH&olrsm; r[kwf[k ,lqojzifY?4if;wkdUtaeESifY (atmufvTwfawmf\ qHk;jzwfcsufrsm;udk) ADwkdtmPmudkus,fjyefUpGm usifYoHk;rI tvGef enf;yg;onf39 f/

o uae'gEdkifiH qD;edwfvTwfawmftrwfrsm;udk uae'g 0efBuD;csKyf\ tBuHÓPf,l oabmwlnDrIjzifY bk&ifcHcsKyfrS cefYtyfygonf/ xdkudk,fpm;vS,frsm;onfudk,fpm;jyKcGifYr&onfU yk* ¾vduESifY vlrsdK;pk i,fwkdU\ tcGifYta&; rqHk;&HI;&ap&ef? xdkolrsm;\ tcGifYta&;rsm;udk umuG,f&eftwGuf jzpfonf/

• bDvpfZfwGif? qD;edwfvTwfawmfonf tajccHtcGifYta&;rsm;ESifY pyfvsOf;onfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'\ tydkif; (2)&Sd jyifqifrIrsm;udkom ydwfqkdUEdkifonfU tmPm &Sdonf40/uD&DbmwDwGif? bmebm todkif;t0ef;wkdU\ cefYtyfcH udk,fpm;vS,fonf bmebmtodkif;t0ef;udk oufa&mufrI &SdaprnfUzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'jyifqifcsufrsm;udkomADwdkjzifY y,fcGifY&Sdonf41/ ql'ef awmifydkif; wGif cefYtyfcH jyXmef;csufwGif? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsufrsm;udk ydwfyifcGifY &Sdonf[k yg&Sdaomfvnf;? toGiful;ajymif;a&;umv twGif;om oufa&mufrI &Sdonf42/ MwDeD'ufESifY wkdab*dk? bmb'dkUpf? b[m;rm;?bm;&def;? b½l;Edkif;? a*smf'ef? rav;&Sm;? &0ef'g? pdefU Aif;qifYESifY *&if;e'if;? wGef*gESifYaqmf'D tma&;AswkdUwGif cefUtyfcH qD;edwftrwfrsm;onf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'jyifqifcsuf tm;vHk;udk ydwfyifcGifYtmPm &Sdonf/ xdkEdkifiHrsm;udk ]]vGwfvyfonfUEdkifiHrsm;}} [k Freedom House u rowfrSwfay43/

• a&G;aumufcHr[kwfonfU (odkU) cefUtyfcH EdkifiHYtBuD;tuJwpfOD;OD;u zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyifqifcsufrsm;tay: ADwkdtmPm &SdonfU EdkifiHrsm;vnf; &Sdygonf/ Oyrm- rdkemudk rif;om;ESifY bm;&drf; bk&ifwkdUonf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya' jyifqifcsufrsm;udkADwkdvkyfydkifcGifY &Sdonf44/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya' atmuf&Sd bk&ifpepf tcsdKUwGifvnf;?bk&ifY xH rif;crf;rif;em;jzifYtyfESHonfU tmPmonf tu,fpifppf a&G;aumufcHtpdk;&wGif wnf&Sdonf/ Oyrm b,fvf*sD,HzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'wGif? vTwfawmfESpf&yfpvHk;u zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'udk jyifqifvdkvQif? jyefvnf oHk;oyf&efvkdonfU tcsufrsm;udk bk&ifESifY twl oabmwlnDrIjzifY qHk;jzwfonf45/ odkUaomf bk&if\ rnfonfY

38 The Constitution Act of Canada, 1982, s. 38; 47. 39 39 S. Joyal, Protecting Canadian Democracy: The Senate You Never Knew, (McGill;Queen's Press, 2003), p.305. 40 The Constitution of Belize 1981 (rev. 2001), Art. 69. 41 The Constitution of Kiribati, 1979 (rev. 1995), Art. 214. 42 The Constitution of South Sudan (2011), Art. 56. 43 Freedom House rates Bahrain, Brunei, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and South Sudan as “not free” and Malaysia and Rwanda as “partially free.” The remaining 7 countries are rated as “free”. See Freedom House ‘Freedom in the World 2013’, available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%202013%20Booklet_0.pdf.44 See the Constitution of Monaco 1962 (rev. 2002), Art. 94 and the Constitution of Bahrain 2002, Art. 98. 45 The Constitution of Belgium 1831 (Rev. 2012) Art 195.

37

qHk;jzwfcsuf rqdk? tpdk;&tzGJU0if wpfOD;odkUr[kwf trsm;\ vufrSwfrygbJ twnfrjzpf ojzifY? xdkvufrSwf xkd;onfU tpdk;&tzGJU0if(rsm;)u om t"du wm0ef &Sdoljzpfonf/

23/ xdkaMumifY? 'Drdkua&pDenf;jzifY a&G;aumufxm;aom udk,fpm;vS,f rsm;tm; ]]aemufqHk;ydwf ajymqkdydkifcGifY}} tyfESif;onfUtavYtxrSm urÇmYEdkifiHtcsdKUü r&Sdaomfvnf;? wnfNidrf at;csrf;NyD; zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drdkua&pDEdkifiHrsm;[k ac:qkd EdkifonfU EdkifiHtrsm;pkwGif ,if;tavYtx usiYfoHk;rI tvGefYtvGef wGifus,fygonf/ urÇmYzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'toD;oD;udk EdIif;,SOf oHk;oyf xm;onfU uREfkyfwkdU\ cJGjcrf;pdwfjzmrI t& atmufygwkdUudk jyqkdaMumif; awGU&Sd&ygonf/

• Oya'jyKvTwfawmfodkUwyfrawmfom;rsm;jzifYcefUtyfjcif;?odkUr[kwfwyfrawmfucefUtyfjcif;wkdYudk urÇmYEdkifiHtm;vHk;eD;yg;urjyKoifYaMumif; owfrSwfMuygonf/

• vTwfawmfodkU udk,fpm;vS,frsm; cefUtyfonfUtcgwGifvnf;? 'Drkdua&pD tajccH oabmw&m; rsm;udk a&S;&Ium cefUtyfjcif;jzpfNyD; (Oyrm- uRrf;usifrI ynmwpf&yf&yfudk &,lvkdojzifYaomfvnf;aumif;? vTwfawmfwGif; vlenf;pk rsm;udk udk,fpm;jyK&ef aomfvnf;aumif;cefYtyfjcif;) vHkNcHKa&; tmrcHcsuf taeESifY cefUxm;jcif; rnfonfUtcgurQ r&Sday/

• zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' trsm;pkBuD;? txl;ojzifY 'Drkdua&pDusifYom;&NyD; EdkifiHrsm;rS zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'rsm;wGif cefUtyfcH vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;tm; a&G;aumufcH udk,fpm;vS,frsm;\ qHk;jzwfcsufrsm;tay: ADwkd vkyfykdifcGifYtmPm ay;tyfcGifY rjyKMuyg/ NyKonfUtcgrsm;wGifvnf;? xkdtmPmrsm;onf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ uefYowftydkif;rsm;twGufom uefYowf xm;&SdNyD;? tjcm; txdef;tñSdrsm;jzifY jyefvnf xdef;csKyfxm;avY&Sdygonf/

• (jrefrmEdkifiHrSvGJí)urÇmay:&Sd tjcm; rnfonfY tajccHOya'wGifrS ppfwyfu ADwkdtmPmusifYoHk;rI r&Sdyg/

24/ jrefrmEdkifiHwGif (1) jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmf\ vTwfawmfESpf&yfpvHk;rS ukd,fpm;vS,f 25 &mcdkifEIef; udk wyfrawmf umuG,fa&;OD;pD;csKyfrS trnfoGif;cefUxm;jcif;? ESifY (2) jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmf wGif; vTwfawmf ESpf&yfpvHk;\75 &mcdkifEIef;ausmfu jyifqif&ef oabmwl vufcH&efvkdonf qkdonfU tcsuf rsm;\ tusdK;qufrSm jynfaxmifpk vTwfawmf&Sd a&G;aumufcH udk,fpm;vS,ftm;vHk;rS zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'qkdif&m jyifqifrIrsm;udkoabmwl axmufcHonfUtajctaewGifyif cefUtyfcH wyfrawmf udk,fpm; vS,frsm;u y,fcsEdkifonfU ADwkdtmPm udkifpGJxm;jcif;yifjzpfonf/ þodkU ppfwyfxdef;csKyf tjrpfpGJxm;rI aMumifYf jrefrmYzGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'onf tjcm;urÇmYEdkifiHrsm;rS tajccHOya'rsm;tMum;wGif oD;jcm;í jcm;em;um? EdkifiHwum zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'pHEIef;rsm;ESifY ajcvSrf;rnDjzpfaeygonf/

25/ ppfwyfonf t&yfom; ESifY w&m;Oya'pdk;rdk;a&; xdef;csKyfrI atmufwGif &SdoifYonf qkdonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tajccHoabmw&m;onf tajccHusNyD; trsm;vufcHMuonfU oabmw&m;jzpfonf 46/ (1) jynfolU tcsKyftcsmtmPm ESifY (2) tmPmcGJa0 usifYoHk;rI [lonfU tajccHoabmw&m; (2) &yfrS qif;oufvmjcif;jzpfonf/ ]]jynfolU tcsKyftjcm tmPm}} qdkonfrSm tpdk;&tmPmESifY w&m;0ifrIonf jynfolUqEtay: tajccHonf/ þtajccHoabmw&m; t&? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'ESifY tpkd;&pepf csrSwfazmfxkwfa&; tmPmonf jynfolUxHwGif&SdNyD;? jynfolrsm;uyif rdrdwkdU csrSwf azmfxkwfonfU pepftay:wGif wm0ef,l&rnfjzpfonf 47/ ]]tmPmcGJa0 usifYoHk;rI}}jzifY w&m;Oya'

46 L. Henkin "New Birth of Constitutionalism: Genetic Influences and Genetic Defects", in Rosenfeld, ed. Constitutionalism,identity, difference, and legitimacy: theoretical perspectives, (Duke University Press, 1994), pp.40;1; S.P. Huntington, TheSoldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-military Relations (Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 80;97. 47 L. Henkin ‘New Birth of Constitutionalism: Genetic Influences and Genetic Defects, A.’ in Rosenfeld, ed. Constitutionalism,identity, difference, and legitimacy: theoretical perspectives, (Duke University Press, 1994), pp.40;1.

38

pdk;rdk;a&; udk jyXmef;NyD;48? xdkw&m;Oya'u pdk;rdk;a&;onfU tjzpfrS vlyk* ¾dKvfrsm; u xifovkd tkyfcsKyf aom tjzpfodkU ,dk,Gif; qkwf,kwfrIr&Sdap&ef? Oya'jyKolrsm;ESifY Oya'taumiftxnfazmf aqmif&Guf olrsm;udk oD;oefUcGJjcm;xm;ygonf49/ ppfwyfonf t&yfom;ESifY w&m;Oya'pdk;rdk;a&; xdef;csKyfrI atmufwGif oD;oefUwnf&Sda&; tmrcH&ef Oya'jyKa&; udpöwGif ryg0ifoifY[k jyXmef;onf/ xdkjyXmef;csufonf ppfwyfrS vHkNcHKa&; umuG,fapmifYa&SmufonfU wm0ef xrf;aqmif&ef vHkavmufonfU tmPmESifY udk,fydkifqHk;jzwf cGifY&Sd&rnf? odkUaomf xdktmPmudk tjcm;tkyfcsKyfrIu@rsm;tay: pdk;rdk;jcif; r&SdapoifY? cGJjcm;xm; oifYonf[k t"dyÜg,f&onf50/

26/ jrefrmEdkifiHzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'atmufwGif ppfwyf\EdkifiHa&;tmPm xnfYoGif;a&; qGJonfrSm tmPm&SifpepfrS 'Drdkua&vrf;aMumif;odkU toGiful;ajymif;qJumvwGif avsmfuef onf[k &Sif;csuf xkwfonf/ 51txl;ojzifY wyfrawmftaeESifY jrefrmEdkifiHtm; jynfwGif; aomif;usef;rIrsm;ESifY jynfy Ncdrf;ajcmufrI&efrsm;rS umuG,f&eftwGuf vTwfawmfwGif; ae&m,lydkifcGifY &SdoifYonf[k apm'u wuf Muonf/ EdkifiHwpfEdkifiHudk jynfwGif;jynfyNcdrf;ajcmufrI rsm;rS umuG,f&ef vTwfawmfwGif ppfwyf ae&m ,lxm;&rnf qkdonfY,lqcsufudk uREfkyfwkdU oabmrwlyg/ urÇmYzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'rsm;wGif? zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg wm0efjzpfonfU vHkNcHKa&; wm0efxrf;aqmifa&;twGuf ppfwyftm; vHkavmufonfU tmPm&Sdap&ef enf;vrf;toG,foG,f csrSwfxm;aomfvnf;? ,l*ef'gponfU EdkifiHtenf;tusOf;rS vGJí usefEdkifiHtm;vHk;onf t&yfom;ESifY ppfwyftmPmtMum; tmPmcGJjcm; xm;vsuf vHkNcHKa&; wm0efukd xrf;aqmifMuygonf 52/ vuf&Sdynm&yfqkdif&mpmayrS jyqkdaom taxGaxG ,lqcsufrSm Oya'jyKtcef; u@wGif ppfwyfyg0ifrIonf rnfrQ tuefYtowfjzifY xm;&Sdap umrl? rvkdvm;tyf[líjzpfygonf/ Oyrm- 'Drdkua&pD toGiful;ajymif;a&;ESifY pnf;vHk;a&; vkyfief;rsm;tay: a&S;OD; avYvmusrf;jyK olrsm;jzpfonfU *sLtef vifYZfESifY tJvfz&uf'f pwDzef wkdUu ppfwyfrS rdrdwkdUtwGuf ]]uefYowfae&m}}rsm; xm;&Sdjcif;onf a&G;aumufcHtpdk;&wpf&yf \ 'Drdkua&pDudk t[efUtwm;jzpfaponf [kqkdonf/53

*/*/*/*/ qEćH,lyGJ qEćH,lyGJ qEćH,lyGJ qEćH,lyGJ owfrSwfcsufowfrSwfcsufowfrSwfcsufowfrSwfcsuf

27/ jrefrmEdkifiH zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ yk'fr 436 (u) t& zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ ta&;BuD;aom oD;oefUjyXmef;csuf jyifqifrIrsm;udk jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmf udk,fpm;vS,f tm;vHk; \ 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmfu oabmwlvufcHygu? jynfvHk;uRwf qEcH,lyGJ usif;yí qErJay;ydkifcGifY&Sdoltm;vHk;\ xuf0ufausmf qE´rJjzifY axmufcHrI ,l&rnf jzpfygonf/ qEćH,lyGJ usif;yí zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg oD;oefY yk'frrsm;jyifqifjcif; tavYtxrSm rxl;qef;vSay54/

28/ odkUaomf jrefrmEdkifiHtwGuf jyifqif&ef BuD;av;cufcJ&onfUtaMumif;rSm? yxrOD;pGm qEćH,lyGJ usif;yum jyifqif&rnfUtwkdif;twm jzpfygonf (zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg yk'fr trsm;pkudk jyif&ef vdkonf)/ 'kwd,tcsufrSm qEcH,lyGJ rusif;yrD jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmfwGif qErJ trsm;pk\ axmufcHrI

48 V.C. Jackson, Defining the Field of Comparative Constitutional Law, (Praeger Publishers, 2002), p.49. 49 Ibid. 50 Participatory Development and Good Governance’, (Paris, OECD, 1995), paragraphs 53;56. 51 51 “Comparison of 1947 Union of Myanmar Constitution, 1974 Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution and 2008 Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution”, The New Light of Myanmar (27 October 2013), p.10. 52 P. Fluri and A.B. Johnsson, Handbook on Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector, Inter;Parliamentary Union (2003), available at http://www.ipu.org/PDF/publications/decaf;e.pdf. This highlights the following mechanisms open to the military: oral and written questions, motions, inquiries, select committee hearings, “white papers”, representations to ministers and departments 53 S.C. Alfred, J.J. Linz, “Toward consolidated democracies”, (1996) 7(2) Journal of democracy, 14. 54

E.g. Kenya, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines all require referendums in support of certain amendments and Swaziland and the Ukraine all require that the amendment of certain provisions be approved both a higher;than;normal majority (though less than 75%) in parliament and a referendum. The Bahamas, Dominica, Spain and Swaziland require that the amendment of certain provisions be approved

corderby a 75% majority and a referendum.

39

&&efvkdonf/ wwd,tcsufrSm jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmf\ twnfjyKaxmufcHcsufudk ppfwyfu y,fcs EdkifonfU ADwkdtmPmyg xnfYoGif;jyXmef;xm;onfU twGuf jzpfygonf/

29/ oHk;oyfrIjyKcJYonfUzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'aygif; (198) ckteuf? (jrefrmEdkfifiHtjyif) tjcm;wpfEdkifiH wnf; aom tZmbdkif*sefwGif qEćH,lyGJ rusif;yrD? ygvDrefrS 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf trsm;pk qE´rJ&&ef vkdygonf55/ tjcm; qEcH,lyGJ usif;y&efvkdonfU usefzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'rsm;rSmrl? ygvDref\ axmufcHrJ 75 &mcdkifEIef; odkUr[kwf xdkrJta&twGuf atmuf&&Sd&efvkdonf? odkUwnf;r[kwf ygvDref\ twnfjyK axmufcHrJ tpm;? qEcH,lyGJ usif;ycGifY &Sdonf[k jyXmef;xm;onfudkawGU&ygonf/ qEćH,lyGJ usif;y&efvkdonfU EdkifiH trsm;pkudk avYvm&müvnf;? ygvDreftrwf 3 yHk 2 yHkxufrenf; twnfjyK axmufcH&ef vkdonf[k oHk;oyf&ygonf/ avYvmcJYonfU EdkifiHaygif; 189 EdkifiHteuf? (11) EdkfifiHwGifom56 jyifqifcsuftcsdKU 57odkUr[kwftm;vHk;58udk twnfjyKa&;twGuf? ygvDrefaxmufcHrI trsm;pk rJjzpfaom 75 &mcdkifEIef; &&rnfUtjyif? qEćH,lyGJudkvnf; rjzpfraeusif;y&efvkdygonf/ xdkEdkifiHrsm;teuf EdkifiH (5) ck59rSm vTwfawmfESpf&yftpm; wpf&yfwnf;om &SdojzifY? vTwfawmf ESpf&yfpvHk;rS udk,fpm;vS,frsm;\ twnfjyKaxmufcHrJ 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmf &&efvkdonfU jrefrmEdkifiH jyXmef;csufrsm;avmuf wif;usyfrI r&Sday/ tjcm; EdkifiH (6) ckteuf? qGmZDvefEdkfifiHrSm vTwfawmfESpf&yfvHk; wpfNydKifwnf;xkdifNyD; (xdkaMumifY vTwfawmf wpf&yfwnf; \ twnfjyKcsuf &&ef vkdonf[k rSwf,lEdkifonf) udk,fpm;vS,f 75 &mcdkifEIef; rS twnfjyKaxmufcH&ef vkdaMumif;awGU&Sd&ygonf/ usef (5) EdkifiHrsm;rSmzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsuftcsdKU60 odkUr[kwf tm;vHk;61twGuf? qEćH,lyGJ usif;y&rnfUtjyif? vTwfawmf ESpf&yfpvHk;\ twnfjyK axmufcHrJ 75 &mcdkifEIef; wdwd (75 &mcdkifEIef;ausmf r[kwf) &&efvkdygonf/ xdkjyifqifa&; vkyfief;pOfwkdif;wGif? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jyifqif&ef tqkdjyKcsufrsm;udk y,fcsEdkifonfU ADwkdtmPm ,if;EdkifiH ppfwyfrsm;wGif tyfESif;xm;jcif; r&SdojzifY? jyifqifcsuf jyKvkyf&mü jrefrmEdkifiHxuf atmifjrifNyD;ajrmuf&ef ydkrdkvG,fulygonf/

30/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifrIrsm;tm; qEcH,lyGJ usif;yum xyfrHtwnfjyK&rnfU owfrSwfcsuf tay: pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;jzifY wm;jrpfxm;jcif;r&Sdyg/ xdkenf;wlpGmyif? tcsdKU zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyXmef;csufrsm;udk vTwfawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm;\ owfrSwftrsm;pkrJ axmufcHrItjyif qEcH,lyGJ jzifY twnfjyK&rnfU jyXmef;rItay:vnf; pnf;rsOf;pnf;urf;t& wm;jrpfcsufvnf; r&Sdfyg/ odkUaomfvnf;? jyifqifa&;udk twm;tqD;jzpfaponfU txufwGif aqG;aEG;cJYonfU tcsuf (3) csufaygif;vkdufvQifum;? urÇmY zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'tm;vHk; r[kwfvQifyif tm;vHk;eD;eD;ESifY ajcvSrf; rnDjzpfaeonfUtjyif? txufwGif aqG;aEG;cJYaom tajccHoabmw&m;rsm;ESifY u@aump jzpfaeayonf/

C/C/C/C/ cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyf

31/ txufazmfjyyg ,SOfjycGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrIrsm;t& atmufygaumufcsufrsm;csrSwf Edkifonf/

• jrefrmEdkifiH\ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg owfrSwfjyXmef;csuf tm;vHk;udk jyifqif vkdygu?

55 The Constitution of Azerbaijan (rev. 2009), Article 152, requires all constitutional amendments to be approved by a referendum. 56 These are the Constitutions of Gambia, Liechtenstein, Madagascar, the Maldives, Rwanda, Yemen, Taiwan, the Bahamas, Dominica, St Lucia, and Swaziland. The Constitutions of Benin, Kazakhstan, and Niger, which all provide that an amendment to the constitution may be passed either by a 4/5 majority of members of parliament or by a 75% majority followed by a referendum. In Bhutan, Mongolia and Sao Tome amendment must be passed by 75% of members of parliament and a referendum is only required on an optional basis, upon demand by parliament, or upon decision of the Head of State. 57 Gambia, Liechtenstein, Rwanda, Yemen, the Bahamas, Dominica, St Lucia and Swaziland. 58 Taiwan, Madagascar and the Maldives. 59 Madagascar, Rwanda, Bahamas, Dominica, Swaziland and St Lucia.

60 Rwanda, Bahamas, Dominica, Swaziland and St Lucia 61 Madagascar.

40

vTwfawmfESpf&yfpvHk;\ 75 &mcdkifEIef; ausmausmausmausmfu oabmwl axmufcH &efvkdonfU taxGaxG jyifqifa&; vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;onf qE´rJta&twGuf pnf;urf;rsm;aMumifY? tjcm;zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drkdua&pD EdkifiHrsm;omru? tjcm; urÇmY zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tm;vHk; eD;yg;xuf ydkrdkcJ,Of; cufrmvSayonf/

• jynfaxmifpkvTwfawmftwGif; wyfrawmfudk,fpm;vS,frsm; 4 yHk 1 yHk cefUtyfrI onfvnf;aumif;? xdkcefUtyfrIrS wyfrawmfodkU tyfESif;onfU vkyfydkifcGifY ADwkdtmPmonfvnf;aumif;? urÇmYEdkifiHrsm;\zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'rsm; tMum; xl;jcm;aeygonf/jrefrmEkdifiHrSvGJí (uae'grSty) tjcm;t"du 'dDrdkua&pDEdkifiHrsm;ESifY tjcm;EdkifiHrsm;wGifjynfaxmifpkvTwfawmfwGif; a&G;aumufcHr[kwfonfUudk,fpm;vS,frsm;? txl;ojzifYwyfrawmfom;rsm;tm; þrQ us,fjyefUvSaom tmPm tyfESif;jcif; r&Sday/

• xyfqifYvkdtyfcsufjzpfonfU jynfvHk;uRwf qEćH,lyGJ usif;yí axmufcHrJ&,l&rnfUvkdtyfcsufonf? tvGefta&;BuD;aom jyXmef;csufrsm;udk jyifqifa&;rsm;twGuf vkyfavYvkyfx&Sdaomfvnf;? þvkyfief;pOfudkyg txuf wGif aqG;aEG;cJYonfUjyXmef;csufrsm;jyifqif&ef xyfavmif;jcif;jzifY tao;pm; jyifqifrI udkyif taotcsmwm;qD;ydwfyifNyD; jzpfaeavonf/

32/ azmfjycJYNyD; ,SOfjy cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrIt&? þ tcsuf 3 csufaygif;aMumifY jrefrmEdkifiH zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'rSm urÇmay:&Sd zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'tm;vHk;? trsm;u todtrSwf jyK xm;aom tjcm;zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drkdua&pDtm;vHk;xuf ydkrdk wif;usyf cufrmNyD; jyifqif&ef cJ,Of;aponf udk jyqkdaeygonf62/ txl;ojzifY jrefrmEdkifiHonf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' jyXmef;onfU 'Drdkua&pD vrf;pOfodkU ul;ajymif;aecsdef jzpfonfU twGuf? ydkrdk ajymif;omjyifom &SdrnfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'u jynfolrsm;twGuf ,cktcgwGif wefzdk;&SdEdkifrnf[k ,lqygonf/

33/ xdkodkU aumufcsuf&mwGif? urÇmwpfvTm; usifYoHk;MuonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyXmef;csufrsm; vG,fvG,fESifY jyifqifjcif; rjyKEdkfif&ef wif;usyfcufcJonfU tjcm; enf;vrf; tcsdKUudk xnfYoGif; oHk;oyfjcif; rjyKcJYjcif; r[kwfyg/ Oyrmtm;jzifY wnfNidrf xGef;um; aeonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' xdef;ausmif;aom 'Drdkua&pDEdkfifiHtcsdKUudkvnf; oHk;oyfcJY&m? xdkjyXmef;csufrsm;wGif a&G;aumufyGJ rwkdifrD oabmwlvufcH&ef vTwfawmfrS wpfBudrf? a&G;aumufyGJ usif;yNyD;aemuf ac:,lonfU vTwfawmfrS aemufwpfBudrf? axmufcHNyD;rS oabmwlvufcHonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyXmef;csufrsm;vnf; &Sdygonf/63 uae'g zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'\ tcsdKU tydk'frsm;udkjyifqif&ef jynfe,ftm;vHk;rSa&m? atmufESifY txufygvDref rsm;uyg uefYuGufrJ r&Sd axmufcH&ef vkdygonf/64 þljyXmef;csufrsm;rSm wkduf½dkuf EIdif;,SOfír&aomfvnf;? jrefrmEkdifiH zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'xuf ydkí jyifqif&ef cJ,Of;onf[k uREkfyfwkdU r,lqyg/

Oya'Oya'Oya'Oya'ajymif;vJjyifqifa&; a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf;rsm;ajymif;vJjyifqifa&; a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf;rsm;ajymif;vJjyifqifa&; a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf;rsm;ajymif;vJjyifqifa&; a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf;rsm;

34/ tus,ftm;jzifY jrefrmEdkifiHwGif zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'qkdif&m jyifqifa&; enf;vrf; (3) oG,f &Sdygonf/ (1) zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk vuf&Sd vkyfief;pOftwkdif;jyifqifjcif;/ (2)owfrSwf enf;vrf; twkdif;rvkyfbJ? trsm;qE aumufcHNyD;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk tpm;xdk; jyifqifjcif;? odkUr[kwf (3)

62 In drawing that conclusion we do not exclude consideration of some of the other stringent mechanisms employed across the world for entrenching constitutional provisions. We have considered for example that a number of established and stable constitutional democracies whereby require the consent from two different parliaments, one before and the one after an intervening election (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Sweden). Some parts of the Canadian Constitution can only be modified by a unanimous vote of all the provinces plus the two 63

64

41

vuf&SdzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk qufvufxm;&SdNyD;? jyifvkdonfUtydk'frsm;udk owfrSwfxm;onfU pnf;urf; abmiftjyifrS a&G;cs,f jyifqifjcif; wkdUjzpfygonf/

u/u/u/u/ a&G;cs,fa&G;cs,fa&G;cs,fa&G;cs,fp&mp&mp&mp&menf;vrf;enf;vrf;enf;vrf;enf;vrf; ((((1111))))/ vuf&Sdvkyfief;pOftwkdif; jyifqifjcif;// vuf&Sdvkyfief;pOftwkdif; jyifqifjcif;// vuf&Sdvkyfief;pOftwkdif; jyifqifjcif;// vuf&Sdvkyfief;pOftwkdif; jyifqifjcif;/

35/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyXmef;xm;onfU vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twkdif; jyifqifjcif;jzifY? xdkzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk w&m;r0if[k Oya'&Ia'gifYrS tjiif;ryGm;EdkifawmYay/ wpfbuf wGifrl? zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' tpm;xdk;jcif;rjyKbJ? jyifqifjcif;om jzpfojzifY? zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'opfrSm vuf&dSzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'ESifY qufpyfvsuf&Sdae ao;&m? vuf&Sd tajccHOya' tay: w&m;0ifrIr&Sd[lonfUtjrifonf jyifqifonfU Oya'udk npfax;apEdkifygonf/

36/ jrefrmEdkifiH\ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&;vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;onf ppfwyftmPmudk tjrpfwG,faponfYenf;jzpfojzifY? ppfwyfu trSefwu,f axmufcHrSom zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya' pepfwus jznf;jznf;csif; toGiful;ajymif;rI jzpfEdkifrnf/ acwfopforkdif;aMumif;t&? EkdifiH tawmfrsm;rsm;onf tmPm&SiftkyfcsKyfrIyHkpHrS zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drdkua&pDvrf;pOfodkU wpfqifYcsif; pepfwus ul;ajymif;cJYMuonfudk awGU&ygonf/ [efa*&D? awmifudk&D;,m;? ydkvefESifY tif'dkeD;&Sm;wkdUrSm t"duom"ursm;jzpfMuygonf/ uREfkyfwkdUtjrifwGif?tif'dkeD;&Sm;EdkifiHonf (yx0D taetxm; ESifY zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tvm;wlrIrsm; aMumifY) EIdif;,SOf&ef taumif;qHk;jzpfygonf/ tif'dkeD;&Sm;\ rMumao;vSaom ordkif;aMumif; t&? jynfol ESifY zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'jyKa&;tzGJUuyg zdtm;jyif;xefpGm ay;onfUtcg? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk wpfqifYcsif; pepfwus jyifqifa&; vkyfief;pOfjzifY tiftm;BuD; ppfwyfudk,füu jyKjyifajymif;vJrI jyKvkyfcJYonfudk awGU&ygonf/

37/ jrefrmEdkifiH\ wyfrawmftcef;u@udk 1967 ckESpf or®w ql[mwdk tmPmodrf; NyD;aemuf tif'dkeD;&Sm;ppfwyf\ tcef;u@ESifY EdIif;,SOfavY &Sdygonf/ 1999 ckESpftxd tif'dkeD;&Sm;ppfwyfonf Oya'jyKvTwfawmfwGif oD;oefY ae&m 100ESifY tqifYjrifY tpkd;& &mxl;rsm; cefUtyfxm;jyD;? ta&;ygonfU EdkfifiHa&;tmPmudk qkyfudkifcJYonf65/ 1999 ckESpfESifY 2002 ckESpftwGif; zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOf aqmif&GufcJYNyD;aemuf? ppfwyf\ w&m;0if EdkifiHa&;tcef;u@ qHk;cef;wkdif cJYygonf66/ xdkodkUjzifY ,cktcg jynfolrsm;u tif'dkeD;&Sm;ygvDreftrwftm;vHk;udk a&G;cs,fMuNyD;67? ppfwyf tzGJU0ifrsm;vnf; tpkd;& &mxl;ae&mrsm;wGif xrf;aqmifjcif; r&SdawmYay68/ ygvDrefrS ppfwyf udk,fpm;vS,frsm; z,f&Sm;vdkufjcif;onf ESpftwefMum tcsdef,lum wpfjznf;jznf; aqmif&GufoGm;onfU tBuD;pm; zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&; vkyfief;pOfBuD;wpfckvHk;\ ta&;BuD;aom tydkif; wpfck jzpfcJUonf/ xkdodkUjzifYtif'dkeD;&Sm;ta&;rsm;wGif ppfwyfvTrf;rdk;rIudk wpfjznf;jznf; avQmYcsum? toGif ul;ajymif; a&;udk tqifYvkdufazmfaqmifcJYMu&m? ]]wpfpdwffwpfa'o vGwfvyfonfY}} (Freedom House 2004)

tqifYrS ]]vGwfvyfonfU}} tqifYodkU (Freedom House 2014) odkUa&muf&SdcJYygonf/ urÇmYbPftqkdt&? tif'dkeD;&Sm;onf ,cktcg tm&S ypdzdwfwGif EdkifiHa&;wnfNidrfrI qufvufwnf&Sdum udk,fydkif,HkMunfrI tjynfYt0&Sdaom 0ifaiG tv,f tvwf wef; &SdonfU 'Drdkua&pD &SifoefxGef;um;aom EdkifiHtjzpf wnf&Sdaeygonf69/

38/ tif'dkeD;&Sm;wGif ppfwyf\ yl;aygif;yg0ifrI r&SdbJvsuf ppfwyfu@ jyKjyifajymif;vJa&; jzpfajrmuf Edkifonf jzpfaomfvnf;? ppfwyfudk,fwkdifu ygvDrefwGif; ppfom;udk,fpm;vS,f yg0if &kyfodrf;jcif;

65 “Comparison of 1947 Union of Myanmar Constitution, 1974 Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution and 2008 Republic of the Union of Myanmar Constitution”, The New light of Myanmar (27 October 2013). 66 The Constitution of Indonesia 1945 (reinst. 1959, rev. 2002), Fourth Amendment, Art. 2(1). 67 D. Singh, L.C. Salazar, ‘South East Asian Affairs 2006’, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (2006), p.111. 68 The Constitution of Indonesia 1945 (reinst. 1959, rev. 2002), Fourth Amendment, Art 2(1). 69 World Bank, Indonesia Country profile, available at http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia.

42

tygt0if? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&;wGif tqHk;pGef tm;ay; axmufcHcJYygonf/ tif'dkeD;&Sm; toGiful;ajymif;rI jzpfay:aponfU armif;ESiftm; tcsdKUrSm-

• EdkifiHa&; tay;t,l- ppfwyfu rdrd wyfwGif;jyKjyifajymif;vJrI tpDtpOfudk udk,fwkdifcsrSwfydkifcGifYESifY? wyfydkif;qkdif&m tmPm zGJUpnf;yHkudk qufvuf xdef;csKyf xm;a&;awmif;qkdNyD;? tjyeftvSeftaeESifY jyifqifrItcsdKU (Oyrm- ppfwyf\ w&m;0ifEdkifiHa&;tcef;u@ &kyfodrf;jcif;) udk axmufcH jcif;70?

• ydkrdkaumif;rGefaomtkyfcsKyfrIESifY wm0efcHrI&Sdap&ef jynfolrsm;u awmif;qkdjcif;?

• qHk;jzwfcsufrsm;udk ygvDreftwGif; "open vote" enf;tpm;? "consensus" trsm;qE enf;jzifYtwnfjyKenf;oHk;jcif;jzifY jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOfrsm; vdyfcJwnf;vnf;jzpfrnfU taetxm;udk a&Smif&Sm;NyD;? tjiif;yGm;zG,f jyifqifcsuf rsm;udk twnfjyK Edkifjcif;? wkYdjzpfonf71/

39/ jrefrmEkdifiHwGif vwfwavm wkd;wufrIrsm;jzpfonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifa&; oHk;oyfrI aumfrwD zGJUpnf;rI? jynfoltm; today;onfU vkyfief;pOfESifY or®wrS jyifqifa&;udk axmufcHonfU ajymMum;csuf ponfwkdUonf jrefrmEdkifiH &mxl;tmPm&SdoltcsdKUu zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'udk pepfwus jznf;jznf;csif;ajymif;vJum 'Drdkua&pDazmfaqmifapvkdonfU pdwfqE´ &SdaMumif; jyqkdygonf/ xdkaMumifY tif'dkeD;&Sm; om"ursm;u jrefrmEdkifiHtwGuf tm;uszG,f&mrsm; ESifY oifcef;pmrsm; &&Sdedkifrnf[k arQmfvifYygonf/

c/c/c/c/ a&G;cs,fp&m a&G;cs,fp&m a&G;cs,fp&m a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf; (2)/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twdkif; r[kwfbJ enf;vrf; (2)/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twdkif; r[kwfbJ enf;vrf; (2)/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twdkif; r[kwfbJ enf;vrf; (2)/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;twdkif; r[kwfbJ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk tpm;xdk;jyifqifjcif;/zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk tpm;xdk;jyifqifjcif;/zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk tpm;xdk;jyifqifjcif;/zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk tpm;xdk;jyifqifjcif;/

40/ jynfolUtHk<urI odkUr[kwf aqG;aEG;ñSdEdIif;rIrsm;\ &v'ftjzpf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' wpf&yfudk topfjzifYtpm;xdk;jcif; jyKvkyfavY&Sdygonf72/ acwfopf ordkif;aMumif;wpfavQmuf ta&SUOa&my73? awmiftar&du74? tmz&du75ESifY ta&SUawmiftm&SEdkifiH76rsm;wGif aqG;aEG;ñSdEdIif;rIrsm;? xdef;csKyf toGiful;ajymif;rIrsm;jzifY zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tBuD;pm; tpm;xdk;jyifqifonfU om"ursm;pGm&Sdygonf/ Nidrf;csrf;pGm toGiful;ajymif;EdkifonfU atmifjrifqHk;ESifYta&;BuD;qHk; om"u jy&vQif? awmiftmz&duEdkfifiH jzpfayvdrfYrnf/ yg0ifolrsm;u tvTmpHkudk tajccHonfU trsm;oabmwl qE´&,lvkdpdwf &SdMuonfUtwGuf? xdkvkyfief;pOfrSm rSwfom;avmufayonf/

41/ 1990rS 1997 ckESpftxd? awmifz&duEdkifiHonf tom;a&mifcGJjcm;onfUpepfrS zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drkdua&pD pepfodkU toGiful;ajymif;cJYygonf/ xdktom;a&mif cGJjcm;a&; pepfudk awmiftmz&duEdkifiH\ 1983 ckESpf Oya'jyKygvDrefu zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'twGif; jyXmef;cJYjcif; jzpfonf/

42/ awmiftmz&du\zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJa&; vkyfief;pOfudk awmif tmz&du&Sd EdkifiHa&;ygwD toD;oD;u tqifY (2) qifYjzifY aqmif&GufcJYonf77 f/ yxrtqifYtjzpf? 1991ckESpf azazmf0g&DvrS

70 M. Mietzner, ‘The Politics of Military Reform in Post;Suharto Indonesia: Elite Conflict, Nationalism, and Institutional Resistance’, (East;West Center, 2006), available at www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/publications. 71 D. Indrayana, Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation of Constitution-making in Transition, (Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2008), p.218. 72 L.J. Diamond, ‘Toward democratic consolidation’, 5(3) Journal of democracy (1994) 4;17. 73 E.g. The Constitution of Spain 1978 and the Constitution of Czechoslovakia. 74 E.g. The Constitution of Bolivia 2007. 75 E.g.The Constitution of Uganda 1995, the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and the Constitution of South Africa1996. 76 E.g. The Constitution of Thailand 1997. 77 For a more in depth overview of South Africa’s constitutional reform process see H. Klug, "Constitution;Making, Democracy and the Civilizing or Irreconcilable Conflict: What Might We Learn from the South African Miracle," Wis. Int'l LJ 25 (2007) 269.

43

1994ckESpf {NyDvtwGif;? jyifqifcsuf tawmfrsm;rsm; a&;qGJcJYNyD;? 'kwd, jyifqifa&;tqifYwGif tNyD;owf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJa&;twGuf Mum;jzwf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' OD;pGma&;qGJ&ef ñSdEdIif;cJY Muygonf/ tmz&du\ Mum;jzwf zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'udk (yxrtqifY jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;tjzpf ANC

tp&SdonfU EdkifiHa&;ygwD trsm; tjym;udk w&m;0if todtrSwf jyKNyD;aemuf)ygwDpHk ñSdEdIif;rIrsm; jyKvkyfNyD; a&;qGJcJYMuygonf/ wHcg;ydwf aqG;aEG;ñSdEdIif;rIrsm;jyKvkyfojzifY rauseyffrIrsm; &SdcJYMuaomfvnf;? 'Drdkua&pD pepfjzifY a&G;aumufwifa`rSmufonfU ygvDrefzGJUpnf;a&;ESifY zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'a&;qGJa&; vkyfief;pOf twGuf vkdtyfojzifY wHcg;ydwf aqG;aEG;jcif; jzpfaumif;jzpfayvdrfYrnf 78/ EdkifiHa&; ygwD rsm;u rdrdwkdU qkdif&m rJqEé,frS jynfolrsm;ESifY t"duta&;udpörsm; aqG;aEG;ñSdEdIif; cJYMuNyD;? umvtwefMum vmonfUtcg? þpum;0dkif;rsm;udk rD'D,mESifY jynfolrsm; MunfY&I tuJcwf&ef zGifYay;vmMuonf 79/

43/ awmiftmz&duzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' aqG;aEG;ñSdEdIif;rI vkyfief;pOftwGif; t"du jzpfyGm;onfU y#dyu©rSm zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJcsrSwfa&; enf;yifjzpfonf80/ 1983 ckESpf zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'wGif vTwfawmf oHk;&yf&Sd&m? oHk;&yfpvHk;rS twnfjyK&ef vkdNyD; 81? vlenf;pkvljzLrsm;\ tusdK;pD;yGm;ukd udk,fpm;jyKonfUtrwfrsm;tm; zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsufrsm;tay: ADwkdtmPmtyfESif;xm;í? vlrsm;pk vlrnf;rsm;\ udk,fpm;vS,frsm;rSm ajymqkd aqG;aEG;ydkifcGifY r&Sdacs/ tmPm& trsdK;om;ygwDu zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJa&; vkyfief;pOfwGif xdkADwdktmPmudk qufvufxm;&SdvkdMuojzifY? ñSdEdIif; aqG;aEG;NyD;aemuf xGufay:vmrnfUoabmwlnDcsufrsm;udk vuf&Sd 1983 zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya' twdkif; vkdufem apNyD;? vTwfawmfoHk;&yfrS twnfjyK&rnf[k apm'u wufMuonf/ xdktcsufudk ANC u oabmrwlojzifY? tjyD;owfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk a&;qGJtwnfjyK&rnfU 'Drdkua&pDpepfjzifY a&G;aumuf wifa`rSmufaom ygvDrefudk ac:,l&eftwGuf? yxrOD;pGm Mum;jzwfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk a&;qGJMu&ef ñSdEdIif;oabmwlcJYMujcif;jzpfygonf/ xkdrS wpfzef tNyD;owf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' a&;qGJjyXmef;rnfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'qkdif&m vTwfawmfrS omvGef trsm;pk qErJta&twGuf (supermajority) tay: tjiif;yGm;Mujyefonf/ trsdK;om;ygwDaeESifY vTwfawmftopfrS udk,fpm;vS,faygif; 75 &mcdkifEIef; u oabmwl twnfjyK&rnfqkdonfU pnf;rsOf; owfrSwfvkdaomfvnf;? aemufqHk;wGif zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya'vTwfawmfESifY qD;edwfvTwfawmfwkdUrS 66 &mcdkifEIef; axmufcHrJta&twGufjzifY twnfjyK&ef ajyvnfrI &&SdcJYonf/

44/ tNyD;owfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'onf (trsdK;om;ygwDtwGuf ta&;ygonfU) tajccH oabmw&m; trsm;tjym;udk vkdufemusifYoHk;&rnfjzpfNyD;? xdkpnf;rsOf;rsm;wGif (1) Mum;jzwf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'wGif yg&SdonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tajccHoabmw&m; (33) ck ESifYvnf; udkufnD&rnf? (2) topfxlaxmif aomzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'w&m;½Hk;u xdk zGJUpnf;ykHtajccHOya' tajccHoabmw&m;rsm;ESifY a&SUaemuf udkufnDrI &Sdr&Sdudk ppfaq; twnfjyKay;&rnf? (3) Mum;jzwfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk trsdK;om; pnf;vHk; nDnGwfa&;? jyefvnf &ifMum;apYa&;ESifY vGwfNidrf;csrf;omcGifY vkyfief;pOfwkdUudk xnfYoGif; &nfrSef; a&;qGJ&rnf ponfwkdU yg0ifonf/

45/ Mum;jzwfzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'a&;qGJ jyXmef;&ef vTwfawmfoHk;&yfpvHk;ESifY tmPm& tpkd;&tm; wkdufwGef;EdkifcJYonfU awmiftmz&d atmifjrifrIonf jrefrmEdkifiHtwGuf toHk;0if Edkifygonf/ xdkMum;jzwf zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'jzifY tmPm&tpdk;& oufwrf;udk tqHk;owf apcJYygonf/odkUaom?f zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'udk vuf&SdzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'yg vkyfxHk;vkyfenf; twkdif; r[kwfbJ? tBuD;pm;tpm;xdk; jyifqif jcif;onf ta[mif;udk topfjzifY tpm;xdk;jcif; jzpfonf[kqkdum? w&m;r0if[k tjrifa&mufapNyD;? rauseyfrIrsm; aygufzGm;Edkifygonf/

78 H. Corder, ‘South Africa's First Bill of Rights: Random Recollections of One of Its Drafters’, 32 Int'l J. Legal Info (2004) 313, 320. 79 C. Barnes and E. De Klerk, South Africa’s Multi-Party Constitutional Negotiation Process (1997), p.27. 80 H. Klug, ‘Constitution;Making, Democracy and the Civilizing or Irreconcilable Conflict: What Might We Learn from the South African Miracle,’ Wis. Int'l LJ 25 (2007) 269. 81 Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 110, s. 99.

44

46/ xdktaMumif;jcif;&mrsm;aMumifYzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyefvnfa&;qGJjcif;? odkUr[kwf vuf&SdzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg tcsdKUtydkif;rsm;udk jyifqifjcif;vkyfief;rsm;udk ckdifrmonfU pnf;rsOf;rsm;jzifY (Oyrm-vuf&Sd zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg pnf;rsOf;twkdif;r[kwfaomfvnf;? qEćH,lyGJ usif;yNyD; twnfjyKjcif;) aqmif&GufvQif? 'Drkdua&pDpepfESifY w&m;Oya'pdk;rdk;a&; pepfusifYoHk;rI &dSonf[k ,lqEdkifygonf/

*/*/*/*/ a&G;cs,fp&ma&G;cs,fp&ma&G;cs,fp&ma&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf; (3)/ jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOftwkdif; r[kwfenf;vrf; (3)/ jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOftwkdif; r[kwfenf;vrf; (3)/ jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOftwkdif; r[kwfenf;vrf; (3)/ jyifqifa&;vkyfief;pOftwkdif; r[kwfbJ? bJ? bJ? bJ? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' tpdwftydkif;tcsdKUudk jyifqifjcif;/tpdwftydkif;tcsdKUudk jyifqifjcif;/tpdwftydkif;tcsdKUudk jyifqifjcif;/tpdwftydkif;tcsdKUudk jyifqifjcif;/

47/ tBuD;pm; tpm;xdk;jyifqifjcif;\ tcuftcJrsm;ESifY tEÅ&m,frsm;udk axmuf½Ií? tjcm; a&G;cs,fEdkifonfU enf;vrf;wpfckrSm jyifqifa&; vkyfxHk;vkyfenf; twkdif;rvkyfbJ? (zGJUpnf;yHk tajccH Oya' jyifqifrIrsm;tay: wyfrawmf udk,fpm;vS,f rsm;\ ADwdktmPm ponfU) jrefrmY zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'yg jyóemtBuD;qHk; tydkif;rsm;udk jyifqif&ef jzpfygonf/ xdkyHkpHjzifY jyifqifzl;onfU ,cifom"uwpfckrSm 1962 ckESpfwGif jyifqifonfU 1958 jyifopfzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'jzpfygonf/ ]]zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk jyifqifygu? ygvDrefESpf&yf pvHk;u oabmwl twnfjyK&rnf}} [lonfU owfrSwfcsufukd rvkdufembJ? jynfolu wkduf½dkuf a&G;cs,fonfU or®w a&G;aumufyGJrsm;udk jyXmef;&ef a&;qGJNyD;? jynfvHk;uRwf qEcH,lyGJjzifY vnf;aumif;? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' w&m;½Hk;\ axmufcHtwnfjyKcsuf jzifY vnf;aumif; jyifqifrI txajrmufcJYygonf82/

cGJjcrf;cGJjcrf;cGJjcrf;cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfpdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfpdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyfpdwfjzmrI tusOf;csKyf

48/ jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;twGuf a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf; (3) oG,f &Sdaomfvnf;? zGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya' vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;ESifYtnD jyifqifjcif;onf taumif;qHk;jzpfonf[k qkdaumif;qkdrnff/ xdkenf; ratmif jrifvQif? aemuf a&G;cs,fp&m enf;vrf;udk qufvuf pOf;pm; Edkfifygonf/

ed*Hk;ed*Hk;ed*Hk;ed*Hk;

49/ þaqmif;yg;udk a&;om;aecsdef 2014 ckESpf ZEé0g&Dv (2) &ufaeUwGif or®w OD;odef;pdefu jyifqifa&;udk axmufcHonfUpum; vlod&SifMum; rdefUMum;cJYygonf/ jrefrmEdkifiHonf Nidrf;csrf;onfU jyKjyifajymif;vJa&; vkyfief;pOfudk azmfaqmifonfU yxr ajcvSrf;taeESifY zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifrI pwifaeNyD[k ,lqygonf/ Bingham Centre taeESifY jrefrmEdkifiH zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk rnfodkU jyifqif&rnf[k xifjrifcsuf ay;&ef r&Sdyg/ odkUaomf aemufqufwGJ (u)wGif uREfkyfwkdU jrefrmEdkfifiHwGif aqG;aEG;yGJrsm; usif;ypOf awGUqHkcJY&onfU jynfol &maygif;rsm;pGm\ tjrifrsm;udkrl tusOf;csKyf wifjy xm;ygonf/

50/ rnfokdUyifjzpfap? aumfrwDESifYzGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'wdkU\ &nfrSef;csufrSm jrefrmEdkifiH twGif; Nidrf;csrf;a&; wnfwHYcdkifNrJa&; jzpfygonf/ xdk&nfrSef;csufudk OD;xdyfxm;vsuf vnf; aumif;? jrefrmEdkifiH tvkyf½HkaqG;aEG;yGJrsm;wGif wufa&mufolrsm;\ ajymMum; csufrsm; t& vnf;aumif;? ueOD;umvwGif? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'udk topf jyefvnfa&;qGJjcif;xuf? vuf&Sdjyifqifa&; BudK;yrf;rIrsm;onfom EdkifiHtwGuf ydkrdkoifYavsmfrnf[k uREkfyfwdkU ,lqygonf/

51/ xyfrHajymMum;vkdonfrSm vuf&Sd jyifqifa&;vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;onf urÇmwpf0ef;&dS zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'tm;vHk;xuf ydkrdkwif;usyfcufcJaMumif;yifjzpfonf/ jrefrmEdkifiHtaeESifY (uREfkyfwkdUESifY awGUqHkaqG;aEG; cJY&oltrsm;tjym;u vdkvm;MuouJYodkUyif) wpfjznf;jznf; pepfwus ajymif;vJjyifqifa&; ajcvSrf; pwifvkdvQif? vuf&Sd vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;xuf ydkrkd aysmYajymif;onfU vkyfxHk;vkyfenf;rsm;udk pwifjyXmef;&ef vkdygonf/ jrefrmzGJUpnf;yHk tajccHOya'udk jyifqifonfUyxrtqifYtaeESifY jyifqifa&; pnf;urf;

82 For discussion see M. Rosenfeld, A. Sajó, and S. Baer, Comparative Constitutionalism: Cases and Materials (Thomson/West, 2003).

45

owfrSwfcsufrsm;ukd jyifqif oifYygonf/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqif&ef ueOD;BudK;yrf;rItaeESifY? jyXmef;csuf rsm;udk ,if;oabmw&m;ESifY tnD jyifqifrnfqkdvQif? jrefrmEdkifiH Nidrf;csrf;a&; wnfwHYa&; twGuf ydkrdk tusdK;&SdEdkifygonf/

52/ uREkfyfwkdU tckdiftrm xyfrH ajymMum;EdkifonfrSm? Oya'jyKa&;wGif wyfrawmf\ tcef;u@ESifY? zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya' jyifqifcsufrsm;udk y,fcsEdkfifonfU tmPm&Sdaejcif;onf trsm;ESifY rwlatmif xl;jcm;aeNyD;? urÇmwpfvTm; usifYoHk; aeonfU zGJUpnf;yHktajccH Oya'qkdif&mpHrsm;ESifYvnf; ajcvSrf;vGJ aeonf/ zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'xdef;ausmif;onfU 'Drdkua&pD tajccHoabmw&m;rsm;ESifY qefYusifaeonf/ jrefrmEdkifiHonf aumfrwDESifY ,if;zGJUpnf;yHktajccHOya'wkdU\ &nfrSef;csufjzpfonfU pnf;vHk;nDnGwfa&;ESifY wnfNidrf at;csrf;a&; udk wufvSrf;vdkvQif? tif'dkeD;&Sm;ESifY awmiftmz&du tawGUtBuHKrsm;t& Nidrf;csrf;pGm wufvSrf;Edkifrnf[k ,HkMunfaMumif; ajymMum;vkdygonf/

46

ANNEX A: The Bingham Centre’s Work in Myanmar

The Consultation Exercise and Responses

1. The Centre took part in three sets of workshops in Myanmar concerned with the consultationon proposed amendments to the constitution. The first workshop on 14 October 2013 washeld in Yangon, Myanmar with around 90 delegates comprising pleaders and advocates,pupils and students of the Myanmar legal system. The Centre followed up on this byparticipating in a tour of Myanmar between 4 and 12 November 2012, attending eightseminars in Mawlamying, Pham, Bago, Nay Pyi Taw, Mandalay, Taungyi, Meittila andYangon. It then provided assistance to a further tour organised and run by lawyers’associations and others within Myanmar which took place between 2 and 13 December 2013,and which held seminars in Myitkyina, Hakha, Monywa, Magwe, Pathein, Sittwa and Dawei.Nearly 500 individuals (all living in Myanmar) wrote submissions to the Committee as a resultof these seminars.

2. The Centre expressed no opinions as to how the constitution of Myanmar might be changed,but sought to facilitate and inform the people of Myanmar about the constitution and to put itinto context so as to permit others to make useful and informed responses. The trainingmanual prepared for the workshops is available on the Bingham Centre website:http://www.biicl.org/news/view/;/id/164/. That manual contains a detailed analysis of theconstitution which is not repeated here.

The Priorities for Reform of the People of Myanmar

3. The themes which were most common amongst participants in the seminars are set out asfollows.

Amendment of the Constitution

4. The provision in section 436 of the constitution that 75% + 1 of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw mustgive prior approval to any amendment of the constitution should be replaced with a moreflexible mechanism for amendment.

Electoral Reform

5. All members of the Pyithu Hluttaw and the Amyotha Hluttaw should be elected by the peopleof Myanmar in a multi;party system [sections 109 and 141]. Some people suggestedreducing the proportion of Defence Services Representatives to nil in phases (for example to15% in the first term and thereafter to nil).

6. There was a widespread desire to ensure greater decentralisation and election of regionaland state government bodies. Clearly, this is a very broad and nuanced topic and verydetailed consideration and negotiation would need to be undertaken as to the precise meansby which this might be achieved.

7. Many people advocated directly electing the president.

Qualifications and Selection of the President and Vice-President

8. There was near unanimity that the criteria for qualification of the President and Vice Presidentin sections, 59(c), 59(d), 59(e), 59(f) and 59(g) should be deleted in their entirety. It was suggested that the criteria for qualification as President, Members of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (ss120 and 152) and Judges (ss301 and 310) should be standardised.

Popular Sovereignty over the Military

9. Most delegates considered that the military should be subject to civilian control [s.20(b)] andits overall influence reduced for example by reducing or abolishing the role of the military in

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the national legislature (see above) and abolishing the Defence Services personnel’s Presidential Electoral College by which at least one Vice;President and one of three presidential candidates is selected by that group. [Section 60(b)(iii) and 60(c)].

Provisions on State of Emergency

10. The provisions relating to a state of emergency (section 40 and Chapter XI, especiallysections 412, 414, 421 and 432) should be significantly more restricted, tightly defined andcontrolled. The following amendments were amongst those commended for consideration:

• Require the approval of the Pyindaungsu Hluttaw prior to, or within a short space oftime after, any declaration of a state of emergency.

• Impose maximum time limits on any declaration of emergency after which thedeclaration must be scrutinised and approved by the Pyindaungsu Hluttaw.

• Define more tightly the circumstances in which a state of emergency may bedeclared.

• Require definition of the emergency giving rise to the declaration.• Require the declaration to state which constitutional provisions are suspended.• Empower suspension of only such provisions of the constitution as are necessary to

address the emergency.• Ensure that legal action may be pursued for abuses of power in states of emergency.

Judiciary (Sections 19, and Chapter VI, particularly sections 299-301, 321)

11. The independence of the judiciary as guaranteed by section 19 of the Constitution should beaugmented by specific provisions to secure independence, incorruptibility and freedom frompolitical influence. The majority agreed that the following measures should be considered toachieve this:

• Establish an independent appointments commission• Judges to sit in panels of three (to minimise the potential corruption of single judges)• Qualifications to ensure that all judges are legally qualified and of high calibre

(sections 310, 333).• A constitutional right to jury trial in criminal and civil matters.

12. Further widely supported measures included:

• Restricting the jurisdiction of the court martial system to military offences (sections293 and 319);

• An individual right of petition to the Constitutional Tribunal (section 325;6);• The constitution should express the obligation of the legislature to obey, follow and

respect the rulings of the Constitutional Tribunal (sections 46 and 320;336);• There was support for the publication of the law and records of all meetings of the

Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (section 89) to ensure transparency of the legislature.

Criminal Justice (sections 373-376)

13. The constitution should be amended to ensure the criminal justice system respects thehighest standards of the rule of law. A large majority considered the following measureswould help achieve this:

• Amendment to section 375 of the constitution so as to express a constitutional right tolegal representation immediately following arrest or detention and thereafterthroughout the criminal justice process.

• Amendment to section 375 and 19(b) to acknowledge a right of a person to a fair trialincluding a right to be heard in their own defence.

• Constitutional recognition of the presumption of innocence in criminal trials.

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• Amendment of Section 376 so as to make the right to be brought before a magistratewithin 24 hours of being held in custody an absolute right without exception,consistent with section 21(b) (save a limited possible exception based onpracticability, for example in remote rural areas).

Fundamental Rights

14. A large majority of those with whom we met considered the following changes should bemade:

• Remove the powers vested in the military to revoke or suspend fundamental rights(section 382).

• Limitations on rights to Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Assembly (section354) should be restricted solely to circumstances defined by the constitution and suchrestrictions should be no more than are in accordance with the law and necessary ina democratic society.

• Make the prohibition on forced labour (section 359) absolute and non;derogable;• Amend provisions which discriminate between citizens and non;citizens so as to

apply universally (sections. 348, 354, 356, 365, 381);• The equality provisions [sections 21(a), 347, 348, 350 and 352] should remain subject

to amendments that

o the vague exclusion of women from “positions that are suitable for menonly” (section) should be deleted;

o the right of women to equality before the law in all respects should beexpressly stated;

o there should be an express prohibition on discrimination against disabledpeople.

15. Two summaries of the work of the Bingham Centre and its experience in meeting the peopleof Myanmar were submitted to the Committee in Nay Pyi Taw setting out (broadly) thesuggestions above, alongside more than 500 individual submissions made by the delegatesat the workshops.

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Slide 1 Constitutional SupportBingham Centre for the Rule of Law

Section 436 and Options for Amendment

Naina Patel, Director of Education and Training

Alex Goodman, Research Fellow

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Slide 2 Structure of the Session

• Presentation of the key aspects of section 436 and the options for reform (30 mins)

• Breakout sessions on the arguments for and against the reform of section 436 (30 mins)

• A debate on the reform of section 436 (30 mins)

• Presentation of the key options for the process of reform (30 mins)

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Slide 3 Part I

Section 436 and Options to Amend

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Slide 4 Section 436

• s. 435 “If 20% of the total number of the PyidaungsuHluttaw representatives submit the Bill to amend the Constitution, it shall be considered by the PyidaungsuHluttaw”

• s. 436(a) “If it is necessary to amend the provisions ofsections 1 to 48 in Chapter I, Sections 49 to 56 in Chapter II, Sections 59 and 60 in Chapter III, Sectionjs 74, 10-9, 141 and 162 in Chapter IV, Section 200, 201, 248 and 276 in Chapter V, Sections 293, 294, 305, 214 and 320 in Chapter IV, Sections 410 to 432 in Chapter XI and Sections 436 in Chapter XII of this Constitution, it shall be amended with the prior approval of more than 75% of all the representatives of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, after which in a nation-wide referendum only with the votes of more than half of those eligible to vote”

• s. 436(b) “Provisions other than those mentioned in sub-section (a) shall be amended only by a vote of more than 75% of all the representatives of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw”

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Slide 5 A three-stage process

• [A suggested amendment must be submitted to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw by 20% of its members (ss. 433, 434 & 435)].

• It must have the support of more than 75% of its members to be approved (s. 436).

• When 25% of both houses military appointees (s.109(b) and 141(b).

• Amendments to certain parts of the Constitution must also be approved by a majority those eligible to vote in a nationwide referendum (s. 436(a)).

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Slide 6 Stage 1: more than 75%

• 177/189 Constitutions require a majority

• Most constitutions require a majority of two thirds

• Only 3 others require a majority of more than 75%

• Azerbaijan: unicameral rather than bicameral (and no appointed element in either chamber)

• Burundi: only in National Assembly not Senate (wheresmall co-opted element to fill ethnic/gender quotas)

• Eritrea: unicameral (where 50-50 split and only after initial 75% vote)

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Slide 7 Stage 2: 25% military appointees

• Military specifically:

• Several prohibit a political role for the military (Malawi, Macedonia, Togo, Turkey and Venezuela)

• Indonesia: reduced from 100 members

• Uganda: 10/332 members at present

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Slide 8 Stage 2: 25% military appointees

• Appointees generally:

• Not uncommon

• But generally unable to veto constitutional change:

- too small (Bhutan, India, Nepal, Uganda)

- can be bypassed (Burkina Faso)

- has no power

• However Belize, Canada, Kiribati: issue-based

• South Sudan: temporally limited

• Bahrain, Jordan, Malaysia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia

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Slide 9 Stage 3: the referendum

• 1/189 more than 75% plus referendum (Azerbaijan)

• Majority referendum with 2/3 Parliamentary approval

• 11 others referendum with 75% (incl. Maldives, Rwanda, Taiwan, the Yemen)

• 5 of these are unicameral

• 1 is in a joint session

• The others require 75% not more than

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Slide 10 Assessment

• Is the process stable or rigid?

• Changes to the Constitution are currently difficult to pass (75% + 1).

• They can be defeated by the unelected DefenceServices if they vote together.

• Half of those eligible to vote must accept key changes to the Constitution.

• It is important to weigh the ease of amending the Constitution against an attack on its credibility if it is amended too often.

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Slide 11 Part II

Breakout Sessions

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Slide 12 Part III

How Might Reform Be Achieved?

Alex Goodman

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Slide 13 3 Legitimate Options for Reform?

• Amend the Constitution According to theprocedure set out in section 436.

- Compare Indonesia 1999 2014

• Replace the existing constitution with a newone through broad consensus.

- Compare South Africa 1990-1997

• Retain the existing constitution but amendaspects of it without following section 436.

- Compare France 1962

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Slide 14 Amending the Constitution According to Section 436.

• Veto currently to USDP and Military. Other parties too?

• Current requirement: Near consensus between all political parties plus agreement of military.

• Possibility: consensual agreement in parliament on amending the section followed by referendum which the section requires.

• Before 1999 Indonesia was in a similar position: the military enjoying seats in the legislature and manymore seats being appointed by the President.

• Military supported political reforms in Indonesia in return for control over the military, its budget and the reform of its own power structure.

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Slide 15 Advantages and Disadvantages

Possible Disadvantages:

- Too slow

- If consensus cannot be achieved: Deadlock and stasis.

Possible Advantages:

- Stability: minimises the prospect of popular revolt or military assumption of power.

- Perceived legitimacy of democratic transition.

- Effective constitution requires the people and the institutions of a state to recognise and abide by it.

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Slide 16 Option 2: Complete Replacement of Constitution

South Africa 1990-1997

- South Africa’s 1983 Constitution required amendments be approved by all three houses.

- From 1990-1997 South Africa transitioned from Apartheid to constitutional democracy.

- National Party argued that all amendments to the 1983 constitution should be approved according to the provisions of the 1983 constitution. The African National Congress would not agree this.

- Compromise involving interim and final constitution; conforming to 34 constitutional principles important to NP. Tricameral Parliament approved its own demise.

- New constitution forged peacefully and legitimately without abiding by an old constitution.

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Slide 17 Option 3: Amend Part of the Constitution without Complying

with the Amendment Process:

France 1962 (1)

Background

• France had 16 constitutions between 1789 and1958

• Current Constitution - Constitution of the FifthRepublic adopted in 1958 which replaced the1946 constitution of the Fourth Republic.

• Further amended 17 times since 1958.

• Normal procedure is amendment must beadopted in identical terms by both houses ofParliament then must be either adopted by asimple majority in a referendum, or by 3/5 of ajoint session of both houses of Parliament (theFrench Congress) (article 89).

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Slide 18 France (2)

• President Charles de Gaulle proposed direct election of President (replacing electoral college).

• Held referendum without the approval of both Chambers of Parliament as required by 1958 constitution.

• Amendment was approved by referendum.

• Constitutional Court declined jurisdiction to adjudicate on the legality of the amendment.

• Amendment founded on principle of Popular Sovereignty: Does a prior constitutional provision overrule the will of the expressed will of the people?

• See section 4 of the Myanmar Constitution “TheSovereign power of the Union is derived from the citizens and is in force in the entire country”

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Slide 19 One Possible Route to Reform

• Pass resolution through Parliament, for example:

“There shall be a popular Referendum on the following proposal:

(i) Section 436 is deleted from the constitution.

(ii) From 2016-2020 constitutional amendments may be made in Parliament by simple (or qualified) majority and without referendum (as in Indonesia or UK).

(iii) Before the end of 2020 a referendum must be held to ratify all the amendments to the constitution proposed or passed by Parliament in the period 2015-2020.

(iv) If the amendments are rejected by the public, further proposals for reform must be put to referendum until approved.”

• Resolution to hold Referendum does not require 75% + 1 of Parliament to agree.

• Effect of such a referendum without 75% + 1 approval?

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Slide 20 Constitutional SupportBingham Centre for the Rule of Law

Section 436 and Options for Amendment

Naina Patel, Director of Education and Training

Alex Goodman, Research Fellow

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ဘငဂမးစငတာ မမနမာစမကနး -

မမနမာနငင၏ အပချပရေးအာဏာ

တေားဥပရေစးမးမအတက ဘငဂမး စငတာ

နဝငဘာ ၂၀၁၄


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ပါရမာကခ ဆာ ဂျကဖေ ဂျဝလ KCMG QC

နေါနး

၁။ ေမကရေစ၏ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေစနစသည နင င တငးေ အာဏာခရဝမများဆင ော အရမခခမ နင ဥပရေ

စးမ းမ များနငအည အပချပရေးအာဏာများက ကျငသးေန လအပပါသည။ အာဏာခရဝမများ ဆငော အရမခခမသည

ဥပရေမပရေး နင ဥပရေအသးချရေးတကကားတင ခမခားထားမ ေရစေမည မဖစသည။ ဥပရေစးမ းရေး အရမခခမသည

အစးေ၏ ခကမသးမဖာအပါအဝင နင င တငးေ လပဂဂလအားလးသည ဥပရေနငအည မပမရဆာငေကေပါသည။1

ထသမဖစသညအတက ဥပရေဆင ော အကနအသတများက ရလးစားလကနာနင ရစေနအတက တေားစေငရေးသည

အစးေ၏ အမခားခကမများမ လတလပစာ တညေရနရစေနမာ အလနပင အရေးကကးပါသည။

၂။ နင င ရတာအာဏာ၏ အဂဂါအစတအပငး သးေပအမဖစ ဥပရေမပရေးသည ဥပရေများက ရေးဆမခငး၊ မပငဆငမခငး နင

ဖျကသမးမခငးတအတက တာဝနေပါသည။ ထအမပင အစးေ၏မဝါေများက ကကးကကပစစရဆးမခငးနင တာဝနယရသာ

အပချပ ရေးစနစမဖစရစေနအတကလညး တာဝနေသည။ တေားစေငရေးသည တစဘကတင ဥပရေက အဓပပာယ ဖငဆ

မခငးနင အသးချမခငးတတငလညး တာဝနယေသည။ ယငးက လတလပသညတေားသကကးများမဖင ဖ စညးသငပါသည။

၃။ အပချပ ရေးသည စမမခငးနင အစးေမဝါေက မမ င တငမခငးတအတက တာဝနေပါသည။ ဥပရေမပရေးမ

ထကရပါလာသည ဥပရေများ၊ ထအမပင တေားစေငရေးမ အဓပပာယဖင ဆထားသည ဥပရေများက

အာဏာတညရစမခငးနင အရကာင အထညရဖာ ရဆာငေကမခငး တတင လညး တာဝနေပါသည။ ထအမပင

ဥပရေအသစများ အဆမပသည ကဏဍတင ပါဝငေပပး အရမခခဥပရေအများစတင အစးေဝနရဆာငမဌာနများနင

စစတပကသရသာ နင င ရတာအဖ အစညးများက ကကးကကပရပးေသည။ အပချပ ရေးကဏဍတင အများအားမဖင

အစးေဝနကကးများနင ဖ စညးေပပး သမမတ သမဟတ ဝနကကးချပတစဦးက ရခါငးရဆာငေပါသည။

၄။ အပချပ ရေး၏ အကကးအကတစဦးတင ရနာကထပ တတကျကျသတမတထားသည အာဏာများလညး ေန င ပါသည။

ယငးတထ တင အပချပ ရေးအဖ ၏ အဖ ဝင များက ခနထားမခငး၊ ဥပရေများက မငငးဆနမခငး သမဟတ

အချန ဆထားမခငး၊ နင ငတကာစာချပများက ချပဆမခငး၊ စစဆငနေန ဆးမဖတမခငး သမဟတ စစရမပပငမ းမခငးများက

လပနင သည အာဏာများ ပါဝငပါသည။ အပချပ ရေးကဏဍ၏ တာဝနများသည အများအားမဖင စမးအင၊

သယယပရဆာငရေး၊ လမခရေး နင ကာကယရေးကသရသာ ကဏဍများ၏ မဝါေများအရပါ ထနးချပေမခငးအပါအဝင

အဓက အစးေဌာနများ၏ ရနစဉလပငနးများက စမအပချပ ေပါသည။ သရသာ ဥပရေစးမ းမ ၏ အဓက အရမခခမတင

အပချပ ရေးသည အာဏာများက ဥပရေမ မကျငသးသငရကကာငး သတမတထားပါသည။ လကရတ လပရဆာငောတင

အပချပ ရေးကဏဍက ဆးမဖတချကများ ချမတမခငးများနင စပလျဉးပပ း ပငလငးမမငသာမအတင းအတာမာ မမငမားေန

လအပပပ း သမ သာလျင အမခားရသာ အစးေဌာနများ နင မပညသလထတက နင င ရေးရခါငးရဆာငပင းအရပါ

ကကညရစစရဆးနင ကကမည မဖစသည။2

1တေားဥပရေစးမးရေး စာတမးတင တမ ဘငဂမက ရထာကမပခသညအတငး တေားဥပရေစးမးရေးဆငော အယအဆတင

အမခားအစတအပငးများလညး ပါဝငပပး ယငးတထတင ဥပရေသည လကလမးမပပး တကျရသချာမေမခငး၊ လအားလးအတက

ဥပရေက ညတညမျအသးမပမခငး၊ မျတသည တေားခငနင လတလပသည တေားစေငရေးတမတဆင တေားမျတမက

ေေနငမခငးတ ပါဝငသည။ တေားဥပရေစးမးရေးဆငော အရမခခမက ကမဘာတစဝနးေ နငငအများစတင အသအမတမပလကခပပး

ကျငသးကကပပး ကလသမဂဂ၏ အမပညမပညဆငော လအခငအရေး ရကကညာစာတမးနင ကလသမဂဂ၏ပဋဉာဉတင

ထညသငးထားသည။

2 နငငအများစသည တေားစေငရေးနင အပချပရေးအာဏာနစခစလး၏နယပယအတငးအတာအရပါ ရနာကဆး

အဓပပာယဖငဆသသည တေားရးများ မဖစေမညဟ ကတကဝတမပထားကကပါသည။

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အပချပရေးနငပတသကသည မမနမာနငင၏ ဖ စည းပအရမခခဥပရေ

၅။ မမနမာနငင၏ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ (“၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ” ) သည အာဏာများက ခမခားထားသည

အရမခခမက အရလးအနက ထညသငးထားပါသည။ ထအမပင နင င ရတာ၏ အပချပ ရေး (“အပချပ ရေး”) က

နင င ရတာ၏ အချပအချာအာဏာက အသးမပေန တာဝနေသည အစးေ၏ခကမသးမဖာထတင တစခအမဖစ

သတမတထားပါသည (ပေမ ၁၁)။ အပချပ ရေးတင အစးေအဖ အစညး အချ ပါဝငပပ း ယငးတထ တင

မပညရထာငစအစးေ၊ အမျးသားကာကယရေးနင လမခရေးရကာငစ၊ နင ဘဏဍာရေးရကာမေင [မတချက။ သညမာ

အပချပ ရေးအရကကာငး ရဖာမပသည ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ အခနး ၅ တင ထညသငးထားသည အချကက

အရမခခထားပါသည။] နင င ရတာသမမတသည အပချပ ရေး၏ အကကးအက မဖစပါသည (ပေမ ၁၆)။

၆။ နင င ရတာ၏ အပချပ ရေးအာဏာက မပညရထာငစ၊ တငးရေသကကး နင မပညနယများအား ခရဝအပနင းပပ း

အတငးအတာတစခထ ကယပင အပချပ ခ င ေစေငစများအား ခရဝအပနင းပါသည (ပေမ ၁၉၉ (က)နင(ခ))။

တချနတညးမာပင ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေသည တငးရေသကကးနင မပညနယအဆငများရအာကတင

ရကျးလကတငမဖစရစ၊ ပမ မပတငမဖစရစ ကယပငအစးေများ ဖ စညးခင မပမထားပါ။ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေအေ

ခရင များနင ပမ နယများသည အစးေဝနထမးများ စမခနခ သည အပချပ ရေးအဆငအမဖစသာ တညေသည။

က။ မပညရထာငစ အစးေက ဖ စညးမခငး နင ဖ စညးသညပစ

၇။ မပညရထာငစအစးေက သမမတ၊ ေတသမမတများ၊ မပညရထာငစဝနကကးများ နင မပညရထာငစ ရေ ရနချပများမဖင

ဖ စညးပါသည (ပေမ ၂၀၀)။ နင င ရတာသမမတသည မပညရထာငစ၏ အကကးအက မဖစသည (ပေမ ၁၉၉)။

နင င ရတာသမမတက ပေမ ၆၀ တင မပဋဌာနးထားသည လပငနးစဉများအတင း သမမတရေးချယတငရမမာကရေးအဖ က

ရေးချယတငရမမာကရပးေသည။ သမမတရေးချယတငရမမာကရေး အဖသည မတညသည အစအဖ သးခမဖင ဖ စညးသည

- မပညရထာငစလတရတာေ ရေးရကာကတငရမမာကမခငးခေရသာ လတရတာကယစားလယများ အစအဖ နစခ နင

တတယအစအဖ မ ာ တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက အမညစာေငးတငသငးသည တပမရတာသား

လတရတာကယစားလယအဖ တ မဖစသည (ပေမ ၆၀ (ခ))။ ေတယသမမတ သးဦးက ယငးအစအဖ မ ျားထမ

တစဦးစက အသးသး ရေးချယတငရမမာကေသည။ သမမတရေးချယ တငရမမာကရေးအဖ က မညသ သမမတမဖစသညက

မဆးမဖတမ (ပေမ ၆၀ (င)) ေတယသမမတများက မပညရထာငစလတရတာက ပေမ ၅၉ တင မပဋဌာနးထားသည

အေညအချငးသတမတများနင ညမည စစစရပးေပါသည။ နင ငရတာသမမတက ရေးချယတငရမမာကပပးရနာက ကျနသည

နစဦးသည သမမတ၏ သကတမးအတငး ေတယသမမတ တာဝနများက ထမးရဆာငေသည။

၈။ ပေမ ၅၉ အေ နင င ရတာသမမတအတက သတမတထားရသာ အေညအချငးများရအာကတင နင င ရတာသမမတသည

မပညရထာငစမမနမာနငင၏ နင ငသားတစဦးမဖစေမည မဖစပပး ပေမ (၅၉(ခ))၊ အနညးဆး အသက ၄၅ နစ မပညပပ းသ

မဖစေမည ပေမ (၅၉(ဂ))။ ထအမပင စစရေးအပါအဝင နင ငရတာအရေးအောများက ကျမးဝငသမမငသ မဖစေမည ပေမ

(၅၉(ဃ))။ ၎ငးအမပင နင ငရတာသမမတသည ရေးချယတငရမမာကမခငးမခေမ နင ငရတာအတငး၌ အနညးဆး အနစ

၂၀ အရမခချရနထငပပးသ မဖစေမည ပေမ (၅၉(င)) မဖစပပး မမ၏ ဇနး သမဟတ ခငပန းသည အမခားနင င တစခခ ၏

နင င သား သမဟတ နင င မခားအစးေ၏ လကရအာကခ မမဖစရစေပါ။ နငင သားမဖစမ လအပချကများသည

နင င ရတာသမမတ၏ မဘများ၊ ၎ငး၏ တေားဝင သားသမးများ နင ဇနး ခငပန းတအထ သကဆင ပါသည ပေမ

(၅၉(စ))။ နင င ရတာ သမမတက ပေမ ၇၁ ရအာကေ စညးကမးချကများအေ တာဝနမ ေပစန င ပါသည။

ယငးစညးကမးချက အရကကာငးေငးအချ တင နင ငရတာ သစစာရဖာကမ၊ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေပါ မပဋဌာနးချကများက

ရဖာကဖျကကျးလနမခငး နင အကျငပျကမပားမခငးများလညး ပါဝငပါသည။ သရသာ စပစ မပစတငမခငးဆင ော

နညးလမးများသည များမပားရတရထးသညက သတမပေပါမည။ ထငေားသညမာ စပစ မပစတငေန တငမပသည

လတရတာ၏ အနညးဆး ရလးပတစပက လကမတရေးထးေမညမဖစပပ း ယငးလတရတာ၏ သးပ နစပ က

ရထာကခေမည မဖစသည။ [ မတချက။ ၂၅% ောခငနနးဆသညမာ လတရတာတငးေ တပမရတာသားက ယ စားလ ယ

အ ရေအတကနင အချ းအစားညမျပါသည ။] ယငးစပစ ချကက အမခားလတရတာက စစမးစစရဆးေပပး အကယ၍

ကယစားလယ အနညးဆး သးပန စ ပ က သရဘာတလျင စပစ မပစတငမဆးမဖတချကက ရနာကဆးတင အတညမပ

ချမတနင သည ပေမ (၇၁(စ))။

၉။ မပညရထာငစလတရတာ၏ အတညမပချကမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတသည (i) မပညရထာငစအစးေ၏

ဝနကကးဌာနများက လအပသလ သတမတနင ပပ း ဝနကကးဌာနများက မပငဆငသတမတမခငး နင မဖညစ ကမခငးတ

မပလပန င သည။ (ii) မပညရထာငစဝနကကးဦးရေက လအပသလ သတမတနင ပပ း အရေအတကကလညး

60

အတးအရလျာ မပလပန င သည (ပေမ ၂၀၂)။ အရေးကကးသညမာ နင င ရတာ သမမတသည ပေမ ၂၃၂ နငအည

မပညရထာငစဝနကကများက ခနအပတာဝနရပးနင သည။ မပညရထာငစဝနကကးောထးအတက ခနအပခေသသည ပေမ

၂၃၂(က) တင သတမတထားသည အေညအချငးများနင ကကညမ ေေမည မဖစသည။ ကာကယရေး၊ မပညထရေးနင

နယစပရေးော ဝနကကးဌာနများနင ပတသက၍မ နင င ရတာ သမမတသည တပမရတာ ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက

တငသငးလာသည ပဂဂလများစာေငးထမ ရေးချယေမည မဖစသည (ပေမ ၂၃၂ (c)(ii))။ ထရနာက နင င ရတာ

သမမတသည တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ရေးချယထားသည တပမရတာသားများ၏ အမညစာေငးက

မပညရထာငစလတရတာသ တငသငးပပ း အတညမပချကေယေမည မဖစသည ပေမ (၂၃၂(င))။ အကယ၍

ယငးအမညစာေငးတငသငးထားသည ပဂဂလသည သတမတအေညအချငးများနင မမပညစ ရကကာငး

သကရသမမပနင ပါက ယငးအတညမပချကက မငငးပယခင မေန င ပါ ပေမ (၂၃၂(ဃ))။ အလားတပင နင င ရတာ

သမမတသည ရေ ရနချပက ခနအပေန တာဝနေပပ း မပညရထာငစလတရတာမ အတညမပချက ေယေမည မဖစသည

(ပေမ ၂၃၇)။

ခ။ နငငရတာသမမတ၏ အာဏာများ

၁၀။ ပေမ ၂၁၇ အေ နင င ရတာ၏ အပချပ ရေးအာဏာသည နင င ရတာသမမတထ၌ တညေသည။ ဆလသညမာ

မပညရထာငစအစးေ၏ အပချပရေးဆငော အရေးယရဆာငေကချကများ အားလးသည နင င ရတာသမမတ၏ အမညမဖင၊

ထအမပင နင ငရတာသမမတ၏ အမညမဖငဟ မတယကာ အရေးယရဆာငေကေမည။ ကစစတင နင င ရတာသမမတသည

၎ငး၏ အာဏာများက ကျငသးရဆာငေကောတင လတရတာဆသ ရမဖေငးေန တာဝန မေရစေပါ (ပေမ ၂၁၅)။

အထကတင ရဆးရနးခသညအတင း ဝနကကးများက ခနအပမအမပင နင င ရတာသမမတအရနမဖင ၂၀၀၈

ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေရအာကတင အမခားရသာ အာဏာ အများအမပားလညး ေပါသည။ ယငးအာဏာများထတင NDSC

(အမျးသားကာကယရေးနငလမခရေးရကာငစ)၏ အကကမပ ရထာကခချကမဖင မပစေဏလတပငမ းခင န င

လတပငမ းချမးသာခငရပးနငမ ပေမ (၂၀၄)၊ အမခားနငငများနင သတမနဆကဆရေး စတငမ သမဟတ မဖတရတာကမ

လပနင မခငး ပေမ (၂၀၆)၊ မပညရထာငစလတရတာ၊ အမျးသားလတရတာ သမဟတ နင င တစဝနးလးက

မနခ န းရမပာကကားနင မ ပေမ (၂၁၀)၊ လတရတာက အရေးရပါ အစညးအရဝးကျငးပေန ရခါယနင မ ပေမ (၂၁၁)၊

လတရတာ ရခါယနင မ မေပါက အရေးရပါဥပရေတစခက အသကဝငရစနင မ ပေမ (၂၁၂)၊ NDSC ၏

သရဘာတညမမဖင နင ငရတာအား ေနမပသည ကစစေပများတင စစရေးအေ ရဆာငေကနင မ ပေမ (၂၁၃)၊ မပညနယ၊

တငးရေသကကးနင ကယပင အပချပ ခ င ေဇန အဆငတင အရမခခဥပရေနင ကကညမမေသည ကစစေပများအတက

အစးေ၏ အကအညအမဖင ရဆာငေကနင မခငး ပေမ (၂၂၆) တ ပါဝငပါသည။

၁၁။ အရေးကကးသညမာ နင င ရတာသမမတသည ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ အခနး ၆ တင ပါဝငရသာ

မပဋဌာနးချကများနငအည အရေးရပါအရမခအရနက ရကကညာနငသည အာဏာလညး ေပါသည။ အခနး ၆ တင အရေးရပါ

အရမခအရနနငပတသကပပး အမျးအစား ၃ မျး ပါဝငပပ း တစခစတင သးမခားမပဋဌာနးချကများ ပါဝငပါသည။

ပထမအမျးစားမာ နင င ရတာသမမတအရနမဖင ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေနငအည နင င ၏ အစတအပင းတစေပေပ၌

အပချပ ရေးလပငနးများက ရဆာငေကနင သည အရမခအရန မေသညအခါတင မဖစသည ပေမ (၄၁၀)။

အရမခအရနတင ယငးရေသ၏ အပချပ ရေးအာဏာများက နင င ရတာသမမတထ လရမပာငးရပးပါသည ပေမ

(၄၁၁(က))။ ထအမပင ထရေသ၏ ဥပရေမပရေးအာဏာကပါ နင င ရတာသမမတက ယေပါသည ပေမ (၄၁၁(ခ))။

၁၂။ နင င ရတာသမမတသည မပညရထာငစရေးရကာကပရကာမေင၏ အဖ ဝင များ ခနအပမ ကလညး ထနးချပထားပပး

(ပေမ ၃၉၈) ယငးရကာမေငသည လတရတာအတက ရေးရကာကပများ ကျငးပမခငးနင ကကးကကပမခငးတအတက

တာဝနေပါသည (ပေမ ၃၉၉)။ ထအမပင နင င ရတာသမမတသည မပညနယနငတင းရေသကကး ဝနကကးချပများက

ခနအပမခငးနင ဖယေားမခငးတ မပလပနငသည အာဏာလညး ေပါသည (ပေမ ၂၆၁ (က) (ခ) နင ပေမ ၂၆၃(က))။

အကျးဆကအရနမဖင နင ငရတာသမမတသည တငးရေသကကးနင မပညနယများ၏ စမအပချပရေးက ထထရောကရောက

ထနးချပနငပါသည။ ရနာကဆးတင နင ငရတာသမမတသည တေားလတရတာချ ပ၏ တေားသကကးများက ခနအပနငမခငး

နင ဖယေားနင မခငးတပင မပလပန င ပပ း ပေမ (၂၉၉ နင ၃၀၂) တငးရေသကကးနင မပညနယများ၏

တေားလတရတာများမ တေားသကကးချပများကလညး ခနအပနငမခငး နင ဖယေားနငမခငးတလညး မပလပနငသည ပေမ

(၃၀၈ (ခ))။ နင င ရတာသမမတသည ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆင ော ခရး၏ တတယတေားသကကးကလညး

ရေးချယနင သည ပေမ (၃၂၁)။

61

ဂ။ အမျးသားကာကယရေးနင လမခ ရေးရကာငစ ဖ စညးမခငး နင ဖစညးသညပစ

၁၃။ အမျးသားကာကယရေးနင လမခရေးရကာငစ (“NDSC”)က အဖဝင ၁၁ ဦးမဖင ဖ စညးပါသည (ပေမ

၂၀၁)။3

ယငးတထတင ရမခာကဦးက တပမရတာက တကရကခနအပမခငးမဖစသည။

က။ ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ (NDSC ၏ အတညမပချကမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတက ခနအပသည။ ပေမ

(၃၄၂))

ခ။ ေတယ ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ (ေတယ ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ခနအပမန င ပတသကသည

လပငနးစဉက ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ တင ရဖာမပမထားပါ။ သရသာ လကရတ အားမဖင

၎ငးက တပမရတာတငးမ ရေးချယမခငး မဖစသည။)

ဂ။ ကာကယရေးဝနကကး (ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ပေမ (၂၃၂(ခ)(ii))နငအည ရေးချယ

အဆမပသည။)

ဃ။ မပညထရေးဝနကကး (ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ပေမ (၂၃၂(ခ)(ii))နငအည ရေးချယ


င။ နယစပရေးောဝနကကး (ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ပေမ (၂၃၂(ခ)(ii))နငအည ရေးချယ


စ။ သမမတ နစဦးထမ တစဦး (ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ပေမ (၆၀(ခ))၏ လပငနးစဉများနင အည

ရေးချယ အဆမပသည။)

၁၄။ NDSC ၏ လပငနးတာဝနများက ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေတင မပညမပညစ စ သတမတမပဋဌာနးထားမခငး မေပါ။

သရသာ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေက အတညမပမပဋဌာနးထားသညမာ NDSC သည နင င မခားရေး ပေမ (၂၀၆) နင

စစရေးရဆာငေကမ (ပေမ ၂၁၃ နင ၃၄၀) များတင အပချပ ရေးဆင ော ဆးမဖတချကချမတနင သည အရေးကကးသည

ကဏဍမ ပါဝငရနပါသည ။ ထအမပင အရေးရပါရကကညာချကထတေန ဆးမဖတချကတငလညး NDSC သည အရေးပါသည

ကဏဍက ပါဝငရနပပး (ပေမ ၄၁၀) ထသရကကညာချကတစေပ ချေသညအခါမျ းတင အဓကလပငနးတာဝနများကလညး

ေယထားပါသည (အခနး ၁၁ ကကကညပါ)။

ဃ။ ဘဏဍာရေးရကာမေငက ဖ စညးမခငးနင ဖ စညးသညပစ

၁၅။ ဘဏဍာရေးရကာမေငက လပဂဂလ ၇ ဦးမဖင ဖ စညးပါသည။4

ဘဏဍာရေးရကာမေင၏ ဥကက ဌသည

နင င ရတာသမမတမဖစပပး ပေမ (၂၂၉(က)(i)) ယငးရကာမေင ဖ စညးမခငးနင ဖ စညးသညပစ တက ထနးချပပါသည

ပေမ (229(ခ))။ ဘဏဍာရေးရကာမေငသည မပညရထာငစဘတဂျတက မပညရထာငစလတရတာထသ တငသငးေန

တာဝနေပပ း ဘဏဍာရေးဆင ော ကစစေပများတင အကကမပေန တာဝနေပါသည ပေမ (၂၃၀ (င))။

သးသပချက

က။ သမမတရေးရကာကပများ

၁၆။ အထကတင ရဆးရနးရဖာမပခသညအတင း လကေ ရေးရကာကပစနစရအာကတင နင င ရတာသမမတက

သမမတရေးချယတငရမမာကရေးအဖ က ရေးချယတငရမမာကေပပး အဖ ဝင သးပ န စ ပ မ ာ လတရတာမ

ရေးရကာကခကယစားလယများ မဖစသည။ ယငးသအားမဖင နင ငရတာသမမတက တပမရတာမဖင ပးရပါငးပပ း လတရတာမ

တကရကတငရမမာကသည။ သရသာ လတရတာတငး ကယစားလယ ၇၅% က အရထရထရေးရကာကပများတစဆင

အဆးအမဖတရပးသည လထအများစက သယဝကရသာအားမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတက ရေးချယတငရမမာကမခငး မဖစသည။

3ယငးပဂဂလများမာ - သမမတ၊ ေတယသမမတများ၊ မပညသလတရတာဥကက ဌ၊ အမျးသားလတရတာဥကက ဌ၊

တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၊ ေတယ တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၊ ကာကယရေးဝနကကး၊ နငငမခားရေးဝနကကး၊

မပညထရေးဝနကကး နင နယစပရေးောဝနကကး။

4ယငးပဂဂလများမာ - သမမတ၊ ေတယသမမတများ၊ မပညသလတရတာဥကက ဌ၊ အမျးသားလတရတာဥကက ဌ၊

တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၊ ေတယ တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၊ ကာကယရေးဝနကကး၊ နငငမခားရေးဝနကကး၊

မပညထရေးဝနကကး နင နယစပရေးောဝနကကး။

62

ထရကကာင မမနမာနင င ၏ ရေးရကာကပစနစတင သမမတက ခနအပနင သည အဆငတစခက ထတပယထားပါသည။

အမခားဘကတငမ သမမတက တကရကရေးရကာကတငရမမာကမခငးသည အပချပ ရေးအဖ က ဖ စညးောတင

ရေးရကာကပစနစ၏ ပါဝငမကဏဍက ပမ အားရကာငးပပ း ထအတပင ေမကရေစနညးအေ ပမ အားရကာငးသည

လပပင ခ င အာဏာတစခအမဖစ ထငမမငယဆနင ပါသည။

သာဓက - တကရကရေးရကာကပများ

၁၇။ အငေန းေားတင ၁၉၉၉-၂၀၀၂ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆင ော မပမပငရမပာငးလမများ မမပလပခငက သမမတက

လတရတာအဖ အစညး (မပညသ အတငပငခ လတရတာ)က ခနအပသည စနစ ကျငသးခ ပါသည။ သရသာ

ယငးစနစသည အပချပ ရေးရခါငးရဆာငများက ရေးချယောတင လထ၏ ပါဝငမက အားနညးရစပပး အပချပ ရေး၏

တာဝနခမ က ရလျာနညးရစသညဟ ယဆခကကပါသည။ မပမပငရမပာငးလမများလပပပးရနာက သမမတနင

ေတယသမမတ အတက တကရကရေးရကာကတငရမမာကသည စနစသစတစခက ကျငသးခပါသည။5

အရထရထရေးရကာကပများတင ပါ၀ငကကသည နငငရေးပါတများသည အရထရထ ရေးရကာကပမတငမ

သမမတရလာငးနင ေတယသမမတရလာငးများက အဆမပေပါသည။ အလားတပင

အာဂျငတးနားနငငတငလညး ၁၉၉၄ ခနစက ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆင ော မပမပငရမပာငးလမများ မပလပပပ း

သမမတရေးချယသညအဖ က သမမတက ခနအပသည စနစအစား လထက သမမတက

တကရကရေးရကာကတငရမမာကသည စနစမဖင အစားထးခပါသည။

သာဓက - တကရကမဟတရသာ ရေးရကာကပများ

၁၈။ အချ န ငင များတင သမမတရေးရကာကပစနစအစား ပါလမနစနစက ကျငသးကကပါသည။ ပါလမနစနစများရအာကတင

အစးေအကကးအကနင နင င ရတာအကကးအကတသည သးမခားစ ကမပားရလေပပ း အစးေအကကးအကသည

ဥပရေမပလတရတာက တာဝနခေပပး ရေးရကာကပက တကရကတာဝနခမ မေပါ။ ယငးကသရသာ စနစမျးတင

လကရတ အားမဖင ပါတတစခချငးစက ရေးရကာကပမတငမတင ရခါငးရဆာငတစဦးက အဆမပကာ ေမကရေစနညးကျ

တာဝနခမ က ထနးသမးကာကယပပး ယငးသအားမဖင အစးေအကကးအကတင နင င ရတာအကကးအကထက

အပချပ ရေးအာဏာ ရလျာနညးပါသည။ ဥပမာအားမဖင ယရကနင င တင ရေးရကာကပမကျငးပမကတညးက

ပါတတစခချငးစက အစးေအကကးအကမဖစနင မည ဝနကကးချပရလာငးတစဦးစက အဆမပကကပပး ဝနကကးချပသည

သမမတအများစေေကကသည အပချပ ရေးအာဏာများက မေေပါ - ဥပမာ ပါလမနမ အတညမပလကသည ဥပရေက

ဗတအာဏာမဖင မပယချနင ပါ။

ခ။ သမမတ အေညအချငးများ

၁၉။ ကမဘာတစဝနးေ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေများတင သမမတ အေညအချငးများနငပတသကပပး မပဋဌာနးချကများ

ပါဝငကကပါသည။ ယငးတသည သမမတအမဖစ ယဉပပ င န င ေန လပဂဂလတစဦးချငးစ၏ အနညးဆးေေမည

လအပချကများမဖစပပ း ယငးတတင အနညးဆး ေေမည အသက၊ နင င သား နင ရနထင ခ င ဆင ော သတမတချကများ

မဖစသည။ သမမတရလာငးများသည သကဆငောနငငအတက အနစသာေေပပ း သဘာဝကျသည စတဝငစားမ ေရစေန နင

နင င ၏ ရကာငးကျးနင ကကယဝချမးသာမတအတက သငရလျာမ န ကနသည စတပင းမဖတမတ ေထားရစေန

ယငးအေညအချငးများက ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေတင ထညသငးထားကကပါသည။ နင င သားဆင ော

သတမတချကများသညလညး သမမတရလာငးတစဦးသည တငးတစပါး၏ သစစာခမဖစနင မခငး သမဟတ နင င မခား၏

လမးမးမ က မလနဆနနင မခငးတမ ကာကယနင ရစေန မဖစပါသည။

၂၀။ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေရအာကတင နင င သားမဖစမ သတမတချကသည သမမတရလာငး သမဟတ

ေတယသမမတရလာငးတ၏ ဇနးခငပန း၊ မဘ၊ သားသမး နင သားသမးများ၏ ဇနးခငပန းများအထကပါ

အကျးဝငရစပါသည။ သတမတချကသည အလနပင မခင လနးသည သတမတချကတစခမဖစပပ း သမမရလာငးတစဦး

သမဟတ ၎ငး၏ သားသမးများအရနမဖင နင င မခားသား နင င မခားသက လကမထပေန ထထရောကရေက

တားမမစထားမခငးမဖစသည။ [မတချက။ တပမရတာဘကက ေတယသမမတရလာငးအတက ပထမရေးချယထားမမဖစသည

ေနကနတင းရေသကကး ဝနကကးချပ ဦးမမငရဆသည ၎ငး၏ သားမကမဖစသမာ ကသစရကတးလျနင င သားမဖစသညအတက

5 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ တတယအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၆က ကကကညပါ။

63

အေညအချငးမပညမမ မေခ ပါ။] စဉးစားေနအချကမာ သမမတရလာငးတစဦး၏ ရဆမျးတစဦး၏ နင င သားမဖစမသည

သမမတရလာငး၏ သမမတ သမဟတ ေတယသမမတ တာဝန ထမးရဆာငနငရချေမေ အေညအချငးအတက အဓကကျသည

ကစစေပအမဖစ ေရနမခငးမာ ဆရလျာမေမေဆသည အချကပင မဖစသည။ အထးသမဖင နငင တကာနင ကးလးသားလာမ နင

ဆကသယမများ ပမ များမပားလာသည သဘာဝက ထညသငးစဉးစားေနပင မဖစသည။ နင ငတကာကျငစဉများအေမ ပေမ

၅၉ (စ) တင မပဋဌာနးထားသည ယငးကသ အေညအချငးက နင င ရတာသမမတအေညအချငးနင အလနပင

သကဆင မခငးမေဟ ယဆကကပါသည။6 ထရကကာင လထအရနမဖင ၎ငးတ ကကကနစသကသည

အေညအချငးမပညမ သညသတစဦးက ရေးချယနင သည လတလပခင က အချးမညစာ ကနသတခထားေသညဟ

ယဆနင ဖ ယ ေန င ပါသည။ ထအမပင ပေမ ၅၉ တင မပဋဌာနးထားသည သတမတချကများသည ရေးရကာကခ

မပညသလတရတာ ကယစားလယများအတက မပဋဌာနးထားသည သတမတချကများနင နငးယဉလျင အထးအားမဖင

ကနသတထားသညဟ ရယဘယျအားမဖင ထငမမငယဆစော ေပါသည (ပေမ ၁၂၀)။

ဂ။ စစတပနင အပချပရေး

၂၁။ တပမရတာသည နင င ရေးမတညပငမသညအချန များတင မပညတငး တညပငမ ရေးနင လမခရေးက ကကးကကးမားမား

ကငတယလပရဆာငမတရ ကကာငသာမကပ လတတရလာမမနမာသမင းတင အရေးပါသည အခနးကဏဍက

ပါဝငရနခပါသည။ ထအမပင စစတပသည ၂၀ ောစအတငး အကကမများစာ ပခ မ းရမခာကခခေသည မမနမာနင င ၏

နယရမမပင ဆင မ ထနးသမးလပရဆာငောတငလညး ရအာငမမငမ ေေခ ပါသည။၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေက

ရေးဆမခငးနင အရကာငအထညရဖာမခငးတတ င လညး စစတပသည အရေးကကးသည အပင းမ ပါဝငခပါသည။

အပချပ ရေးပငးနင စပလျဉးပပး သသာထငေားသညမာ စစတပသည အဓကအားမဖင သမမတရေးချယတငရမမာကရေးအဖ

နင အမျးသားကာကယရေးနင လမခရေးရကာငစတမ တဆင အရေးကကးသည ထနးချပမ က ဆကလက

ကငတယထားသည။ ယငးထနးချပမက ကာကယရေး၊ မပညထရေးနင နယစပရေးောဝနကကးဌာနများမ ဝနကကးများက

ရေးချယနငသည တပမရတာ၏ အခနးကဏဍက ပမ အားမဖညရပးပါသည။ ထအမပင ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ ပေမ

၂၀ (ခ)အေ တပမရတာသည အစးေ၏ အေပသားအပချပ ရေးဌာနများနင လတကငးစာ သးမခား

လပကင ရဆာငေကနင ပါသည။

၂၂။ ေမကရေစစနစအများစတင စစတပသည အေပသားအပချပရေး၏ ကကးကကပထနးရကျာငးမက

လကနာေပါသည။ ယငးသည စစတပက အေပသားအပချပရေး၏ လကရအာကခအမဖစ ရောကသားရစပပး

ယငးသ မဖစသညအတက နငငရတာမ အငအားသးရမဖေငးသညအခါတင ေငးလငးပပး စနစကျသည

ေမကေကတစ လပငနးစဉအတငး လပရဆာငေပါသည။ ထအမပင စစတပ၏ အခနးကဏဍက

ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေများတင ရေးဆထားရလေပပး စစတပ၏ အခနးကဏဍသည အများအားမဖင မပညပေနမ

ကာကယေနအတကသာ မဖစသည။ ကသ ပငလငးမမငသာမသည စစတပက ဥပရေမ အာဏာအသးမပမမေရစေန

ကာကယရပးပပး စစအငအားသးမခငးသည လထတေပလး၏ အကျးစးပားအတကသာ မဖစရစေန

ကာကယလပရဆာငရပးသည။ သရသာ အေပသားထနးချ ပမသည စစတပအား လပငနးတာဝနများ လပရဆာငနင စ မ း

အားနညးသားရစေန မေညေယေပါ။ ထးစအားမဖငဆလျင ေမကရေစ အေပသား အပချပ မသည ခင မာအားရကာငးသည

စစတပ၏ ရထာကခပပ းမ မဖင အတယဉတ သားကကပါသည။ ဥပမာအားမဖင ထငေားသညမာ ရပါတကနင

ဘောဇးနင င တတ င ၂၀ ောစ ရနာငးပင းကာလများအတငး ေမကရေစရေးမပမပငရမပာငးလမများက မဖစရပါရစေန

အစပျးသများမာ စစတပပင မဖစသည။ အလားတပင အငေန းေားတင စစတပက မပမပငရမပာငးလေနအတက

နင င ရေးအေန အဟန အများအမပားမာ စစတပအတငးမပင ရပါရပါကလာမခငး မဖစသည။

သာဓက - အငေနးေား၏ စစတပမပမပငရမပာငးလရေး ၁၉၉၉-၂၀၀၂

၂၃။ ၁၉၉၉-၂၀၀၂ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆင ော မပမပငရမပာငးလမများ မမပလပခငက အငေန းေားတင စစတပက

ကာကယရေးအေလညးရကာငး လမရေးနငနငငရေးအေပါ အရေးကကးသည အငအားစတစေပအမဖစ ‘လပငနးတာဝန

နစမျး’လပသည စနစ (Dwifungsi ဟ လသများပါသည) က ကျငသးခ ပါသည။ သရသာ ၁၉၉၈ ခနစ တင သမမတ

ဆဟာတ ောထးက နတထကသညအခါ လအများက အစးေအတငးမ စစတပ၏ အာဏာက ရလျာချေန

6 အမပညမပညဆငော လအခငအရေး ရကကညာစာတမး၏ ပေမ ၂၁ (၃) က ကကညပါ (“အစးေ၏ လပပငခငအာဏာသည လထ၏

ဆနဒအရပါ အရမခခေမည”)။ ထအမပင လအခငအရေးနင နငငရေးအခငအရေးများဆငော နငငတကာ သရဘာတစာချပ

ကကကညပါ (“နငငသားတငးသည အများမပညသဆငော ကစစေပများ ရဆာကေကောတင တကရကမဖစရစ လတလပစာ

ရေးချယထားသည ကယစားလယများမတဆင မဖစရစ[…]အခငအရေးနင အခငအလမးများ ေေမည”)

64

ရတာငးဆလာခမန ငအတ နငင ရေးမပမပငးရမပာငးလမ အများအမပားက မဖစရပါလာရစပါသည။ ေလေအရနမဖင ‘နစမျး

စနစ’ သည ပပ လလာခပပးရနာက အပချ ပရေးအတငးက စစတပ၏ အာဏာများက ဖျကသမးလကကကသည။ ထအမပင

ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေက မပငဆငမများတင မပညပေနကာကယရေးဆငော ထနးချပမအတက စစတပ၏ တာဝနအမဖစ

ဆကလက ထားေပပး မပညတငး လမခရေး ထနးချပမအတက အပချပရေးထနးချပမ ရအာကက အေပသားေအဖ ဆ က

လရမပာငးရပးမခငးတသည ၎ငးတ ထနးချပမ နစခကကားတင အဓက မခားနားမ တစခ မဖစရစပါသည။7 အရေးကကးသညမာ

စစတပ၏ အာဏာနင လပပင ခ င တမ ာ ယခအခါ တေားဥပရေစးမ းမ န င အညသာ ေငးေင းလငးလငး

လပရဆာငေပါသည။8

သာဓက - တေကနငင၏ စစတပမပမပငရမပာငးလမ ၂၀၀၁-၂၀၀၅

၂၄။ မပမပငရမပာငးလမများမတငခငက စစတပသည တေကအစးေအတငး ကသဇာလမးမးမ အရတာများများ ေခ ပါသည။

ကစစတင အရေးကကးဆးစစတပအဖ အစညးမာ ၁၉၆၀ ခနစ က ဖ စညးသည အမျးသားလမခရေးရကာငစ မဖစပပ း

အပချပ ရေးအဆငေ ဝနကကးများ၏ အေပသားရကာငစန င အတယဉတ တညေခ ပါသည။ သရသာ ၂၀၀၁ ခနစ တင

အစးေမ ဦးရဆာငမပလပသည မပမပငရမပာငးလမများက အမျးသားလမခ ရေးရကာငစက အေပသား ကကးကကပမရအာကသ

တမဖညးမဖညး ရောကရစခပါသည။ ၂၀၀၃ ခနစ တင တေကပါလမနသည ရကာငစ၏ လပပင ခ င အာဏာများက

ကနသတသည ဥပရေများက မပဋဌာနးလကပပ း ရကာငစ၏ ညနကကားရေးမးချပသညလညး ဝနကကးချပထသ

တာဝနခေပါသည။9 ၂၀၀၄ တင အမျးသားလမခရေးရကာငစ၏ ညနကကားရေးမးချပအမဖစ စစသားမဟတသည

ပဂဂလတစခက ပထမဆးအကကမခနအပခ ပါသည။

မမနမာနငငတင မပမပငရမပာငးလေန အလားအလာေသည ရနောများ

၂၅။ အထကပါကစစန င ပတသကလျင စစတပနင အပချပ ရေးတကကား လကေ ဆကဆရေးက ကကညမခငးအားမဖင

အသးဝငမညဟ ယဆေသည မပမပငးရမပာငးလစောများ အများအမပားေပါသည။

၂၆။ ပထမအရနမဖင ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေအတငး NDSC ၏ အခနးကဏဍအပါအဝင စစတပ၏ အခနးကဏဍ သမဟတ

လပငနးတာဝနက ေငးလငးရစနငပပ း မပညပပခမးရမခာကမေနမ နင ငရတာက ကာကယေနအတကသာ ထားနင ပါသည။10

အတငးအတာတင မပညတငးလမခရေးက ကကးကကပေန အေပသားေတပဖ က ဖ စညးနင ပါသည။11

၂၇။ ေတယအားမဖင တပမရတာသည ၎ငး၏ အရေးယရဆာငေကချကများက အပချပ ရေးထသ တာဝနခမ န င အတ

စစတပက အေပသားအစးေ၏ လကရအာကခအမဖစ တေားဝင မပလပထားနင သည။12

၂၈။ တတယအားမဖင အစးေဖ စညးမန င ဝနကကးများ ရေးချယမအတက အစးေ၏ အေပဖကဌာနများက

ထနးချပခ င အမပညအဝ ရပးနင သည။13

7 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ တတယအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၃၀ က ကကကညပါ။

8 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ တတယအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၃၀ (၅)က ကကကညပါ။

9 တေက ဂေငး အမျးသားလတရတာက ၂၀၀၃ ဇလငလက မပဋဌာနးသည “သတတ မအကကမ မပမပငရမပာငးလမ အစအစဉ” က

ကကညပါ။

10 ဥပမာ ပေမ ၂၁၀ တင မပဋဌာနးထားသည “NDSC ၏ တာဝနနင လပပငခငများ” ရနာကတင ပေမသစ ၂၀၁ က က

ထညသငးနငသည။ NDSC ၏ လမးမးမနင ထနးချပမတက စစဘကရေးောများအတကသာ ကနသတထားေန ပေမတင

ထညသငးနငသည။ ထအမပင မပငဆငမ အများအမပားက မပလပနငသည။ ဥပမာအားမဖင ပေမ ၂၀၄ နင ၂၀၆ တတင

နငငမခားရေးနင လတပငမးချမးသာခငတနငပတသကပပး NDSC ၏ ကသဇာလမးမးမများက ဖယေားနငသည။ အလားတပင

တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ ခနအပမနင စပလျဉးပပး NDSC ၏ ကသဇာလမးမးမများက ရလျာချနငေန ပေမ ၃၄၂ က

မပငဆငနငသည။

11 ရနောတင မပညတငးလမခရေးအတက တပမရတာ၏ တာ၀နနင လပပငခငများက ကနသတေန ပေမ ၁၇(ခ)က မပငဆငမ

ပါဝငနငပါသည။ မပညတငးလမခရေးက ကကးကကပမနငအတ အေပဖကေတပဖ ဖ စညးတညရထာငမနငပတသကပပး မပဋဌာနးချကအသစတေပ

ထညသငးနငပါသည။

12 NDSC နင တပမရတာတသည နငငရတာသမမတထ တာဝနေသညက ေငးလငးရစသည မပဋဌာနးချကအသစတေပ ထညသငးနငပါသည။

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၂၉။ စတတထ အားမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတက ပမ ကျယမပနသည လထဘကက တကရကရေးရကာက တငရမမာကမန င အတ

(အထကပါ စာပေ ၁ က ကကညပါ)နင ငရတာသမမတက ရေးရကာကတငရမမာကမက အေပဖကကစစသကသကအမဖစသာ

ထားနင သည။

၃၀။ ပဉစမအားမဖင ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေအတငး တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပက ခနအပမ၊ လပပင ခ င သကတမး

နင သမမထ တာဝနခမ တ ထညသငးထားသည မပဋဌာနးချကများနအတ တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၏

အခနးကဏဍနင ပတသကပပး ေငးေင းလငးလငး မဖစရစေန လပနင ပါသည။14 ကစစတင အထကတငေညညနးရဖာမပခသည ဝနကကးများခနထားမတင တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၏ လမးမးမများက ရလျာချမနငအတ

တပမရတာ ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပသည နင င ရတာသမမတ၏ အေပဖကအပချပ ရေး၏ လကရအာကခအမဖစ

ေငးေင းလငးလငးထားနင ပါသည။ ထအမပင နင င ရတာအတငး အရေးကကးသည ောထးတာဝနများ အားလး

ခနထားမများတငကသ တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ ခနထားမကလညး လတရတာ၏

သရဘာတအတညမပချကမဖငသာ မပလပန င ရကကာငး မပဋဌာနးနင ပါသည။

ဃ။ အပချပရေးအတငး အာဏာစစညးမ

၃၁။ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေရအာကတင အစးေအဖ ဖ စညးမခငး၊ အဆငမမင တေားစေငရေး အဖ ဝင များ

ရေးချယမခငး နင ဥပရေထတမပနမခငးတန ငပတသကပပး အပချပ ရေးတင အာဏာ အများအမပား ေပါသည။ အထကတင

ရဖာညနးခသညအတငး အာဏာခရဝကျငသးမသည ေမကရေစနငကကညသည ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆင ော အဓက

အရမခခမတစခမဖစပပ း မမနမာနင င ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ ပေမ ၁၁ တငလညး ရပါငးစညးထညသငးထားပါသည။

ရကာငးမန စ ာ လပငနးရဆာငေကနင ေနအတက အမပနအလနထနးရကျာငးနင သည ထရောကရသာ စနစတစခ

လအပပါသည။ အထးသမဖင အပချပ ရေး၏ ရဆာငေကမများက ဥပရေမပလတရတာများနင တေားရးများ၏

ရစာငကကညစစရဆးမ ေေပါမည။ စနစ ရကာငးမနစာ လညပတေန အလငာ ဥပရေမပလတရတာနင တေားစေငရေးမ

အဖ ဝငများအရနမဖင ၎ငးတသည အပချပ ရေးမ လတလတလပလပ ေပတညနင သများအမဖစ ခစားကကေမညမဖစပပ း

၎ငးတ ောထးတာဝန ဆးရးန င သည စးေမ စ တတမေေပ ရဝဖနရမပာကကားနင ေမည။

သာဓက - အငေနးေားတင အပချပရေးအာဏာက ရလျာချမခငး ၁၉၉၉-၂၀၀၂

၃၂။ ၂၁ ောစသ စတငရမပာငးလချန တင အငေန းေားမ မပမပငရမပာငးလရေးလပငနးစဉသည အထးအားမဖင

အပချပ ရေးအာဏာကစစေပက ကကညရခ ကကပပး ယငးက ရလျာချေန လအပသညဟ ရကာကချကချခကကသည။

ထနညးတပင အစးေ၏ ဖ စညးပတငလညး အရမပာငးအလများ အများအမပား မပလပခ ကကသည။ ယငးတတင (i)

ဥပရေမပအာဏာက သမမတထမ လတရတာ (မပညသကယစားမပလတရတာ)ထသ လရမပာငးမခငး15

(ii)

မပစေဏလတပငမ းခင န င လတပငမ းချမးသာခငများ ရပးောတင သမမတ၏ အာဏာများက ကနသတမခငး16

(iii)

သမမတက လတရတာ ဖျကသမးမက တားမမစထားမခငး17

နင (v) သမမတက စပစ မပစတငမအတက လပငနးစဉက

ေငးေင းလငးလငးမဖစရစမခငး18

တ ပါဝငပါသည။

သာဓက - အဂျစ၊ တနးေား နင မပငသစမ တစစတတစပငး သမမတစနစ

၃၃။ အဂျစန င တနးေားတမ လတတရလာ မပမပငရမပာငးလရေးများသည အပချပ ရေး နစမျးသးသည ဖ စညး

တညရဆာကပများက အရမခခပပး အစးေစနစများက စတငကျငသးခပါသည။ ပစသည သမမတစနစနင ပါလမနစနစတ

13 ရနောတင ကာကယရေး၊ မပညထရေးနင နယစပရေးောဝနကကးများအတက နာမညစာေငးတငသငးသည တပမရတာ

ကာကယရေးဦးစးချပ၏ အာဏာက ဖယေားနငေန ပေမ ၂၃၂ က မပငဆငမခငး ထညသငးနငပါသည။

14 မပဋဌာနးချကများက အခနး ၇ (တပမရတာ) တင ထညသငးနငပါသည။

15 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ ပထမအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၅၊ ၂၀၊ ၂၁

16 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ ပထမအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၁၄ (၂)

17 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ တတယအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၇ ဂ

18 အငေနးေားဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ တတယအကကမ မပငဆငချက၊ ပေမ ၇ က

66

နစခ စလး၏ အားသာချကများမ အကျးရကျးဇးေေရစေန ေညေယပါသည။ အထးသမဖင တစစတတစပင း သမမတ

စနစသည လကကကများသည ပါတများ၏ အာဏာကကးထားမ အနတောယက ရလျာပါးသကသာရစေန ေညေယပပ း

ကယစားမပအစးေ၏ အရမခခမများက ပျကစးရစနငပါသည။ ဥပမာ တနးေားတင နင င ရတာအကကးအက (သမမတ) နင

အစးေအကကးအက (ဝနကကးချပ) တသည သးမခားစ မဖစပါသည။ အစးေသည သမမတက တာဝနခစောမလပ

ဥပရေမပလတရတာကသာ တာဝနခေရသာလညး အစးေအရပါ အယအကကညေမေအဆက သမမတသည ၎ငး၏ သကတမး

အတငး အများဆးနစကကမထ လတရတာအား ရတာငးဆနငသည အာဏာေပါသည။19

မပငသစနငငသညလညး အလားတ

တစစတတစပင းသမမတစနစက ကျငသးပပ း သမမတရးသည ဝနကကးချပရးန င သးမခားစ ခထားသညက သတမပ

သငပါသည။ သပါ၍ သမမတနငဝနကကးချပတသည မတညသည နင င ရေးပါတများမ မဖစရနတတသညက မကကာခဏ

ရတ ေတတပါသည။

မမနမာနငငတင မပမပငရမပာငးလေန အလားအလာေသည ရနောများ

၃၄။ မမနမာနငငအတက အပချပ ရေးအာဏာနင စပလျဉးပပ း မပမပငရမပာငးလမတချ လပနင ပါသည။ ယငးတထ မ

အချ က ရအာကတင ပ၍ အရသးစတ ရဆးရနးရဖာမပထားပါသည။ သရသာ အပချပ ရေးအာဏာများအား

ဥပရေမပရေးနင တေားစေငရေးမ စစစထနးရကျာငးနင ေနအလင ာ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေက အရထရထ

မပနလညမပငဆင ညနင းမများမပလပနငပါသည။ အထးသမဖင မပစေဏလတပငမ းခင န င လတပငမ းချမးသာခငများနင

စပလျဉးပပ း နင င ရတာသမမတ၏အာဏာ ရလျာချေန ပေမ ၂၀၄ က မပငဆငနင ပါသည။ ထအမပင

အချ အရမခအရနများတင နငင ရတာသမမတက ဖယေားနင သည လတရတာ၏ အာဏာနငပတသကပပး ပမ ေ င းလငးမ

နင ပမ ပငလငးမမငသာမ ေရစေန ပေမ ၇၁ ေ စပစ မပစတငသည စနစက မပနလညမပငဆငရေးဆန င သည။

င။ အပချပရေးနင တေားစေငရေးကကားက ဆကဆရေး

၃၅။ အစးေ၏ အဆငများ အားလးမ ချမတသည ဆးမဖတချကများအပါအဝင ဆးမဖတချကများက

ရအာငမမငနငရမခ အရတာအသငေသည ကနကကမများ လထမ လပရဆာငနငမခငးသည

တေားဥပရေစးမးမအတက လးဝ အရမခခကျပါသည။ ထသလပရဆာငနငေန လတလပသည

တေားစေငရေးစနစ တစခလအပပါသည။ ကစစေပတင သတမပသငသညမာ တေားသကကးများက

အပချပရေးက ခနအပနငမခငးနင ဖယေားနငမခငး အာဏာများသည တေားစေငရေး၏ လတလပမခငးက

ရလျာချထားမတစခအမဖစ မမငရတ နငပါသည။

၃၆။ တေားသကကး ောထးက ခနအပမခငး နင ောထးမ ေပစမခငးအတက လပငနးစဉသည အပချပ ရေးမ

ရဆာငေကမခငးထက လတလပသညအဖ တစခ မ ရဆာငေကလျင အကျးမဖစထနးမ ေန င ပါသည။20

အပချပ ရေး၏

အရေးယရဆာငေကချကများသည ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ သမဟတ အမခားမပညတငး ဥပရေအား ချးရဖာကမ

မဖစရပါသညအခါမျးတင ယငးအရေးယရဆာငေကချကများက ကနကကော၌ တေားစေငရေးအတက အရတာပင ပမ

လယကရစနင ပါသည။ ထအမပင လတလပရသာအဖ တစခ သည တေားစေငရေး ောထးများက ခနအပော၌

အေညအချငးကသာ အရမခခပပ း ရဆာငေကသညက အာမခနင ပါလမမည။ နင င တကာတင မဖစရပါရနရသာ

ရေစရကကာငးမာ တေားသကကးများက အပချပ ရေးက ခနအပမမလပပ လတလပသည ရကာမေငကသာ

ခနအပကကပါသည။ ဥပမာ ယရကနင င တင တေားစေငရေးဆင ော ောထးခနထားမ ရကာမေငက ၂၀၀၅ ခနစ က

ဖ စညးလကပပ း ယခငက တေားသကကးများ ခနထားမက အပချပ ရေးက လပခောမ ယခအခါ တေားသကကးများ

ခနထားမက ရကာမေငက တာဝနယေပါသည။ အလားတပင ရတာငအာဖေကနင င တင တေားရေးော

ောထးခနအပမလပငနးစဉက ကကးကကပနင ေနအတက တေားစေငရေး ရဆာငေကမ ရကာမတနင တေားစေငရေး

စမခနခ မ ရကာမတတက ဖ စညးခပါသည။ အဆငမမငတေားသကကးများကလညး ၎ငးတ၏ ဆးမဖတချကများအား

အပချပ ရေး၏ဆနဒသရဘာထားများ လမးမးမ မေရစေန အလင ာ လပပင ခ င ရပးထားနင ပါသည။

19 ၂၀၁၄ တနးေား ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ ပေမ ၁၉

20 တေားသကကးများက ခနအပမခငးနင ဖယေားမခငးတက ကကးကကပနငသည လတလပသည ောထးခနထားရေး ရကာမေင ဖ စညးရေးဆငော

မပဋဌာနးချကများက ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ အခနး ၆ အတငးသ ထညသငးနငပါသည။ ပေမ ၂၉၉ နင ၃၀၂ တက မပငဆငေနလညး

လအပပါလမမည။

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၃၇။ အသငကးရမပာငးဆနင င အများအမပားတင တေားစေငရေး၏ လတလပမန င လပနင စ မ း

အေညအချငးတနငပတသကပပး မပဿနာတစခ ေပါသည။ ယငးမပဿနာက ရမဖေငးေန မတညသည နညးလမးတချ

ေပပ း ရတာငအာဖေကသရသာ နင င မျးတင အမခားတေားရးများထက အဖ ဝင များ ပမ ပါဝငသည

ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေဆငော တေားရးသစတစခက ဖ စညးတညရထာငပါသည။ ေတယအရနမဖင မရကျနပချကများက

စစစရပးသည လတလပသည ပဂဂလအဖ အစညးများ နင အမခားရသာ ခရးများ ကသရသာ စငပပ င အဖ မ ျားက

ဖ စညးနင သည။ အချ နင ငများသည အမမငဆးအဆငရောကသညအခါ နင င မခားမတေားသကကးများကပင အနညးဆး

အချန ကာလတစခထ ရခါယကကပါသည (ဥပမာ ရဟာငရကာင၊ ရဘာစနးယား နင ကရေဘယနင င တချ မ အယခ

တေားရးများ)။

စ။ မပမပငရမပာငးလေနလအပနငသည အမခားရသာ အပချပရေးအာဏာများ

i. အပချပရေး၏ တာဝနခမ

၃၈။ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေအများစတင အပချပ ရေးသည အပချပ ရေးအတက တာဝနေပါသည။

ဥပရေမပရေးဆငော ကကးကကပမသည ပစ အများအမပားမဖင မဖစနငပပး သရသာ အပချပရေးအား နတထကရပးေန

ဖအားရပးနင သည ဥပရေမပရေး၏ အာဏာလညး မကကာခဏ ပါဝငပါသည။ ဥပမာ အနဒယတင

ရအာကလတရတာမ အယအကကညမေ အဆက တငသငးနင သည (Lok Sabah)။ ယငးအဆသည

အတညမပခလျင လကေအစးေက တာဝနမ ဖအားရပး နတထကခင းနင သည။ အလားတပင ရတာငအာဖေက

ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ ပေမ ၅၅ (၂) တင ရဖာမပသညမာ “လတရတာသည (က)

အမျးသားအစးေနယပယအတငးေ နင င ရတာ၏ အပချပ ရေး အစတအပင းအားလးသည လတရတာတင

တာဝနခမေရစေန (ခ) ကကးကကပမများတင (i) ဥပရေက အရကာငအထညရဖာမခငးအပါအဝင အမျးသား

အပချပ ရေး လပပင ခ င အာဏာက ကျငသးမခငး၊ နင (ii) နင င ရတာ၏ မညသညအစတအပင းကမဆ

ဆကလကထနးသမးနငေန နညးလမးများက စစဉရပးေမည။” ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေနငပတသကပပး

အပင းတင ပေမ ၂၁၅ က မပငဆငေန လအပပါလမမည။

ii. ဝနကကးအဖက ခနအပမခငး

၃၉။ ရလာရလာဆယတင ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေသည တတကျကျရဖာမပထားသည အေညအချငးများနင

မကကညရသာ ပဂဂလအမဖစ ယဆခေသည ဝနကကးတစဦးခနထားမအား ပယချခင ကသာ လတရတာအား

ရပးထားပါသည (ပေမ (၂၃၂(ဃ))က ကကညပါ)။ ပမ ကျယမပနသည အရမခအရနများတင ဝနကကးများ

ခနထားမက မပညရထာငစလတရတာက ကနကကနငရစေနအတက မပဋဌာနးချကက ရလျာရပါရပးနင ပါသည။

iii. တငးရေသကကးနငမပညနယများမ ဝနကကးများက ခနအပမခငး

၄၀။ ထအမပင တငးရေသကကးနင မပညနယများမ ဝနကကးချ ပများနင အမခားရသာဝနကကးများက ခနအပမခငးနင

ဖယေားမခငးတန င ပတသကပပး နင င ရတာသမမတ၏ လပပင ခ င အာဏာက ရလျာချနင ပါသည။21

အမခားနညးလမးတစခအရနမဖင ရေသနတေ ရေးရကာကပများက တငးရေသကကးနင မပညနယအဆငများထ ပမ

နးကပစာ ကျငးပရပးနင ပါသည။ ယငးသည အပချပ ရေး နင ဗဟအစးေတန င မတညပ တငးရေသကကးနင

မပညနယများအရပါ သကဆင ောဝနကကးချပများက ပမ တာဝနခမ ေရစေန အရထာကအပရပးနင ပါသည။

အမပနအလနအားမဖင ယငးသည ရေသနတေ စမအပချပ ရေး၏ ေမကရေစနညးကျ တေားဝငမက ပမ

အားရကာငးရစမ တစခအမဖစ ရမမငနင ပါသည။

iv. ရေးရကာကပများက လမးမးမခငး

၄၁။ မညသည ေမကရေစစနစတငမဆ လတလပသည ရေးရကာကပများသည အလန အရေးကကးသညအတက

ရေးရကာကပ ကျငးပမခငးနင ယငးလပငနးစဉက ကကးကကပမခငးတန င ပတသကပပး အပချပ ရေးက လမးမးမ

မေသငသညမာ အလန အရေးကကးပါသည။ ယငးသရ ကကာငပင မပညရထာငစ ရေးရကာကပရကာမေင အဖ ဝင

21 ရနောတင ပေမ ၂၆၁ နင ၂၆၃ တတင ပါဝငသည ောထးခနထားရေးနင ဖယေားရေးလပငနးစဉက မပငဆငမများ လပါလမမည။

68

များက ခနအပနငသည သမမတ၏အာဏာက ဖယေားနငေန အလငါ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေ၏ ပေမ ၃၉၈

တငပါေရသာ ရကာမေငဖ စညးမခငးက စမအပချပ သည လကေမပဋဌာနးချကများက မပငဆငနင ပါသည။

ထအတင းအတာတင ရေးရကာကပများ ကျငးပေနနင ကကးကကပေနအတက လတလပသညအဖ တစခ

ဖ စညးနင ပါသည။ ကမဘာတဝနးေ ယရက၊ ကသစရကတးလျ၊ ကရနေါ၊ အနဒယ၊ အငေန းေား၊ နင ဂျးေးယား၊

ပါကစစတန၊ ပလန၊ ရရမးနးယား၊ ရတာငအာဖေက နင ထငးနင င တအပါအဝင နင င များတင လတလပရသာ

ရေးရကာကပ ရကာမေငများက ယခအခါ အသးမပကကပါသည။

v. အရေးရပါ ကာလဆငော ရကကညာချကများ

၄၂။ ၂၀၀၈ ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေတင အရတာအတန မပမပငရမပာငးလမရကကာင အကျးမဖစထနးနင သည

အမခားအစတအပငးတစေပမာ အခနး ၆ နင နင ငရတာအရေးရပါ အရမခအရနရကကညာမခငးနင ဆကစပရနရသာ

မပဋဌာနးချကများ မဖစသည။ အထးသမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတမ ရကကညာနင သည အရေးရပါအရမခအရနများက

ကနသတနင ပပ း ေငးလငးရအာင လပရဆာငနင သည။ အောမာ အရေးရပါရကကညာချကထတမခငး

နငပတသကပပး ဓမမဌဌာနကျသည အရမခအရနတစခက ရပါငးထညရပးော ရောကနင ပပ း ယငးသ

ရဆာငေကမခငးအားမဖင နင င ရတာသမမတနင တပမရတာကာကယရေးဦးစးချပထသ အရေးရပါအရမခအရန

ထတမပနနင သည အာဏာလရမပာငး ရပးမသည အပချပ ရေးရခါငးရဆာငပင း၏ ဆးမဖတချကသကသက

မမဖစရတာရပ။

vi. ဥပရေများမပဋဌာနးေန နင ငရတာသမမတ၏ အာဏာ

၄၃။ ဥပရေများ မပဋဌာနးမခငးနင စပလျဉး၍ ယငးက ဖ စညးပအရမခခဥပရေများ၏ အရမခအရန အားလးနးပါးတင

လတရတာအတကသာ ထားေပါသည။ ထသမဖစသညအတက ပေမ ၂၁၂ ရအာကေ “ချကချငး

အရေးယရဆာကေကေန လအပရသာ” ဥပရေများက မပဋဌာနးေန သမမတက ခငမပထားသည လကေ လပငနးစဉက

မပနလညစဉးစားသးသပနင ပါသည။ အထးသမဖင မညသည ဥပရေသည ချကချငး အရေးယရဆာငေကေန

လအပသညမာ ေငးေင းလငးလငး မေရပ။ သပါ၍ အလနကျယမပနသည ဥပရေများက မခင မ ရစေန

စကားေပက တးချ န င ပါသည။ လတရတာ ကျငးပမမေသည ကကားကာလအတငး အရေးရပါဥပရေက

မပဋဌာနးေနအတက အမခားလပငနးစဉတစေပအရနမဖင မပညရထာငစလတရတာက မပနလညရခါယေန

လပရဆာငနင ပါသည။

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Constitutional SupportBingham Centre for the Rule of Law

Executive Power in Myanmar

Professor Sir Jeffrey Jowell KCMG QC, Director

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Slide 2 Structure of the Session

• Introduction to key concepts and overview of the relevant parts of the 2008 Constitution (15 mins)

• Overview of some of the main issues relating to executive power in Myanmar (20 mins)

• Breakout session to consider key questions (15 mins)

• Conclusion (10 mins)

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Slide 3 Part I

Introduction to key concepts andoverview of the relevant parts of the2008 Constitution

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Slide 4 Key concepts

• The separation of powers (executive, legislature and judiciary)

• The rule of law

• Transparency

• Accountability

• Duties and powers of the executive

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Slide 5 The Myanmar Constitution of 2008 – The President

• The Constitution enshrines the principle of the separation of powers (Article 11)

• The executive power of the Union is vested in the President (Article 217)

• The President is elected by the Presidential Electoral College (Article 60)

• Presidential qualifications (Article 59)

• Appointment of the Union Government (Article 202)

• President not accountable to the legislature (Article 215)

• Extensive Presidential powers (see Articles 204, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 299, 302, 398)

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Slide 6 The Myanmar Constitution of 2008 – other executive bodies

National Defence and Security Council (NDSC)

• Composition: 11 individuals (Article 201) – 6 directlyappointed by the military

• Functions not fully set out in the Constitution

Financial Commission

• Composition: 7 individuals (Article 229)

• Responsible for submitting the Union budget to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw and for advising on financial matters (Aricle 230)

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Slide 7 Part 2

Overview of some of the main issuesrelating to executive power in Myanmar

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Slide 8 (1) Presidential Elections

• General public currently one step removed from Presidential appointment process

• Would direct elections secure a stronger democratic mandate?

EXAMPLES

(i) Direct elections – see reforms in Indonesia, Argentina and France

(ii) Indirect elections – see UK system (but leader of each party announced in advance of elections)

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Slide 9 (2) Presidential Qualifications

• Why are presidential qualifications useful in practice?

• How extensive should qualifications be?

• Note that far-reaching qualifications can have the effect of limiting the freedom of the people to elect a Presidential candidate of their choice

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Slide 10 (3) The Military and the Executive

• Why should the military be subject to civilian oversight?

• Could the role of the military and the NDSC be clarified within the Constitution?

• The role of the military is usually restricted to defenceagainst external armed aggression

• Examples of recent military reform: Indonesia, Turkey

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Slide 11 (4) Concentration of power in theExecutive

• Why should the Executive be subject to the scrutiny of the legislature and the courts?

• Legislative power should be held exclusively by the legislature

• The judiciary should exercise its powers as anindependent branch of government (see next slide)

• Recent examples of reform: Indonesia, Egypt, Tunisia

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Slide 12 (5) The relationship between the Executive and the Judiciary

• Why should decisions of the Executive be open to challenge?

• Why should the judiciary remain independent at all times?

• Should the judiciary be appointed by an independent body?

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Slide 13 (6) Other Executive powers that mightneed reform

• Accountability of Executive

• Appointment of cabinet

• Appointment of local ministers

• Influence of Executive in elections

• Declarations of state of emergency

• President’s power to pass laws

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Slide 14 Part 3

Breakout session

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Slide 15 Part 4

Conclusion

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I

ျမနမာ ႏငငတြငး အပခပေရးအာဏာ ကငသးျခငး။ အပခပေရးက႑တြင တရားဥပေဒ စးမးမႈ က ကာကြယေစာငေရာကေရး အတြက အေျခခဥပေဒဆငရာ ေရြးခယရနနညးလမးမား

ဘငဟမ ဥပေဒ စးမးေရး စငတာ ႏ၀ငဘာ ၂၀၁၄


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မားကတဘရငး၁

စာတမး အႏစခပ

၁။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးမႈရေသာ ဒမကေရစ လ႕အဖြ႕အစညးမားတြင ဖြ႕စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒမား၏ အဓက အခနးက႑ တစခမာ အပခပေရးအာဏာက ဥပေဒက အေျခချပး ဥပေဒေဘာငအကန႔အသတ အတြငးကသာ ကငသးေစျခငးျဖစေပသည။ တဖန လတဥးခငးစ အေနျဖင မမတ႕ ၏ အခြငအေရးအား အပခပေရးဆငရာ ဆးျဖတခကမား သ႕မဟတ အပခပေရးပငး ေဆာငရြကခကမားမ မမမတ ခးေဖာကျခငး ခရပါက ထသ၏ အခြငအေရးမားက ရေစျခငးနင ႏင ထရာကေသာ လကလမးမေသာ ဥပေဒအရ မတေအာင ျပငဆငေပးပငခြင ရေအာင ပပးေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ႏငငေတာအာဏာက ဖြ႕စညးပအေျခခဥပေဒ၏ ကန႔သတမႈ ႏင ျပငဆငကစားေပးျခငးတ႔ မရပ ကာလၾကာျမငစြာ ကငသးခေသာ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ၂၀၀၈ ဖြ႕စညးပက တရားဥပေဒစးမးမႈေအာကတြငအပခပေရးဆငရာ အေျခခအခကအလကတခ႕ စတငထည သြငးခသည။ ထ အခကမားတြင တရားဥပေဒစးမးမႈ အတြက လကနာကငသးရန ကတက၀တမား၊ အစးရ ဌာနအသးသး အၾကား အာဏာခြေဝ သးစြမႈ ႏင၊ အေျခခအခြငအေရးမားႏင စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔မားမ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ျပနလညဆနးစစေပးမႈက ေတာငးခႏငေသာ လပငနးစဥဆငရာ အခြငအေရးတ႔ ပါ၀ငသည။ လကေတြ႕တြင ဥပေဒ နညးလမးမကေသာ သ႕မဟတ တရားမတမႈမရေသာ အပခပေရးဆငရာ လပရပမား (ဝါ လပမေပးပ ေနမႈမား) အေပၚ မေၾကမနပတငတနးမႈမားမာ အႏ႕အျပားရလက ရသညဟဆသည။ သ႕ေသာ ၎ အေျခအေနက ဥပေဒအရ ထထေရာကေရာက ျပငဆင တညမတ ေပးႏငေသာ လပငနးစဥမား ေဖာေဆာငၿပး လအမား ကယကယျပန႕ျပန႕လကလမးမေအာင လပေပးရန လအပ ေနေသးသည။

၂။ စာခြ နေတာအမန႕မား ျပနလညကငသးျခငးအပါအဝင ျမနမာႏငင၏ လကရ အဖြအစညးမား လကနာကင သးေနေသာ လပငနးစဥမားသည အေျခခဥပေဒပါ အခြငအေရးမားႏင စညးမဥး စညးကမးမား က ထေရာကစြာ အေကာငအထည ေဖၚႏငျခငးမရသလ သသာထငရားစြာ တးတက ေအာငလညး လပေပးႏငျခငးမရေၾကာငး ဤစာတမးတြင ေထာကျပ ထားပါသည။ အပခပေရး ပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈက (ျပညသလထ) တးတက လကလမးမေအာင ေဆာငရြက ေပးႏငမည လမးေၾကာငးမားကလညး အႀကျပထားပါသည။ ယငးတ႔မာ (၁)ဖြ႕စညးပဆငရာျပငဆငမႈ (၂) ဥပေဒျပေရးအပငး အေျပာငးအလမား (၃) အဖြ႔အစညး အသစမား ဖနတးေရး (၄) တရားရးမား ႏင အပခပေရးဌာနမား ၏ လပပကငပ ႏင လပငနးစဥ တ႕က ျပနလညျပငဆငေရး တ႕ ပါဝငပါသည။ အပခပမႈပငး တရားမတမႈက အေျခခဥပေဒပါ အခြငအေရး တစရပအျဖစထညသြငးျခငးက အပခပေရးအပငးကပါျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးႏငပးတြလပေဆာငေပးျခငးသညလကရရငဆငေနရေသာ

85

ျပနာမားက ကငတြယႏငေရးအတြက ေသာခကတစခ ျဖစႏငပါသည။ ဓေလထးတမး ဥပေဒ ကငသးပျခငး တည၍ မၾကာေသးခငက အလားတ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား ျပလပခေသာ အျခား ႏငငမား၏ ဥပမာမားကလညး ရညညႊနးကးကားႏငရန ထညသြငးေဖာျပထားပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြငႏငငေတာႏင ျပညသဆကဆေရး ပစ တျဖညးျဖညးခငး ေျပာငးလလာေစရနအတြက လအပေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက သေဘာတညမႈရရနႏင အေကာငအထညေဖာႏငရန အခနမားစြာယရႏငၿပး ႏငငေရးဆႏၵလညး ႀကးႀကးမားမား လအပသညက အသအမတျပပါသည။

------------------------------------------------------------------------ ၁ မားကတဘရငး သည ၾသစေၾတးလနငင ဗနာတကသလမ အေျခခဥပေဒဆငရာႏင ႏငငတကာ ဥပေဒဘာသာရပျဖင ပါရဂဘြ႕ (၂၀၀၂ခႏစ)၊ အတလႏငင ဖရယဆလျမ႕ ဥေရာပတကသလအငစတက မ ႏငငတကာႏင ဥေရာပ ဥပေဒပငးဆငရာ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာျခငး (LL.M) ဘာသာျဖင မဟာဥပေဒဘြ႕ (၁၉၉၇ ခႏစ) တ႕က ရရခသည။

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ျပညေထာငစ သမၼတျမနမာႏငငေတာ ဖြ႕စညးအပခပပအေျခခဥပေဒ (၂၀၀၈ ခႏစ)

က။ ဤစာတမးႏင သကဆငေသာ အေျခခဥပေဒ၏ အခနးမား

၃။ ဤစာတမး၏ နဂးတြင အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ က ဥပေဒအရ အေရးယႏငေသာအခြငအေရး အသစတစခက အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ထညသြငး ျပဌာနးရန အႀကျပေဆြးေႏြးထားပါသည။ ဤစာတမး မ ေဆြးေႏြး ထားေသာ ကစၥမားႏင ဆကစပေသာ အခနးမားမာ - အခနး ၁၁ (အာဏာခြျခား သတမတ ျခငး)၊ အပဒခြ ၁၈၊ ၂၉၆၊ ၃၇၇-၃၈၁ (အမန႕စာခြ နလႊာ ထတျပနျခငးဆငရာ ျပညေထာငစ တရား လႊတေတာခပ၏ အခြငအာဏာမား)၊ အပဒ ၁၉ (တရားေရး ဆငရာ ဥပေဒသမား)၊ ၁၉၈ ႏင ၂၂၄ (အေျခခဥပေဒ၏ သာလြနမႈ ႏငစပလဥး၍) ၊ အခနး ၆၊ အပဒခြ ၂၉၃ အပါအဝင ၂၉၄ ႏင ၃၁၉ (စစခရးမား)၊ ႏင အပဒခြ ၂၉၉၊ ၃၀၈၊ ၃၂၁ (တရားေရးဘကဆငရာ ရာထးခန႕အပျခငးမား)၊ ၃၂၂-၃၂၆ (အေျခခဥပေဒခရး ေဆာငရြက ျပလပပႏင ၄ငး ၏ အခြငအာဏာ ႏင အေျခခဥပေဒခရး သ႕ ေလာကထားပငခြင)၊ အခနး၈ (အေျခခ ရပငခြငမား)၊အထးသျဖင အပဒခြ ၃၄၇ ( ဥပေဒ ေရ႕ေမာက၌ တနးတရပငခြင) ႏင ၃၇၇-၃၇၈ (အမန႕စာခြ နလႊာ ထတဆငပင ခြင) တ႕ျဖစသည။

ခ။ ျမနမာဖြ႕စညးပ အေျခခဥပေဒ အရ အာဏာခြေဝျခငးနင ခြျခားကငသးျခငး

၄။ ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစအေျခခ ဥပေဒတြင အေျခခရမည မ တစခအျဖစ “ႏငငေတာ၏ အခပအျခာအာဏာ ခကမသးျဖာ ျဖစသည ဥပေဒျပေရး၊ အပခပေရး ႏင တရားစရငေရး က႑တ႔က တတႏငသမ ပငးျခားသးစြျခငးႏင အခငးခငး အျပနအလနထနးေကာငးျခငးျပသည”၂ ဟ၍ ျပဌာနးထားသည။ ဤကသ႔ အလားလကပငးျခားထားေသာ ႏငေတာအာဏာ သးရပက ျပညေထာငစ၊ တငးေဒသႀကးမား၊ ျပညနယမားႏင ကယပငအပခပခြငရ စရငစမားအား ခြေဝအပႏငးသည ဟလညး ေဖာျပထားသည။ (အေျခခဥပေဒ ပဒမ ၁၁)။

၅။ သမၼတသည နငငေတာ၏ အပခပေရး အၾကးအကျဖစသည။ သမၼတသည ျပညေထာငစလႊတေတာ ၏ ေထာကခခကျဖင ျပညေထာငစဝနၾကးမား၃ ကခန႕အပသည။ ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသၾကး ဝနၾကးခပမားက သကဆငရာ ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသၾကး လႊတေတာ၏ ေထာကခခကျဖင ခန႔အပပငခြင လညး ရသည။ အေျခခဥပေဒက လညး “ဥပေဒန႕အညလြတလပစြာ တရားစရငေရး” ႏင “အမႈမားတြင ဥပေဒအရ ခခေခပခြငႏင အယခပငခြင ရရေရး” တ႕က တရားစရငေရး မမားအျဖစ သတမတထား ပါသည။၄ ျပညေထာငစ တရားရးခပ ၏ တရားသၾကးခပက ႏငငေတာ သမၼတက အမညတငသြငး ႏငျခငး၊ အေျခခဥပေဒခရး၏ အဖြ႕ဝင

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ၂ ဤစာတမး အစဥးပငးတြင ကလသမဂၢဖြြ႕ ျဖးတးတကေရးအစအစဥအတြက “ျမနမာႏငင ဒမကေရစနညးက အပခပမႈက အေျခအေနမားျဖင သးသပျခငး” ေခါငးစဥ၊ ၂၀၁၃ ေအာကတဘာလ ေလလာခက ကထညသြငးထားသည။၃ ႏငငေတာသမၼတက လြတေတာကယစားလယမားထမ လအပေသာအရညအခငးႏငျပညစေသာ သငေတာေသာသမား (ထသ႕ဆလင ထသတ႕သည သတ႕ ၏ အမတေနရာမားကစြန႕လႊတရမည) သ႕မဟတလႊတေတာကယစားလယမဟတေသာသမားက ေရြးခယရမည ၄ အပဒ ၁၉

87

ကးဥး အနက သးပတစပ ကလညး သမၼတက အမည တငသြငးျခငး၊ ျမနမာတရားရး အဆငဆင၏ ဘ႑ာေရးက ခပကငထားျခငး တ႔ျဖင အပခပေရး အာဏာက တရားစရငေရးအေပၚ၌ ထနးခပမႈ တစတရာ ရယထားသည ဆသညအခကက တရားေရးစနစသည အျပညအဝလြတလပျခငးမရ ဟသညသကေသသာဓက အျဖစ အခ႕က ရႈျမငသည။ ၅

၆။ ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစ အေျခခဥပေဒသည အေျခခဥပေဒဆငရာ အခြငအာဏာမားက (အဓကအားျဖင) ျပညေထာငစႏင ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသႀကး ၁၄ ခအၾကား ခြေဝသးစြေသာ ဖကဒရယ တစတတပငး စနစက ဖနတးထားသည။ ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသႀကး အဆငတြင အပခပေရးလပငနးမား၏ အႀကးအက မာ ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသႀကး အစးရအဖြ႔အတြငးေရးမး ျဖစၿပး ၎သည ဖြ႔စညးပအရ အေထြေထြ အပခပေရးဥးစးဌာန ၀နထမးျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ၎သည သကဆငရာ ျပညနယ/တငး ေဒသႀကး ၀နႀကးခပအျပင ျပညေထာငစ ျပညထေရး၀နႀကးဌာန ကပါ အစရငခရသည တာဝနရ ေနသည။ ေအာကေျခ ၿမ႕နယႏင ခရငမားတြင အပခပေရး ပစမာ ေရြးေကာကခ အစးရပစမရပ အေထြေထြ အပခပေရးဥးစးဌာန လကေအာကမ ဝနထမးမားကသာ အပခပေရး အပငးက စမခန႔ခြသည။၆

တရားနညးလမးမကေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမားအား ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ျပငဆငခက ရယျခငး

၇။ အေျခခဥပေဒသည အပခပေရးပငဆငရာ ေဆာငရြကခကမားသည ဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ ဥပေဒ၏ ခြငျပခကအတငးသာ ေဆာငရြကရမည ဆသညအခကက ႀကတင သျမငထားပရသည။ ဤသညမာ ဥပေဒစးမးမႈရၿပး ျပညသ႔အပခပမႈအပငးတြင တရားဝငခငမာမႈ ရေသာ စနစတငးတြင ေတြ႕ရသည အေျခအေနမး ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာ ၂၀၀၈ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ဤအခကက ျပဌာနးထားပမာ ရငးလငးမႈမရပ မေရရာမႈမား ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။ အပဒ ၂၂၄ တြင ျပဌာနးထားသညမာ

“ျပညေထာငစ အစးရအဖြ႔ ဝနႀကးဌာနမားသည ယငးတ႔လကေအာကရ အစးရဌာန အဖြ႔အစညးမားက လပငနးတာဝနမားကေဆာငရြကရာတြင ဖြ႔စညးပ အေျခခဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးခကမားႏင အည ျဖစေစရန လညးေကာငး၊ တညဆ ဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးခကမားႏငအည ျဖစေစရနလညးေကာငး၊ စမခန႕ခြျခငး၊ လမးညႊနျခငး၊ ႀကးၾကပျခငး စစေဆးျခငးျပရမည။”

၈။ ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကး အစးရမားတြင အလားတျပဌာနးထားခကမး မေတြ႔ရေပ။ ထ႔အျပင အပခပေရးအာဏာ အားလးက သမၼတက အပႏငးထားၿပး အာဏာက ကငသးမႈတြငလညး

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ၅ ႏငငတကာေရ႕ေနမားအသငး လ႕အခြငအေရး ဌာန(IBAHRI)၊ “ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ဥပေဒစးမးေရး- စနေခၚမႈမား ႏင အလားအလာမား” ၊အစရငခစာ ဒဇငဘာ ၂၀၁၂၊ စာ-၅၉ ၆။ ၂၀၁၂ ခႏစတြင ျပငဆငခေသာ ရပကြက၊ ေကးရြာႏင ေကးရြာအပစမား အပခပေရးဥပေဒက ရပေကးအပခပေရးမးမားက ယငးရပရြာမား၏ အပခပေရးအႀကးအကမား အျဖစေရြးေကာကတငေျမာကရနျပဌာနးေပးခသည။ ၎တ႔၏တာဝနမားမာ ရပရြာေနျပညသတ႔၏ လျခေရး၊ ရာဇဝတမႈတားဆးေရး၊ ရပရြာေကးလက၏ လမႈေရးရာကစၥမားက ႀကးၾကပေရး၊ ဖမးဆး၍ ဒဏတပျခငးစေသာ ျပစဒဏစရငျခငးႏင ရအမႈထမးကသ႔ တာဝနမား ထမးေဆာငရျခငးမား ျဖစသည။

88

သမၼတကပင အမညခ လပေဆာငရသျဖင အပခပေရးအပငး ေဆာငရြကမႈမား၏ အေျခခဥပေဒႏင ေလာညမႈ၊ တရားဝငမႈတ႔မာ သမၼတတစဥးတညးထတြင ရေနသကသ႔ ျဖစသည။ ဥပေဒႏငမညေသာ အပခပေရးအပငးက ေဆာငရြကမႈမား အတြက ျပညသလထက တရားမတမႈျပနလညရယႏငမည အခြငအလမးမားကမ ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာျပထားျခငးက မေတြ႔ရေပ။ လကရ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ဥပေဒႏငအည အပခပခြငက ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ တရားမတမႈ ျပနလညရယပငခြငႏင ပးတြ ေဖာျပ ထားျခငး မရေပ။ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင လကရျပဌာနးထားေသာ စာခၽြနေတာေလာကထားတငသြငးခြင အခြငအေရးမာ လေလာကေသာ အခြငအေရး ျဖစႏငမျဖစႏငက ေနာကထပ ေဆြးေႏြးသြားရမည ျဖစပါသည။

၉။ အပခပမႈအပငးဆငရာ ဆးျဖတခကမားျဖင ပဂၢလတစဥးဥး၏ ေဆာငရြကခကမားက ျဖစေစ၊ အပခပေရး အာဏာပငအဖြ႔အစညးမားက အမန႔အာဏာျဖင (ကန႔သတတားဆးမႈမားက) လပေဆာငခကမားက ျဖစေစ ျပညသမားက အေရးယေဆာငရြကႏငေသာ နညးလမးမားကား အဘယနညး။

၁၀။ ၿဗတသဥပေဒ အစဥအလာမားက ေယဘယလကနာလက ျပဌာနးထားေသာ ျမနမာဥပေဒတြင ပဂၢလကဆငရာ ဥပေဒႏင အမားျပညသဆငရာ ဥပေဒ ႏစခက ခြျခားထားျခငး မရေပ။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အပခပေရး အပငးတြင အမန႔မား၊ ဆးျဖတခကမား၊ အပခပေရးအပငး ဥပေဒမားကသ႔ ႏငငေတာ၏ အာဏာက ကငစြ အသးျပမႈႏင အပခပေရးအဖြ႔အစညးမားက ပဂၢလက စးပြာေရးလပငနးမားက ကနထရကစာခပမား ေရးထးၿပး လပေဆာငသည စမခန႔ခြမႈမား အၾကားတြငလညး ခြျခားထားမႈ မေတြ႔ရေခ။

၁၁။ အပခပေရးပငဆငရာ ဆးျဖတခကတစခအေပၚ အယခပငခြငတြင ပထမဆးလပႏငသညမာ ဆးျဖတခကျပလပေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးထက အဆငျမငသည အဖြ႔ထ တငျပတငၾကားျခငးျဖစသည။ အထကအဖြ႔အစညးက ေအာကအဖြ႔အစညး၏ ဆးျဖတခကက ပယဖကျခငး ျပငဆငျခငးမား ျပလပႏင၍ ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာ လကေတြ႔တြင ဤကသ႔ ျပငဆငေပးျခငးမး ရားပါးလသည။ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔မား၏ ဆးျဖတခကမာ စတကးေပါကသလ ျပလပျခငးမး ျဖစတတၿပး ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတျခငးလညး မရတတေပ၊ တစခါ ဤကသ႔ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ဘာေၾကာင ျပလပသညဟေသာ အေၾကာငးျပခကကလညး ေပးေလမရပ ဆးျဖတခကမားက စာျဖင ထတျပနျခငး မးလညး မရတတေပ။ မၾကာခငက ထတျပနလကေသာေျမယာဥပေဒ၇ အပါအ၀င အခ႕ေသာ ဥပေဒမားတြင မေၾကလညခကမားက အပခပေရးအဖြ႔အဆငဆငသ႔ တငျပႏငခြငက ေပးထား ေသာလညး ေျမယာႏငဆငေသာ အမႈအခငးမားက တရားရးသ႔ တငျပခြငကမ ေပးမထားေပ။၈ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

၇ ေျမယာဥပေဒ၊ ေျမလြတေျမရငး စမခန႕ခြေရးဥပေဒ၊ ၂၀၁၂ မတလ ၃၀ တြင ျပညေထာငစဥပေဒျပလႊတေတာက ဥပေဒျပသည။ ၈ ဤကသ႔ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ လပေဆာငခြငေပးမထားျခငးသည အေျခခဥပေဒႏင မညဟ ဆေကာငးဆႏငမညျဖစသည။ ပဒမ ၁၉၈ (က) ဥပေဒမား၏ အကးသကေရာကမႈတြင ျပညေထာငစလႊတေတာ သ႔မဟတ အျခား ဥပေဒျပအဖြ႔အစညးတစခခက ျပဌၾနးေသာ ဥပေဒတစရပရပသည အေျခခဥပေဒႏင ညညြတျခငးမရပါက အေျခခဥပေဒက အတညျဖစေစရမညဟ၍ အတအလငးျပဌာနးထားသည။ ဒေလထးတမးဥပေဒသး စနစမားတြငပင ဥပေဒျပလႊတေတာက အၿပးသတဥပေဒပဒမမား ဆၿပး ထညသြငးလာလင အေျခခဥပေဒစာခၽြနေတာအမန႔မားက ၎အၿပး --

89

ဥပေဒမားတြင ျပဌာနးထားေသာ အခြငအေရးမားအတငး အပခပေရးပငး၏ဆးျဖတခကမားက ျပငဆငဆးျဖတႏငေသာ လြတလပသည ခရးတစခထသ႔ တငျပႏငခြငကမ ျပဌာနးထားျခငး လးဝမရေပ။

၁၂။ ဤကသ႔ အေျခအေနတြင တရားစရငေရးအပငးမ အေျခခဥပေဒပါ အခြငအာဏာက သး၍ အမန႔ စာခၽြနလႊာမားထတျပနျခငးသညသာ အပခပေရးအပငး၏ ဆးျဖတခကေၾကာင အခြငအေရးထပါး ဆးရႈးရေသာ သ တစဥးဥးအတြက လပႏငစရာ နညးလမးတစခ ျဖစသည။

၁၃။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အေျခခဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကအရ တရားစရငေရးက႑၏ ရပတညခက၊ တရားစရငေရး ႏင အပခပေရးက႑တ႔၏ ဆကဆေရး၊ အပခပေရးအပငးဆးျဖတခကမားက ျပနလညသးသပရန၊ လအပလင ပယဖကေပးရန ျပညသတ႔က မညသ႔ဆတငၾကားႏငမညနညး။ တငၾကားလသတစဥးသည တရားရးသ႔ မေလာကထားမ ဌာနတြငး၊ ရးတြငး ျပနလညသးသပျခငး အဆငဆငက ကနဆးသညအထ လပေဆာငခ ဖ႔လအပပါသလား။ လကရ အေျခခဥပေဒႏင ဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားတြင ဤကစၥႏင ပတသက၍ လပကငရန နညးလမးတခ႕ ခြငျပထားသညက ေတြ႔ရပါသည။ ျပညသလထ၏ အေျခခ အခြငအေရးမားအပငး ပဒမ ၃၇၇/၃၇၈ ႏင ၃၈၁ တ႔တြင ေဖာျပထားရာ ပဒမ ၃၇၇ တြင “ဤအခနး၌ ေပးအပထားေသာ အခြငအေရးတစရပရပက ရယလပါလင သတမတခကမားႏငအည ျပညေထာငစ တရားလႊတေတာခပသ႔ ေလာကထားပငခြင ရေစရမည။” ဟ ေဖာျပထားပါသည။၉

၁၄။ မအားျဖင ၂၀၀၈ အေျခခဥပေဒသည ႏငငသားမားအား တရားလႊတေတာခပသ႔ စာခၽြနေတာ ေလာကသြငး ႏငေသာ အခြငေပးထားပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငင ကလနဘ၀ ကေရာကေနခနႏင လြတလပေရးရၿပးစ အခနက ဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒ အစဥအလာအတငး ကငသး၍ စာခပေတာ အမန႔မားထတျပန ျခငးက ၁၉၆၀ ျပညလြနႏစမားအထ သးစြခဖးသည။ ၿဗတသ-အႏၵယ ဥပေဒ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ၁၉၄၈ခႏစတြင စတငတညေထာငေသာတရားလႊတေတာခပသည စာခၽြနလႊာအမန႔ မားထတျပနကငသးခဖးသည။ ၁၉၆၀ ေကာမ ဤဓေလက ဖကသမး ချခငး ျဖစသည။ ၁၉၉၀ ျပညလြနႏစမားက အာဏာရယခေသာ စစအစးရလကထကတြငလညး ဤအေလအထက ျပနအသကမသြငးခေပ၊ ၁၉၇၄ ခႏစအေျခခဥပေဒက ဖကသမးၿပးေနာကတြင တရားစရငေရးစနစ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အခ႕က လပေဆာငခသည။ ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစ အေျခခဥပေဒတြငမ စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔ စနစက တတကက ျပနလညထညသြငးလာခသည။ ဤအခကမာ အေရးႀကးသည၊ အဘယေၾကာင ဆေသာ ေတာငအာရေဒသ (အထးသျဖင အႏၵယ) တြင တရားလႊတေတာခပမားက အေျခခဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးထားေသာ အခြငအေရးမားက ကာကြယေစာငေရာကရန ႏင အေျခခဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကအရ လအပေသာ လပေဆာငမႈမားက လပေဆာငေပးရန စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔မားက အသးျပ၍ အစးရအား ညႊနၾကားႏငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ ၁၀ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------သတဥပေဒ ပဒမက လႊမးမးသညဟ တရားရးမားက အဆးအျဖတျပခၾကသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာငပါလမနသည အေျခခဥပေဒပါအခြငအေရးတစရပက ဥပေဒတစရပ ျပဌာနး၍ ရပသမးပငခြငမရေပ။ထ႔အျပင ဤကသ႔ ဥပေဒျဖင ေဆာငရြကထားေသာကစၥရပမားက တငၾကားေသာ အမႈက တရားရးက လကခ စဥးစားရမညလညး ျဖစသည။ ဤအခကမာ ႏငငတကာ ဥပေဒကငထးမားတြငရငးလငးၿပးသားျဖစေသာလညး ျမနမာနငငမ ေရ႔ေနမားႏင တရားသႀကးမားက ဤကသ႔ ျမငထားမထား ရငးရငးလငးလငး မသရေပ၊ တရားလႊတေတာခပကလညး ဤအခကက အေျခခ၍ ေျမယာႏငဆငေသာ စာခၽြနလႊာအမန႔မားကလကခမညလား၊ အေျခခဥပေဒတရားရးက ေျမယာဥပေဒပါ အခနးအခ႕ အေျခခဥပေဒႏင မကကညဟ ေၾကျငာမညလား ရငးလငးစြာ မသႏငေပ။ ၉ အပဒ ၃၇၈တြင ျပညေထာငစ တရားလႊတေတာခပသည ေအာကပါ စာခြ နေတာအမန႕တစရပရပက သငေလာသညအတငး ထတဆငရမည ဟ ေဖၚျပသည (၁)ေရ႕ေတာသြငးစာခြ နေတာအမန႕ (၂)အာဏာေပးစာခြ နေတာအမန႕ (၃) တားျမစေစ စာခြ နေတာအမန႕ (၄)အာဏာပငေမးစာခြ နေတာအမန႕ (၅) အမႈေခၚ စာခြ နေတာအမန႕။ အပဒ ၃၈၁ တြင ႏငငသားမားတရားဝင ရပငခြငရေသာ နစနာခကမားအတြက ဥပေဒျဖငသတမတထားေသာ ရယပငခြငမားက ျငငးပယျခငးမျပရ ဟေဖၚျပထားသည။ ၁၀ ႏႈငးယဥရန၊ အထးသျဖင အႏၵယႏငင ဖြ႕စညးအပခပပအေျခခဥပေဒ ပဒမ ၃၂ ႏင ျမနမာႏငင ၂၀၀၈ ဖြ႕စညးအပခပပအေျခခဥပေဒ အပဒ ၃၇၈။

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၁၅။ ထ႔ေၾကာင လတတေလာတြင တရားလႊတေတာခပသည ႏငငေတာအတြငး လပဂၢလတစဥးဥးက သ႔မဟတအဖြ႔အစညးတစခခက ဆးျဖတခကခထားေသာ အေၾကာငးကစၥ တစခခက ယငးဆးျဖတခက သည အေျခခဥပေဒႏင မညညြတလငျဖစေစ၊ ဆးျဖတခက ျပလပေသာ ပဂၢလ အဖြ႔အစညးက ၎က ေပးအပထားေသာ လပပငခြငအာဏာက အလြနအကၽြ ျဖစေစ၊ အလြသးစား လပ၍ျဖစေစ ျပလပထား ေၾကာငးေတြ႔ရလင ပယဖက ေျပာငးလႏငသည အခြငအာဏာရေသာတစခတညးေသာတရားရး ျဖစသည။ ထးတမးဥပေဒအရ တရားသႀကးတစဥးက အပခပေရးအပငးက ဥပေဒအရဆနးစစ ေလလာခြင ျပထားေသာ နညးလမးမားမာ

- အမႈေခၚစာခၽြနေတာအမန႔ - အသးအမားဆးေသာ စာခၽြနလႊာ အမးအစားျဖစသည။ ဤစာခၽြနလႊာမာ အပခပေရးအပငးမ ေဆာငရြကခကတစခသည လပပငခြငက ေကာလြနျခငး သ႔မဟတ ဥပေဒပငးအရ အမားအယြငးရျခငးတ႔ေၾကာင တရားမဝငဟ ေၾကျငာျခငးမး ျဖစသည။ ဤအမန႔မးတြင ေနာကထပ အစားထး ေဆာငရြကခကတစခခက ျပဌာနးေပးႏငေသာ အခြငအာဏာ မရေပ၊ ေဆာငရြကရန ကစၥက အပခပေရးအပငးက ျပနလႊေပးရသည။ - တားျမစေစစာခၽြနေတာ အမန႔ - အဖြ႔အစညးတစခခသည လပပငခြင အာဏာ ေကာလြန၍ မလပ ေဆာင ႏငေအာင ထနးခပတားဆးျခငး - အာဏာေပး စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔ - ဤ အမန႔စာခၽြနလႊာမာ အသးမမားလေပ၊ ဤ အမန႔မာ လထဆငရာ အဖြ႔အစညးတစခခက ဥပေဒက ျပဌာနးထားသညအတငး သတမတခနတြင သတမတထားေသာ ကစၥတစရပရပက ေဆာငရြကေစျခငး ျဖစသည။၁၁

၁၆။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အပခပေရးအပငးႏင ပတသကေသာ အႀကးဆးျပနာတစခမာ အေျခခဥပေဒ တြင လတစဥးခငးစ၏ အေျခခအခြငအေရးမားက ျပဌာနးထားၿပး၊ အမန႕စာခၽြနေတာ မားေလာကထား ႏငခြငလညး ေပးထားေသာလညး ျပညသလထက ၎တ႔၏အခြငအေရးမားက အပခပေရးအပငး အမန႔အာဏာမားေၾကာင ခးေဖာကခရသညဟ ယဆေသာ ကစၥမားတြင တရားဥပေဒအရ မတမႈ ရယရန မျဖစႏငဟ မတယထားၾကျခငး ျဖစသည။ တရားသႀကးမား၊ ႏငငေတာအပငးမ ကယစားလယမား ႏင ျပညသအမားက ဤကသ႔ ကစၥတြင တရားရးမားသည ထေရာကစြာ ေဆာငရြက မေပးႏငဟ ယဆထားၾကသည။ ေလာေလာဆယအခနတြင စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔ မား ထတျပနျခငးက ေအာငျမငေအာင လပေဆာငႏငမႈ တခ႕ ရလာေသာလညး ျပညသႏင ႏငငေတာအဖြ႔အစညးတ႔ ရငဆငရေသာ အမႈမးတြင ျပညသ၏ အခြငအေရးက တရားရးမားက ထထေရာကေရာက ကာကြယေပးႏငသညဟ လထက မယဆထားေပ၊ အေၾကာငးမာ တရားရးမားက အားနညးေပာညျခငး ႏင လြတလပမႈမရျခငးတ႔ေၾကာငဟ ယဆထားၾကသည။ ဤအခကေၾကာငပင တရားစရငေရး အာဏာ မရေသာ အဖြ႔အစညး အမားအျပားထ ျပညသလထက တငၾကားစာမား ေပးပ႔ေနၾကျခငးျဖစသည။ သ႔ရာတြင ၎အဖြ႔အစညးမားမာ ဥပေဒအရ စညးေႏာငေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမး ခမတႏငသည အခြငအာဏာ မရၾကေပ။ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

၁၁ ျမနမာ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ပါရေသာ အျခားစာခြ နေတာအမန႕ ႏစခမာ အာဏာပငေမးစာခြနေတာအမန႕ ႏင ေရ႕ေတာသြငးစာခြနေတာအမန႕ တ႕ျဖစၾကျပး ထအမန႕တ႕က ေဆြးေႏြးခကတြင ခနလပထားႏငသည။ အာဏာပငေမးစာခြနေတာအမန႕ မာ အျခားႏငငမားတြင အသးျပချပး ေရ႕ေတာသြငးစာခြနေတာအမန႕ မာ ရာဇဝတဥပေဒမား ႏင ရာဇဝတမႈဆငရာလပငနးစဥႏင အမားဆးသကဆငသည။

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၁၇။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ျပညသလထ ဘယႏစဥးက ဘယအေၾကာငးေတြေၾကာင တရားရးမားက အသးျပၾကသလ ဆတာန႔ ပတသက၍ တက ယၾကညရေသာ စာရငးျပစထားမႈမား၊ ေလလာသေတသန ျပထားမႈမား မရေသးေပ။ လ႔အဖြ႔အစညးအတြငးရ အသငးအ၀ငးမားမာလညး တရားေရးရာမားက လကလမးမပျခငး တစခႏင တစခ မတေပ၊ မညသည အသငးအ၀ငးက ဥပေဒ၏ အကအည အကာအကြယက ရယႏငျခငးမရရသည အေၾကာငးရငးမား ကလညး အတအက မသရႏငေပ။ ၎အျပင နယစပေဒသမားတြင ကာလတာရည ျဖစပြားေနေတာ ပဋပကၡမားႏင လမးစမား အသးျပေသာ ဘာသာစကားမား ကြျပားမႈမားကလညး တရားဥပေဒက လကလမးမႏငမႈအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈမားရႏငပမားက ေလလာဆနးစစၾကညသငေပသည။ အခ႕ေသာ အစးရမဟတသည အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင ပညာရငအဖြ႔မားက ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကး တခ႕တြင ျပညသလထက တရားဥပေဒအရအကာအကြယရႏငမႈႏင ဥပေဒစးမးမႈ အေျခအေနမားက ေလလာထားခကမားလညးရသည။၁၂ ဤသ႔ ကြငးဆငးေလလာခကမား၏ ကနဥးေတြ႔ရခကမားအရ တရားရးမားသည အထးသျဖင အပခပေရးအပငး၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားႏင စပလဥးလင ျပညသလထအတြက တရားမတမႈက ျဖညဆညးေပးႏငသညေနရာမားဟ လထက မယဆထားၾကေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရသည။ ေလလာခကမားက ေျဖၾကားသမားက တရားရးသ႔ အမႈအခငးတငျပရျခငးသည စရတစက ႀကးျမငလြနးေၾကာငး ေျပာၾကားၾကသည၊ ၎တ႔အေနနင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ အကာအကြယ ရယျခငးမးအစား ဘာသာေရးေခါငးေဆာငမား ဘနးေတာႀကးမားထ အကအညေတာငးချခငးမးက ျပလပေလရေၾကာငးလညး ေတြ႔ရသည။ ၎အျပင ေဒသဆငရာ အစးရအရာရမား၊ ရတပဖြ႔၀ငမားက တရားးရးမားထက ပၿပး အားကးၾကပရေၾကာငးလညး ေတြ႕ရသည။ ၁၃

၁၈။ ထ႔ထကပ၍ ျပညေထာငစတရားလႊတေတာခပ၏ စရငပငခြငအာဏာ မားသည စစတပ၏ဆးျဖတခက၊ လပေဆာငခကမားအေပၚ ၾသဇာသကေရာကမႈလညး မရေပ၊ တပမေတာပငးဆငရတရားစရငေရးကစၥရပမားက တပမေတာပ သးျခားလြတလပစြာ စစခရးမားမ တဆငေဆာငရြကခြငက အေျခခဥပေဒက ခြငျပထားသည။ ၁၄

၁၉။ လကရ အေျခခဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားအတငးပင ျပညသလထက ဥပေဒအရ ထထေရာကေရာက ပၿပး အကာအကြယေပးႏငဖ႔ ဆလင ျပညသမား၏ အခြငအေရးက ႏငငေတာက ထပါးေသာ ကစၥ မားတြင တရားစရငေရးက႑သည ပ၍ စြမးရညရရ ရရဝ႕ဝ႕လပေဆာငႏငစြမးရရမည၊ ေရ႕ေနမား ကလညး ဤအေျခအေနက အရအမ ဆပကင၍ ၎တ႔၏အမႈသညမားက အကအည ေပးႏငရမည၊ အပခပေရးအပငးမ တာဝနရသမားကလညး လြတလပေသာ တရားစရငေရး အဖြ႔တစခ၏ ဆးျဖတခက မားက လကနာပါမညဆသည ႏငငေရးဆႏၵ ရရမည ျဖစသည၊ ----------------------------------------------------- ၁၂ ဥပမာ ႏငငတကာေရ႕ေနမားအသငး လ႕အခြငအေရး ဌာန(IBAHRI) က ရနကန၊ေနျပညေတာ၊ ပခး ႏင မႏ ေလးျမ႕တ႕ သ႕သြားေရာကခသည။ အေမရကနျငမးခမးေရးဌာန (USIP) က မြနျပညနယ ေမာလျမငျမ႕၊ ရမးျပညနယတြင ေညာငေရႊ ႏင ေတာငၾကးျမ႕ တ႕သ႕ တရားမတမႈကရယပငခြငႏငဆငသညအခကအလကမားေကာကယရန သြားေရာကခသည။ ၁၃ ေနာကထပအေသးစတ ရႈ - ႏငငတကာေရ႕ေနမားအသငး လ႕အခြငအေရး ဌာန(IBAHRI)၊ “ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ဥပေဒစးမးေရး- စနေခၚမႈမား ႏင အလားအလာမား” ၊အစရငခစာ ဒဇငဘာ ၂၀၁၂။ အေမရကန ျငမးခမးေရး ဌာန (USIP) ၏ “ျမနမာနငင တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး ခရးစဥအစရငခစာ၊ဇြန ၂၀၁၃၊” USIP တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရးစငတာ၊ ၁၄ တခ႕ေနရာမားတြင လထကစစတပအေပၚ အမႈစာခြနေတာအမန႕ေလာကလႊာတငသြငးျခငးမားရခဖးသည။ သ႕ေသာမေအာငျမငခေပ။

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၂၀။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရးႏင စပလဥးေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးခကမားတြင လတစဥးခငး၏ အေျခခရပငခြငမားက အကာအကြယေပးရာတြင စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔မား၏ အေရးပါပက အသအမတၿပၿပး ျဖစပါသည။ဤနညးလမးက ပ၍ တးျမင သးစြႏငေအာငလညး ေျခလမးမား စတငလပေဆာငေနၿပျဖစသည။၁၅ ၂၀၁၃ ခႏစ ၾသဂတလတြင ျပညေထာငစလႊတေတာသည တရားစရငေရးစနစ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးႏင စာခၽြနေတာ ဥပေဒၾကမးတ႔က စတငေဆြးေႏြးခသည။ ၁၆ ဤေဆြးေႏြးပြမား၏ ရညရြယခကမာ တရားစရငေရးစနစ အားေကာငးလာၿပး ျပညသလထ၏ အခြငအေရးက အကာအကြယ ေပးႏငေအာင စာခၽြနေတာ တငသြငးေလာကထားမႈ ဥပေဒၾကမး တစရပ ေရးဆြရန ျဖစသည။ အဓက ျပငဆငရမည အခကတစခမာ အမႈေခၚစာခၽြနေတာအမန႔က လကရမာ တရားသႀကးတစဥးထက ျပလပေနတ ေနရာမာ တရားသႀကး ႏစဥး သ႔မဟတ သးဥးက ျပလပဖ႔ ျဖစပါသည။ အခလ ျပငဆငဖ႔ ေဆြးေႏြးလာရသည ေနာကခ အေၾကာငးတစခမာ ၂၀၀၈ အေျခခဥပေဒမာ စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔ေတြက ျပနျပဌာနးထားေသာလညး တရားလႊတေတာခပက တငသြငးေလာကထားတ စာခၽြနလႊာေတြထက အမားစမာ ခကျခငးပယခခရတတၿပး တခ႕ကစၥေတြမာ တငသြငးသ ေရ႕ေနမားသည နာရပငးအတြငး ေရ႕ေနမတပတင ရပသမးခလကၾကရတာမး ျဖစခသည အတြက ျဖစပါသည။ ေႏာငေႏးမႈအတနၾကာရခၿပးေနာက ဥပေဒၾကမးက ၂၀၁၄ ဇြနလတြင အတညျပခပါသည။ ၁၇

၂၁။ တရားလႊတေတာခပသ႔တငသြငးေသာ အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ အမႈမားသည အမားႀကးတးလာၿပး ၂၀၁၂ ႏင ၂၀၁၃ ၾကားတြင တငသြငးေသာ အမႈ ၃၀၀ အထ ရခသညဟ မယလစဆာ ကေရာကခက၁၈ ေတြ႔ရခသည။ ၁၉ တျခားတစဖကတြငလညး အေျခခဥပေဒဆငရာ စာခၽြနေတာမား ေအာငျမငႏငမႈ အလားအလာမာ ျမနမာဥပေဒစနစ၏ ဥးတညသြားေနရာ လမးေၾကာငးနင ဆကစပေနၿပး တရားစရငေရး က အပခပေရးႏင စစတပတ႔၏ ထနးခပမႈေအာကမ လႊတေပးေရးအေပၚ မတညေနသညဟ သမက ေလလာသးသပျပခသည။ ၂၀

၂၂။ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ျပဌာနးေပးထားေသာ စာခၽြနေတာအမန႔မားက ပ၍အငအားေကာငးေအာင အသးျပျခငး နညးလမးတစမးထ ရသညမဟတဆသညက ေအာကတြင ဆက၍ ရငးျပပါမည။ ဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒက အသးျပၾကသည ဖြ႔ျဖးဆႏငငမားတြင အသးျပၾကသည အျခားနညးလမး တစခမာ လထအေနႏင စမအပခပမႈေကာငးေသာ စနစတစခရပငခြငရသညဆေသာ အခကက အေျခခဥပေဒတြင ရငးရငးလငးလငး ထညသြငး ျပဌာနးျခငး၊ ယငးႏင တဆကတစပတညး တရားစရငေရးစနစကလညး ခငမာေအာငႀကးစားတညေဆာကေပးျခငး၊ တခါ အပခပေရးအပငး ကစၥမားက ၾကားနာစစေဆး အဆးအျဖတေပးမည သးျခားလြတလပေသာ ခရးမားထားရေသာ စနစက ကငသးေရးတ႔ ျဖစသည။

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ၁၅ ေဖေဖၚဝါရ ၂၀၁၃ တြင ျပညေထာငစ ေရ႔ေနခပႏင အျပညျပညဆငရာ ဂရလႀကးမားအဖြ႔တ႔ ပးေပါငး၍ အမန႔အာဏာရ စာခၽြႏေတာအမန႔မားအေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပ ျပလပခသည။ ၁၆ ျမနမာတငး၊ စးသနးလငး၊ ၁ စကတငဘာ ၂၀၁၃ ၁၇ အဓက ျပဌာနးခကမား အႏစခပ အတြက ေနာကဆကတြတြင ရႈ ၁၈ ျမနမာႏငင ဖြ႔စညးပဆငရာအမန႕စာခြနလႊာလကနကမား၊ www.melissacrouch.net ဘေလာစာမကႏာ၊ ၉ ဇလင ၂၀၁၃ ရႈ ၁၉ ေနာကထပ အေသးစတ သေတသနမားအတြက Melissa Crouch ေရး “ ဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒႏင အေျခခဥပေဒ အမန႕စာခြနေတာလႊာ၊ ျမနမာႏငင တာဝနခမႈ အတြကအလားအလာမား” (Crouch, Melissa, and Lindsey တြငရႈ)၊ Tim (Eds.) “ဥပေဒ၊ လ႕အဖြ႕အစညး ႏင ျမနမာႏငငတြငးျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး” ရႈ (ဟတ ပႏပတက ၂၀၁၄) ၂၀ ေအာကေျခမတစ ၁၀ ရႈ။

93

၂၃။ အပခပေရးအပငးတရားမတမႈႏင တငၾကားႏငစရာလပငနးစဥမားအေၾကာငး ေျပာရာတြင ယငးလပငနးမားမာ ျမနမာႏငင၏ အေျခခဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားအတြငး တရားစရငေရးက႑၏ တာဝနခႏငမႈ ႏင ဥပေဒစးမးေရးက ကာကြယေစာငေရာကႏငမႈတ႔ ျဖစေပၚလာေရး လပငနးစဥ ၏ အစတအပငးတစရပအျဖစ ယဆသငပါသည။ ဤစာတမးက အတခးေရးသားရသျဖင ဤေနရာတြင မေဆြးေႏြးႏငေသာလညး အျခားစဥးစားသငသည အေရးႀကးေသာ အခကမားမာ တရားေရးဆငရာ ရာထးခန႔အပမႈမား (ပဒမ ၂၉၉၊၃၀၈ ႏင ၃၂၁၊ ဤေနရာတြင အပခပေရးပငး၏ အခနးက႑က ၾကညသငသည)၊ အေျခခဥပေဒဆငရာ ခရး၏ အခနးက႑ ႏင အခအခနအထ ဥပေဒစးမးေရးအတြက ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးရာတြင အေသးစတ ေလလာစးစမးခြင မရႏငေသာ စစဖကခရးမားစနစ အေၾကာငးတ႔ ျဖစသည။

တငၾကားမႈမားႏင တငၾကားႏငရာ နညးလမးမား

၂၄။ လြနခသည သးႏစအတြငး ႏငငေရးအရ ပြငလငးလာမႈမားေၾကာင ျမနမာျပညသတ႔သည သတ႔၏ လြတလပစြာထတေဖာေျပာဆခြင၊ ဆကသြယခြင ႏင သတငးအခကအလကရယခြငတ႔က ပ၍ သးစြလာၾကသညက ေတြ႕ရသည။ ဤသညမ ျပညသလထသည ၎တ႔၏ မေၾကနပခကမားက အစးရ ေကာမတမား၊ လမႈအဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင အစးရက ဥပေဒျပဌာနး၍ ဖြ႔စညးေပးထားေသာ ျမနမာႏငင အမးသား လ႔အခြငအေရးေကာမရငကသ႔ အဖြ႔မားသ႔ တငျပတငၾကားမႈမား ျပလပခၾကသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။ လ႕အခြငအေရးေကာမရငႏင ျပညသ႔လႊတေတာ တရားဥပေဒစးမးမႈ ေကာမရငတ႔ထသ႔ ေရာကလာေသာ တငၾကားစာ အမားစမာ ေျမယာကစၥႏင ပတသကသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။ ဤသ႔ တငၾကားႏငခြငက ေပးထားသညမာ သကဆငရာေကာမတမားက စတေစတနာေကာငးႏင ျပလပသညမနေသာလညး ရႈတေထြး၍ ေရရညအတြက အခကအခရႏငသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။၂၁ နညးလမးအမးမးနင အဖြ႕အစညးအမးမးက တငၾကားခကမား အမားအျပားရေနျခငးက အပခပေရးအပငးက ဥပေဒႏင မညေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ျပငဆင၍ ဥပေဒႏငအည တရားမတမႈ ရယႏငခြငမာ လကရ ရေနေသာ ဥပေဒဖကဆငရာ လပငနးစဥမားက ထထေရာကေရာက လလေလာကေလာက လပေပးႏငျခငး မရသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။

၂၅။ တငၾကားခကမားက ျပညသမားက ၎တ႔က အကအညေပးႏငမညဟ ယဆသည မညသည အဖြ႔အစညးကမဆ ေပးပ႔တတသည၊ သ႔ေသာ ယငးအဖြ႔အစညးမာ မညသ႔ေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမး ျဖစသည၊ မညကသ႔ ဥပေဒအရ အပႏငးထားေသာ လပပငခြငရသညဆသညမားက ရငးရငးလငးလငး သရၾကျခငး မရေပ၊ အမားအားျဖင ဤကသ႔ေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမားမာ အပခပေရးပငး ဆးျဖတခကမားက သးသပျခငး၊ ျပငဆငျခငး၊ ပယဖကျခငးမားက

--------------------------------------------------------------------- ၂၁ မေကနပမႈေတြကထတေဖာတငတနးရန ျပညသေတြက ပလြတလပစြာေျပာဆလာေသာေၾကာင တငတနးခကမား လကခရယရန ဌာနမားပမ ျမငတငလာၾကသည။ ျပညသတ႕၏ ျပနာမားကေျဖရငးရာတြင ကညဖ႕ ၾကးပမးလာၾကသည။ ထဌာနအဖြ႕အစညးမားတြင ျမနမာအမးသား လ႕အခြငအေရးေကာမရင၊ လြတေတာႏစရပစလးတြငလညး ေကာမတမားစြာ ႏင ၈၈မ းဆကအဖြ႕ကသ႕ေသာ ျပညသၾကားက အဖြ႕ေတြပါ၀ငၾကသည။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး ႏင ျငမဝပပျပားေရးေကာမတ တစခတညးတြငပင စတငတညေထာငခနမ ၃လတာ အတြငး တငစာႏင ေတာငးဆလြာေပါငး ႏစေထာငေကာ ရရခသည။ ၂၀၁၃ ခႏစတြင ႏငငေတာသမၼတရး ကလညး လထအေနျဖင အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားအေပၚ တငတနးလပါက လကခရန အေရးေပၚလငးတစခဖြငလစေပးခသည။

94

အယခဥပေဒရးတစခကသ႔ ဥပေဒအရ လပပငခြင မရၾကေပ၊ ထ႔ေၾကာင ၎ အဖြ႔မားသည ျပနာက ေျဖရငးေပးႏငဖ႔ဆလင ဝနႀကးဌာနမားအေပၚ ႏင ေဒသဆငရာ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔မားအေပၚ ႏငငေရးအရ ၾသဇာ ရျခငး မရျခငးအေပၚ မခေနရသည၊ (ဤအခကမာ စညးမဥးမရျခငး၊ အေၾကာငးအကးက မမနးဆႏငျခငး၊ ေ၀၀ါးျခငး၊ ႏငငေရးအရ အသးခမႈ ပါ၀ငျခငး စသညအခကမားေၾကာင တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး၏ အႏစသာရႏင ဆန႔ကငဖကျဖစသည)၊ ေရရညတြင ျပညသမားက ၎တ႔၏ ျပနာမားက ေျဖရငး မေပးႏငသျဖင ဤ အဖြ႔အစညးမားအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈ ကငးမလာႏငသည။ တဖကတြငလညး ဝနႀကးဌာနမားက တာ၀နက ေရာငလြႏငသြားၿပး ျပညသလထအတြက တာဝနခမႈမရပ ဆကေနသြား ႏငမည၊ ၀နႀကးဌာနမားအေနႏင လထမေၾကနပသည ကစၥမားအေပၚတြင အာဏာဆကရေနမညျဖစၿပး ျပနာေျဖရငးရာတြင သးစြႏငသည ေငြေၾကးဘတဂကမားကလညး ဆကစမခန႔ခြခြငရေနမည ျဖစသည။ ၂၂

၂၆။ အျခားတဖကတြင အျပသေဘာတးတကမႈတစရပမာ အပခပမႈအပငးမ လြေခာမႈမားႏင အာဏာအလြသးစားျပမႈမားက ေဝဖနေထာကျပမႈ၊ ျငငးခေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ေပၚေပါကလာျခငးမာ အေရးႀကးေသာ တးတကမႈတစခအျဖစ ေဖာျပရမညျဖစသည။ ျပညသလထ အမားစၾကားတြင အာဏာပငမား၏ မားယြငးမႈမားက ထတေဖာေျပာဆျခငး၊ အစးရ၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ေ၀ဖနျခငးမား ျပလပရန မေၾကာကရြ႕ၾကေတာေပ။ ႏငငေရးအရ ပြငလငးလာမႈက အသးခ၍ ျပညသမားသည ၎တ႔၏ အခြငအေရးမားက ေတာငးဆလာျခငး၊ နစနာခကမားက ထတေဖာ ဖြငခလာျခငး မားသည တးတကမႈႀကး တစခအျဖစ ရႈျမငႏငေပသည။ သ႔ရာတြင ဤ နစနာခကမားက ေျဖရငးေပးသည နညးလမးမားမာမ စနစတကမရပ ႀကသလ ျပလပေပးေန ျခငးေၾကာင ထေရာကမႈ အားနညး သညကလညး ေတြ႔ရသည။

၂၇။ ကစၥရပအမားစတြင ၎ အဖြ႔အစညးမားသည ျပနာမားက ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ေျဖရငးေပးႏင သည အခြငအာဏာ မရၾကေပ၊ ထ႔ေၾကာင ၎ တ႔ ကငတြယေဆာငရြကသည နညးလမးမားမာ ၎တ႔တြင ရေသာ ႏငငေရး ၾသဇာအတငးအဆႏင ႏငငေရးအရ ရပတညခကတ႔အေပၚတြင တညမေနေလရသည။ ဤကသ႔ အဖြ႔အစညးမားက တငၾကားခြငရလာသညမာ ဒမကေရစ အပခပေရး စနစတြင ေကာငးေသာ အခကျဖစသည၊ သ႔ရာတြင ၎ အဖြ႔မားမာ ဥပေဒအရ စြမးရညျပညမေသာ အယခအဖြ႔အစညးမားက အပခပေရးအပငး၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ျပနလညသးသပႏငေသာ စနစမးက အစားထးႏငစြမးမရေပ၊ တရားစရငေရးစနစက ျပညသမား၏ အခြငအေရးမားႏင ရပငခြငမားက ကာကြယျခငး ကလညး အစားမထးႏငေပ၊ ေကာမရငမား ေကာမတမားဆသ႔ တငၾကားစာမား ေပးပ႔လာႏငျခငးသည ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ တးတကလာျခငး၏ အမတလကၡဏာ၂၃ ျဖစေသာလညး တရားဥပေဒစးမးမႈရေရးအတြက အတျမစခေနတ လပငနးစဥမာ ေရရညအတြက ခငမာတ ေျဖရငးနညးတစခေတာ မဟတေပ။ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ၂၂ ထေလလာေတြ႕ရခကမားက ပထမဥးဆးအၾကမအျဖစ ျမနမာႏငင ဆငရာ USAID/USG အဖြ႕တ႕၏ ေဖေဖၚဝါရ၊မတ ၂၀၁၃ တရားဥပေဒ စးမးေရး အကျဖတ ပးတြအစရငခစာ တြင ထညသြငးတငျပခသည။ ၂၃ ဤ အမတလကၡဏာမာ ဆရယလစ အစးရေခတႏင စစအစးရေခတမားမာကတညးက ရခဖးသညအတြက လးလးအသစအျဖစ အခ႕က မယဆၾကေပ။ ယခအႀကမတြင သစသညမာ တငၾကားစာမားအေၾကာငး လအမားႀကးက ပသလာၿပး သကဆငရာ အဖြ႔အစညးမားကလညး တငစာ မညမရရေၾကာငးႏင မညသညအတြက တငၾကားစာမားျဖစေၾကာငး ပြငပြငလငးလငး ထတေဖာေျပာလာၾကျခငး ျဖစသည။

95

၂၈။ တခ႕ကစၥေတြမာေတာ ဥပေဒသစတစရပ ျပဌာနးလကျခငး၊ အဖြ႔သစတစခ ဖြ႔စညး ေပးလကျခငးမားသည လထက ၎တ႔၏ နစနာခကမားက တရားစရငေရးစနစထမာ အကအည ေတာငးခႏငစြမး၊ ၎တ႔ အခြငအေရးမားက လြတလပေသာ၊ ဘကမလကေသာ ခရးတစခ ထတြင တငျပနငေသာ အေျခအေနမးပင ပကစးသြားေစႏငသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။ ဥပမာ လယယာေျမ ဥပေဒတြင လယယာေျမအသးခခြင လကမတရသသည လယယာေျမက ေစးကြကအတြငး ေရာငးခ၊ ဝယယ၊ လႊေျပာငးေပးႏငသညဟ ျပဌာနးေပးလကေသာအခါ လယေျမေစးကြကႀကးက တရားဝင ျဖစေပၚလာေစသည၊ သ႔ေသာ လယသမားမားအတြက အကာအကြယမရေတာပ ျပနာႀကးႀကးမားမား ျဖစေပၚလာေစသညက ေတြ႔ရသည။၂၄ လယယာေျမ ပငဆငခြင လကမတမားက ေၾကးတငႏင ေျမစာရငးဥးစးဌာနတြင မတပတငရသည။ ဥပေဒအရ လယယာေျမမားခြေဝခထားေပးျခငးက လယယာေျမအပခပေရးအဖြ႔မားက လပပငခြငရသည၊ ယငးအဖြ႔မား၏ အျမငဆးအာဏာပငမာ လယယာစကပးေရး၀နႀကးျဖစသည။ လယယာေျမ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားက တရားစရငေရးအဖြ႔က လႊမးမးႏငျခငးမရသညအတြက နစနာေသာ လယသမားမားမာ သာမာန တရားရးမားတြင သြားေရာကတငတနး၍ မရႏငေတာေပ။၂၅လယယာေျမဥပေဒနင ဆကစပ၍ တညေထာငေပးထားေသာ တငၾကားႏငသည အဖြ႔အစညးမားကလညး အပခပေရးပငးမ ဆးျဖတခကမားက လယယာေျမပငရင လယသမားမား အတြက ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ျပငဆငေပးႏငစြမး မရၾကေပ။ ၂၆

ဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒကငသးသည အျခားႏငငမားတြင အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈ ရယၾကပ အေတြ႔အႀကမား ၂၉။ တကမၻာလးအေနႏင ၾကညလင အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈ ရယၾကပ ပစမးစရၾကပါသည။ အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈ ရယၾကပစနစမားက ႏႈငးယဥေလလာၾကျခငးသည ပညာရပတစခ ျဖစ၍ လြနစြာလညး ကယျပန႔ ရႈတေထြးပါသည။ ဤစာတမးငယတြင ကြျပားေသာ ဓေလထးတမးမား၊ ပစမား၊ လကရ ျငငးခေဆြးေႏြးေနရဆ ျပနာမားအေၾကာငး အကဥးခပမပင ထညသြငးေဖာျပရန ေနရာမရပါ။ ဤစာတမးတြင ျမနမာႏငငတြင ယခမ အစျပေဆြးေႏြးလာေသာ အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈက႑တြင ထညသြငးစဥးစရာ အႀကဥာဏရယႏငစရာ ေလလာမသမ ဥပမာတခ႕ကသာ ေဖာျပသြားပါမည။

--------------------------------------------------------------- ၂၄ အသြငကးေျပာငးေရးတကသလ၊ ျမနမာႏငငဆငရာမဝါဒ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၊ Nr ၁၁၊ ေမ ၂၀၁၃ ‘အခြငမရပါ - ျမနမာႏငင ေျမယာပငဆငခြင ႏင တငးရငးသား ပဋပကၡ’ ၂၅ ထကသ႕ေသာအမႈမးမားက ျပညေထာငစတရားလႊတေတာခပ သ႕ အမန႕စာခြနလႊာတစတတပငး အေနျဖငေလာကထားႏငျခငး ကဟန႕တားပတပငျခငးရမရ ဆသညမာလညး ေနာကထပေမးခြနးထတစရာျဖစသည။ ေအာကေျခမတစ ၅ ရႈ။ ၂၆ ဇြန ၂၀၁၂ တြင နငငေတာသမၼတ က ေျမယာခြေဝေရး ႏငအသးခမႈစစစေရးေကာမတက ျမနမာသစေတာႏင ပတဝနးကငထနးသမးေရးဝနၾကးဌာနကဥးေဆာငေစျပး တညေထာငခသည။ထေကာမတသည သမၼတအား ေျမယာအသးျပမႈ မဝါဒႏင ေျမယာဥပေဒေရးရာမားကအၾကျပရနျဖစသည။ ျမနမာလယယာစကပးေရးႏငဆညေျမာငးဝနၾကးဌာနအေနျဖင ေျမယာဥပေဒမားနင ေျမယာခြေဝခထားေပးရာတြင တဥးတညးအာဏာရမႈကလညးေလာခရန ထေကာမတကဖြ႕ျခငးျဖစသည။ လႊတေတာအမတမားပါဝငေသာေျမယာစစမးစစေဆးေရးေကာမတတစရပကလညဖြ႕စညးခသည။ ယငးေကာမတသညေျမယာသမးမႈမားကစစမးစစေဆးရနျဖစျပးအဆးအျဖတျပႏငေပးႏငသညအာဏာမရေပ။ေကာမတက စစမးေတြ႕ရခကမားက သမၼတထသ႕တငျပသည။

96

၃၀။ ဓေလထးတမး ဥပေဒက အသးျပၾကသည ဖြ႕ၿဖးဆ ႏငငအမားတြင အပခပေရးအပငးက ေဆာငရြကမႈမားက ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ဆနးစစေလလာႏငရန အေျခခဥပေဒထတြင ျပဌာနးခကမား ထညသြငးခၾကသည။ ေတာငအာဖရကႏငင အေျခခဥပေဒ အပဒ ၃၃တြင ဤအခကက အထးေဖာျပထားသည - “တရားမတေသာ အပခပမႈ ေဆာငရြကခကဆသညမာ (၁) လတငးသည ဥပေဒႏငအည သငေလာမနကန၍ လပငနးစဥအပငးတြငလညး မတေသာ အပခပေရးအပငး ေဆာငရြကခကက ရယပငခြငရသည။ (၂) အပခပေရးအပငးမ ေဆာငရြကခကတစခခေၾကာင ကယ အခြငအေရးက ထခကခရေသာ လတငးသည စာအားျဖငေရးသား ရငးလငးအေၾကာငးျပခကက ရယပငခြငရသည။ (၃) ဤအခြငအေရးမားက ေပးအပေသာ ႏငငေတာ ဥပေဒတစရပကလညး ျပဌာနးေပးၿပး ၎ ဥပေဒသည (က) အပခပေရးအပငးက ေဆာငရြကမႈတစခက တရားရးက ေလလာဆနးစစခြင ႏင သငေတာေသာ အေျခအေနတြင လြတလပၿပး ဘကမလကေသာ ခရးတစခက ဆနးစစခြငကလညး ျပဌာနေပးရမည။”

၃၁။ ၎ျပဌာနးခကမားက ၂၀၀၀ ခႏစ တြင အပခပမႈအပငး တရားမတမႈတးျမငေရး ဥပေဒ အမတ ၃ တြင ထညသြငးခသည၊ ဤဥပေဒတြင အပခပမႈ အပငးကေဆာငရြကခကဆသညကလညး ရညရညလားလား အဓပၸါယဖြငဆ ထားခကပါ၀ငသည။ ဤ ျပဌာနးခကေၾကာင ေမာလငမထားခသည အကးဆကတစခ အျဖစ ေတာငအာဖရက အပခပမႈဆငရာ ဥပေဒတြင ပဒမ ၃၃ အပခပမႈအပငးက ေဆာငရြကခကဆသည အပငးက အဓကေနရာမ ပါဝငလာခသည။ ဤ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား၏ တးတကမႈရလာဒမာ မားမားစားစား မရလေသးပ ဥပေဒကယတငကလညး ျပညစလေလာကမႈ မရေသးဟ အမားက မတယထားေသာလညး ဤ ျပဌာနးခက၏ အေရးအႀကးဆး သကေရာကမႈ တစခမာ ေတာငအာဖရကႏငငသားမားက အပခပေရးဥပေဒဆငရာ အသပညာေပးႏငျခငးႏင အပခပေရးအပငးမ တာဝနရသမားကအပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈႏင ပတသက၍ ေလကင သငၾကားေပးႏငျခငးတ႔ ျဖစသည။၂၇ အပခပမႈ အပငးတရားမတမႈ ဥပေဒျပဌာနးၿပး မၾကာခငမာပင တရားေရးဌာန၏ ေလကငေရးေကာငးက အပခပေရးမးမားအတြက သငတနးမား ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား စတငကငးပေပးခသည။ အစတြင ျပနာက သတထားမလာေစရန ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားျပလပခၿပး ၎ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားမ အဓက ျပနာ ျဖစရာ အပငးမားက သတငတနးဆရာမားက သရလာၿပး လကေတြ႔သငတနးမားတြင ေျဖရငးနညးမားက သငၾကားေပးၾကသည။ သငတနးမား၏ အဓက ရညရြယခကမာ သငတနးသားမားက ဥပေဒပါ အခကမားက ေကာငးစြာနားလည သေဘာေပါက ေစရနႏင လကေတြ႔တြင လကနာကငသးသြားေစရန ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပင သငတနးသားမားက အပခပေရးအပငး ဆးျဖတခကမားျပလပရာတြင ထားရခေသာ သေဘာထားမားက ေျပာငးလ တတလာေစၿပး ဥပေဒက အေကာငအထညေဖာလာေစရနလညး ရညရြယသည။ အပခပေရးပငး တာဝနရသ အမားအျပားသည ၎တ႔ ျပလပလကရေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမားက အေျချပရသည ဥပေဒက တစခါမ မေတြ႔ဖးၾကေၾကာငး ဤေဆြးေႏြးပြမားမ အၾသစရာေတြ႕ခရပါသည။ ၂၈

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ၂၇ ကရာ ဟစတာ၊ ေတာငအာဖရက နငင အပခပမႈဆငရာဥပေဒ

၂၈ အထကပါအတငး

97

၃၂။ အလားတ နမမးဘးယားရ႕ ၁၉၉၀ အေျခခဥပေဒရ႕ ပဒမ ၁၈ မာလညး အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈ ဆသည ေခါငးစဥျဖင အခလ ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

“အပခပေရးအဖြ႔မားႏင အပခပေရး အရာရမားသည မတစြာ၊ ဆငခငတတရားႏင အည ျပမေဆာငရြကမညျဖစၿပး၎တ႔ လကနာရမည ဓေလထးတမး ဥပေဒမားႏင အျခားေသာ ဆငရာ ဥပေဒမားက လကနာရမည၊ အပခပေရးအပငးေဆာငရြကခက၊ ဆးျဖတခကမားေၾကာင နစနာသညဟ ယဆသမားသည တရားရးတစခ သ႔မဟတ ခရးတစခတြင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ မတမႈက ေတာငးခနငသည အခြငအေရးရရမည။”

၃၃။ ဤ အေျခခဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးခကသည နမမးဘးယားႏငငတြင အပခပေရးဆငရာ ဥပေဒတစရပ ေပၚလာေရး အတြက ခငမာသညအေျခခ ျဖစလာေစခသည။ ဤျပဌာနးခကသည ဒမကေရစ စႏႈနးမားႏင အမအကငမားကလညး ျဖစထြနးလာေစၿပး ပဒမ ၁၈ ေၾကာင အပခပေရးပငး၏ လပေဆာငမႈမားက ဥပေဒအရ စစေဆးေစာငၾကညခြငက လတစဥးခငးစ၏ အခြငအေရး အျဖစမ အေျခခဥပေဒအရ အကာအကြယေပးထားေသာ အေျခခ လ႔အခြငအေရးတစရပ ျဖစလာေစခသည။ ဤ အခြငအေရးမာ ဓနသဟာယႏငငမားတြင ဥပေဒအရ လတငးရထကေသာ သာမာနအခြငအေရး တစခသာ ျဖစသည။ ဤ ျပဌာနးခကေၾကာင အပခပေရးအပငး၏ လပေဆာငခကတစခခက မေၾကနပသတစဥးသည ၎၏ အေျခခဥပေဒအရ ေပးအပထားေသာ လ႔အခြငအေရးႏင လြတလပမႈမား ထပါးခရသည ျဖစေစ၊ ထပါးမႈ မရသည ျဖစေစ၊ သငေတာေသာ တရားရးတစခ၊ ခရးတစရးတြင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ မတမႈက ေတာငးခႏငသည။ ၂၉

၃၄။ ႏငငအေတာမားမားတြင တရားရးမားသည အစးရ၏ အျပအမက ျဖစေစ၊ ျပညတြငး ဥပေဒတစရပရပက ျဖစေစ ျပနလညစစေဆးသးသပႏငသည အခြငအာဏာ ရေနၿပျဖစသည။ မာလာဝနငင၏ ၁၉၉၄ အေျခခဥပေဒသည ႏငင၏ အပခပေရးဥပေဒက အေျခခကက ေျပာငးလခၿပး အပခပေရးပငးက ဥပေဒပငးအရ ေစာငၾကညေလလာနငရန အေျခခမားကလညး ခခသည။ ဤသ႔ စစေဆးသးသပရန ျဖစလာႏငေသာ အေၾကာငးမားမာ ဥပေဒႏင ညမည၊ လပငနးစဥပငး မတမႈ ရမရ၊ အေၾကာငးျပခကႏင အေၾကာငးရငးခငလမႈ ရမရ တ႔ျဖစသည။ ဤ အေၾကာငးမားေၾကာင တငတနးလသသည အပခပေရးပငးက အာဏာကကငသးစြမႈအပငးက စမေခၚေမးခြနးထတႏငသည လမးေၾကာငးမား ဓေလထးတမး ဥပေဒက ေပးထားသညထက ပရလာသည။ ၃၀ ပါလမနက ႀကးစးသည ဆျခငးထက အေျခခဥပေဒက ႀကးစးသည ဆသည ဝါဒက ဥပေဒအရ စစေဆး သးသပျခငးမားက လမးညႊနသည။ အပခပေရးပငး ဥပေဒ၏ ျမစဖားခရာမာ

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၂၉ နမမးဘးယားႏငငအေျခခဥပေဒပါ အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈျပဌာနးခက၊ အပခပေရးပငဆငရာ ဥပေဒအရ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ျပနလညသးသပျခငးႏင ခရးမ ဆးျဖတျခငးတ႔အား အေျခခဥပေဒအရ အကာအကြယေပးျခငး၊ ေကာလငး ပါကာေရး ‘ေတာငပငးအာဖရကႏငငတကာ ဥပေဒႏႈငးယဥ သးသပခက ဂာနယ’ အတြ ၂၄၊ အမတ ၁၊ (မတလ ၁၉၉၁) စာမကႏာ ၈၈-၁၀၄ ၃၀ ဤ ကစၥႏငပတသက၍ အလားတ ဥပေဒေရးရာ အစဥအလာရခေသာ ႏငငတစႏငငက ေလလာလလင ဒနဝဒ မာဇကငဂ ခရာဝါေရး ‘မာလာဝႏငင၏ အပခပေရးပငးတရားမတမႈ ဥပေဒက ဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒ၏ အေႏာငအဖြ႔မ လြတေျမာကေစျခငး’ အာဖရက ဥပေဒဂာနယ အတြ ၅၅ အမတ ၁ (၂၀၁၁)၊ လနဒန အာရႏင အာဖရကေလလာေရးေကာငး တြငရႈ။

98

အေျခခဥပေဒ ကယတငပငျဖစသည။ ဤ ေနရာတြငဓေလထးတမးဥပေဒသည အေျခခဥပေဒက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆရန ေလာကသာ သကဆငေတာသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ ျပနလညသးသပေပးပါရန ေလာကထားလသ တစဥးသည အေျခခဥပေဒ ပဒမ ၄၃ အရ မမက ေမးခြနးထတလေသာ အျပအမသည အပခပေရးပငးလပေဆာငမႈ တစခ ျဖစေၾကာငး သကေသထျပရနလသည။ ၃၁

၃၅။ ကငညာႏငင၏ ၂၀၁၀ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင မတေသာ အပခပေရးပငး ေဆာငရြကမႈဆေသာ အခနးတစခနးပါဝငသည။ ယငးအခနးပါ ျပဌာနးခကမားမာ - ၄၇ (၁) လတငးသည လငျမနသြကလက ထေရာက၍ ဥပေဒႏငညညြတေသာ၊ သငေလာေကာငးမြနေသာ၊ လပငနးစဥအရ မတမႈရေသာ အပခပေရးပငး ေဆာငရြကခကမားက ရပငခြငရသည။ (၂) အပခပေရးအပငး၏ ေဆာငရြကမႈေၾကာင လတစဥးတစေယာက၏ အခြငအေရး သ႔မဟတ အေျခခလြတလပခြငက ဆးဆးဝါးဝါးထခကခလင သ႔မဟတ ထခကလာနငစရာရလင ၎ ပဂၢလသည ယငးဆာငရြကမႈ လပေဆာငရျခငးအေၾကာငးရငးက စာျဖင ရငးျပျခငးက ရယခြငရသည။ (၃) အပဒ (၁) ပါ အခြငအေရးမားက ရယခစားႏငရန ပါလမနက ဥပေဒျပဌာနးေပးရမည၊ ယငး ဥပေဒသည (က) အပခပေရးအပငးက ေဆာငရြကမႈတစခက တရားရးက ေလလာဆနးစစခြင ႏင သငေတာေသာ အေျခအေနတြင လြတလပၿပး ဘကမလကေသာ ခရးတစခက ဆနးစစခြငကလညး ျပဌာနးေပးရမည။ (ခ) အပခပေရး အပငး ထေရာကထကျမကေစေရးက ျမငတငအားေပးရမည။

၃၆။ အလားတပင ဖဂႏငငတြငလညး ကာလတာရညေသာ စစအပခပေရးက အဆးသတၿပး ဒမကေရစ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အတြကျပဌာနးခေသာ ၂၀၁၃ အေျခခဥပေဒတြင အပခပေရးက႑ ႏင စမခန႔ခြသမားအပငး တရားမတမႈ ဆသည အခနးတစခနး ထညသြငးထားသည။ ယငးတြငေဖာျပထားခကမာ - ၁၆၊ (၁) ဤအေျခခဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးခကမားႏင အျခားဆေလာရာ ဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားမ ကန႕သတခကမားႏင မဆန႔ကငလင (က) လတငးသည ဥပေဒႏငညညြတေသာ၊ ဆငျခငတတရားႏင ကကညေသာ၊ အခးအစား မတေသာ၊ လပငနးစဥအရ မတမႈရၿပး လငလငျမနျမန ေဆာငရြကေပးေသာ အပခပေရးပငး စမခန႔ခြေရးအပငး ေဆာငရြကခကမားက ရပငခြငရသည။

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၃၁ မာလာဝႏငင၏ လကေတြ႕သာဓက အရ ျပဌာနးခကအသစေတြကစတငကငသးခခနမစျပး အေျခခဥပေဒက အပခပေရးဆငရာ ဥပေဒမားကေျပာငးလပစလကသညအတငးအဆကတရားရးမားကယတငကအျပညအဝသေဘာမေပါကေၾကာငးေတြ႕ရသည။ထ႕ေၾကာငအကး ဆကအားျဖငအပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈအခြငအေရးက အျပညအဝအသးမခႏငေသးေပ။

99

(ခ) အပခပေရးအပငး စမခန႔ခြေရး အပငး၏ ေဆာငရြကမႈေၾကာင ဆးဆးဝါးဝါးထခကခရေသာ မညသမဆ ယငးဆာငရြကမႈ လပေဆာငရျခငးအေၾကာငးရငးက စာျဖင ရငးျပျခငးက ရယခြငရသည။ (ဂ) အပခပေရးအပငးက မညသညေဆာငရြကခကကမဆ တရားရးက ေလလာဆနးစစခြင ႏင သငေတာေသာ အေျခအေနတြင အျခား လြတလပၿပး ဘကမလကေသာ ခရးတစခက ဥပေဒႏငအည ဆနးစစႏငသည။ ၃၂

၃၇။ အျခားေသာ ဥပေဒအရ အေရးယေဆာငရြကႏငသညနညးလမးမားက ဓေလထးတမး ဥပေဒတြငလညးေတြ႔ႏငသည၊ ၎တ႔မာ တရားရးက အမန႕စာထတ၍ တားျမစျခငး၊ ဥပေဒႏင မညညြတေသာ ေဆာငရြကခကက အပခပေရး အဖြ႔အစညးတစခက ဆကမေဆာငရြကႏငေစရန တရားရးက အမန႕စာထတ၍ တားျမစျခငး၊ ျပနျပငမရႏငေသာ ပကစးမႈႀကးမး ျဖစႏငမညဆလင အေရးေပၚၾကားျဖတ တားဆးမန႔ထတျပနျခငးတ႔ ျဖစသည။ အျခား လပႏငသည နညးလမးတစခမာ နစနာသအား ေငြေၾကးအရ ေလာေၾကးေပးေဆာငေစျခငး ျဖစသည။ ၃၃

နဂး နင ျမနမာႏငငတြင အေျခခဥပေဒျပျပငေျပာငးလႏငရန ေရြးခယစရာမား

၃၈။ ၂၀၁၅ ခနစေရြးေကာကပြမား မတငခင ျဖစေစ၊ ေရြးေကာကပြ ၿပးမ ျဖစေစ အေျခခဥပေဒ ျပျပငေျပာငးလျခငးမားျပလပျခငးသညျပညသလထအတြကတရားမတမႈမားကပတးလကလမးမ လာေစၿပး အစးရႏင သ၏ အပခပခ တငးသျပညသားမားအၾကား ဆကဆေရးက ပမေကာငးမြန လာေစႏငသည အခြငအလမးမားစြာ ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ ဒမကေရစႏငငတစခသည သ႔ႏငငသားမားအား ကးကထမးရြကရနတညရျခငးျဖစသည။ဥပေဒစးမးမႈရေသာႏငငတစႏငငတြင ျပညသလထအကးစးပြားက ျဖညဆညးေပးၿပး အရညအေသြးျပည ဝနေဆာငမႈ ေပးႏငေသာ အစးရတစရပဆသညမာအစးရအရာရမားက၎တ႔သညလထအေပၚမမတတလပေဆာငေပးေနပါသညဟ၍ ယဆႏငရႏင မလေလာကေပ၊ လအပသည ေျပာငးလ ျပငဆငမႈမားက ထထေရာကေရာက လပေပးႏငသည အခြငအလမးႏင ေနရာလညး ရရမညျဖစသည။

-------------------------------------------------------------- ၃၂ အလားတျပဌာနးခကမားက ဇငဘာေဘြ ႏငငႏင ေကးမနးကြနးမား၏ မၾကာခငအခနအတြငးက အေျခခဥပေဒမားတြင လညးထညသြငးထားသည။ ၃၃ တရားရးမားေနျဖငနစနာသမားအားေလာေၾကးေပးရနဆးျဖတေပးခြငရေသာလညး အပခပေရးပငးက ေဆာငရြကမႈ တစခခမားယြငးသညဟ ေၾကျငာရမျဖင ေလာေၾကးေပးရနဆးျဖတခကထ အလအေလာကမေရာကေပ။ ေလာကထားသသည ဌာနဆငရာဘကမ ရးရးသားသားမားယြငးလပေဆာငချခငးမဟတေၾကာငးသကေသျပႏငရမည သ႕မဟတ ဥပေဒအရ သတမတထားေသာျပစမႈမားျဖစသည ကးေကာဝငေရာကျခငး၊ကယထလကေရာကေစာကားျခငးလပေၾကာငး ျပသႏငရမည။

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၃၉။ အျခားႏငငမားမ သခၤနးစာမားက ၾကညမညဆလင အစအစဥမရ ႀကသလ ျပငဆငေျပာငးလမႈ မားက ေရာငသငသညက ေတြ႕ရမည။ သ႔ေသာ ျမနမာႏငငတြငလညး ၿပးခသည ႏစမားက တငၾကားႏငသည အဖြ႔မား လပငနးစဥမား ႀကသလ ဖြ႔စညးေပးလကျခငးမားက အမားဆး ေတြ႔ရသည။ ေအာကတြင အႀကျပခကတခ႕က ေဖာျပထားပါသည။ ရညရြယခကမာ ျမနမာႏငငတြင ထေရာကေသာ အပခပေရးပငဆငရာ တရားမတမႈ ပစစနစတစခ ေပၚေပါကလာေစေရးအတြက ေဆြးေႏြးညႏႈငးမႈမား လပေဆာငလာရန၊ ေလလာဆနးစစခကမားျပလပ၍ အစးရဌာနအသးသး၊ ဥပေဒေရးရာ အဖြ႔အစညးအသးသးႏင လထအေျချပအဖြ႔အသးသးတ႔ အၾကား အားလးပါ၀ငေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ျဖစေပၚလာေစႏငရန ျဖစသည။

က။ အေျခခဥပေဒ ျပငဆငျခငး

၄၀။ ပထမအဆငတြင အေျခခဥပေဒျပငဆငေရး လပငနးစဥ၏ တစတတေဒသအျဖစ ပါလမနက အပခပေရးအပငးတြင တရားမတမႈရေရးက အေျခခဥပေဒအတြငး ထညသြငးျပဌာနးလေသာ ဆႏၵရေၾကာငး ေဖာျပရန အႀကျပပါသည။

٠ အပခပေရးအပငးမ ဥပေဒႏငအည၊ ဆငျခငတတရားႏင အည မတေသာ လပငနးစဥမားျဖင လပေဆာငရနဆေသာ အခကက အေျခခဥပေဒအတြငး ထညသြငးရန၊ လတငးသည သငေတာေသာ အခနကာလတစခအတြငး တရားရးတစခခမ သ႔မဟတ လြတလပၿပး ဘကမလကေသာ ခရးတစခခမ ၾကားနာစစေဆးခြငက ရရႏငေစရန

ခ။ ၎ အခြငအေရးက ကငသးျခငး ၄၁။ ဤ အခြငအေရးက လပငနးစဥတစခအျဖစ ထညသြငးႏငရန

٠ အေျခခဥပေဒပါ အာမခထားေသာ အခြငအေရးမားက ခးေဖာကသည ကစၥရပမားတြင တရားလႊတေတာခပက အမန႔စာခၽြနေတာမားက ထထေရာကေရာက အသးျပျခငး ٠ ထ႔အျပင တရားစရငေရးတြင အပခပေရးအပငးဆငရာတရားရးေတာဟ၍ သးျခားဖြ႔စညးရန၊ တခါ ျပညနယ/တငးေဒသႀကး အဆငအတြက ဥပေဒႏငမညေသာ အပခပေရးပငးဆးျဖတခကမားက ကငတြယရန အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားရးမား သ႔မဟတ လြတလပေသာ အပခပေရးဆငရာ ခရးမား ဖြ႔စညးရန

ဂ။ ဥပေဒျပေရးအပငးတြင မေျပာငးလပ ကငတြယႏငေသာနညးလမးမား

၄၂။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အပခပေရးအပငးတရားမတမႈ ရလာေစရန လကရအေျခခဥပေဒပါ ျပဌာနးခကမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး၊ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔အစညး အဆငဆငက ခငမာအားေကာငးေစျခငးတ႔ကလညး အမားႀကး လပေဆာငေပးရန လအပပါသည။ ဥပမာ -

101

٠ ဥပေဒေရးရာ ဆးျဖတခကမားက အဆးအျဖတေပးႏငေသာ အပခပေရးအဖြ႔အစညးမားသည အစးရ၏ အျခားေသာတာဝနမားက ထမးေဆာငရေသာအခါ ၎ တ႔သည တရားစြသ နင တရားသႀကးအျဖစ ႏစမးစလးက တစဥးတညးက တာဝနယသမား ျဖစလာပါသည။ တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး အပငးက အားေကာငေစရနႏင အပခပေရးပငးတြင တရားမတမႈရျခငးအေပၚ ျပညသလထက ယၾကညမႈ ကငးမေနသညမားက ျပန အဖတဆညႏငရန လပငနးတာ၀နမားက ခြျခားလပကင ဖ႔သငသညဟ အႀကျပလပါသည။

ဃ။ တရားရးမားတြငေဆာငရြကသငသည အေလအကငမား ၄၃။ အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈမားအတြက လပငနးစဥမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြင ထညသြငး စဥးစားစရာ အခကမား ရပါသည။ (တငၾကားလသက) တရားရးမားသ႔ တငၾကားႏငခြင အတြက ႀကတငစညးကမးသတမတေပးထားျခငးမား၊ တငၾကားျခငးက ခြငျပႏငသည အေျခအေနမား (တရားရးမ လကခ စဥးစားႏငသည အေျခအေနမား)၊ တရားရးသ႔ တငၾကားႏငသည အခနကာလ သတမတခကမား၊ တရားရးမ မစဥးစားသည အပခပေရးအပငး ေဆာငရြကခကမား၊ အမႈက ေလလာဆနးစစသည လပငနးစဥမား၊ တရားရးတြင အမႈ ေလာကထားသညမ အမႈရငဆငေနသည အခနမားအတြက ကနကစရတက ခြေဝကခရမည ျပဌာနးခကမား ႏင အမႈတငၾကား ေလာကထားရမည ပစမားကလညး ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည ျဖစသည။ တရားရးသ႔ တငၾကားျခငးက အငတ နညးပညာ (အလကထေရာနစ နညးပညာ) ႏင ေဆာငရြကျခငးမးကလညး စဥးစားေပးသငသည။ အျခားအေရးပါေသာ စဥးစားသငသည အခကမားမာ ရးေတာစရတမား၊ အမႈစစေဆး ၾကားနာခနတြင မျဖစမေနတကေရာက ရမညဆသည စညးကမးခက၊ ဥပေဒဆငရာ အေထာကအကေပးျခငး၊ တရားမ အေျခအျမစမတငၾကားခကမားႏင စြပစြတငၾကားလာခကမား အတြက ဒဏေငြခမတျခငး တ႔ျဖစသည။ တရားခြငတြင အမႈက စစေဆးၾကားနာခနတြင အေျခခဥပေဒသမားမာ တရားစရငေရး၏ ဘကလကမႈကငးျခငး၊ သကေသအေထာကအထားက တငျပရနတာဝနရျခငး၊ ၾကားနာစစေဆးမႈ ႏင ေလာကလခကေပးျခငး အပငးမားအတြက စညးကမးသတမတထားျခငး၊ အကးအေၾကာငးႏင စရငခကခမတျခငး တ႔ျဖစသည။ စရငခက အဆးအျဖတက အမားျပညသ သေစရန အသေပးသင စနစတြငလညး တသမတထညးေသာ စညးမဥးမားရရမည၊ စရငခကအတငး အေကာငအထညေဖာႏငခြငလညး ရရမည ျဖစသည။ စရငခကက မေၾကနပပါက ထပဆင အယခႏငသည လပငနးစဥလညး ထားရေပးရမည ျဖစသည။

၄၄။ မညသည အပခပေရးအပငးေဆာငရြကခကမ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ စစေဆးခြငမ ကငးလြတျခငးမရေစရ၊ အပခပေရး အာဏာပငမားႏင တရားရးမားသည မတ၍ သငေတာေသာ ၾကားနာစစေဆးမႈမား ျဖစေစရန ေဆာငရြကေပးရမညဟေသာ ညႊနၾကားခကမားကလညး တတကက ရငးရငးလငးလငးထတျပနထားသငသည။ ဤသ႔ ျပလပျခငးျဖင ဥပေဒအရ အဆးအျဖတေပးရေသာ လပငနးမားေဆာငရြကေနသည အပခပေရးအာဏာပငမား ႏင ခရးမား၏ တညရမႈက အေၾကာငးျပႏငေစမာ ျဖစၿပး အပခပေရးအပငး တရားမတမႈေရး ရေရး လပငနးစဥအေပၚ လထက ယၾကညမႈ ရလာႏငမည ျဖစသည။

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၄၅။ အပခပေရးအပငးတရားမတမႈရေရး ဆသည တတကက အခြငအေရးတစရပက အေျခခဥပေဒအတြငး ထညသြငးျပဌာနးရျဖင အားလးေျပလညသြားမညကား မဟတေပ။ အေျခခဥပေဒပါ ႏငငသားမား၏ မလအခြငအေရးအပငးတြင အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈ ရယပငခြငဆေသာ အခကပါရျဖငလညး လကရ ဥပေဒျပဌာနးခကမားထက ပ၍ အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈက ပမကာကြယေစာငေရာကႏငမညဟ အာမခခကမးလညး မရေပ။ အျခားႏငငမား၏ ဥပမာအရလညး အပခပေရးပငးဆငရာ တရားမတမႈ အခြငအေရးက အေျခခဥပေဒထ ထညသြငးျခငးေၾကာင အေျခအေနေတြ ပတးတကေကာငးမြနလာသညဟ အၿမတနး ေျပာလ႔မရေပ။ ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစအေျခခဥပေဒတြင အမန႕စာခၽြနေတာ ေလာကထားတငသြငးခြငက ျပနလညထညသြငးခေသာလညး ႏငငေတာႏင ျဖစေသာ အမႈကစၥေတြတြင ႏငငေတြ၏ အခြငအေရးက ပၿပးအကာအကြယ ေပးႏငသညဆေသာ အခကယခအထ မေတြ႔ရေသးပါ။ အေၾကာငးတစခမာလညး ဒလ အမႈကစၥမးမားတြင ဘယလ အမႈမးေတြက တရားရးေတြက လကခ စဥးစားခၿပး ဘယလ စရငဆးျဖတခကမး ခမတခသလညးဆတာက အမားျပညသ သရႏငေအာင ထတျပနေပးသည လေလာကေသာ တရားရးစရငထးဆငရာ ထတျပနေပးခကမး စနစတက မရေသးေသာေၾကာငလညး ျဖစပါသည။

၄၆။ သ႔ရာတြင အပခပေရးစနစျပျပငေျပာငးလျခငး၊ ျပညသလထ၏ အေျခခရပငခြငမားႏင လြတလပခြငမားကကာကြယေပးျခငး၊ ႏငငေတာႏင ျပညသ အၾကားဆကဆေရးက ေလးေလးနကနက ျပျပငေျပာငးလျခငး လပငနးစဥမားႏင ပးတြလပေဆာငမညဆပါက၊ အပခပေရးအပငးတရားမတမႈက အေျခခဥပေဒထ ထညသြငးျခငးကလညး ေကာငးေသာ အေျပာငးအလမားက ျဖစေကာငးျဖစေစႏငပါသည။ အပခပေရးအပငးတရားမတမႈရရေရး သ႔မဟတ ေကာငးမြနေသာအပခပမႈရရႏငခြင အခြငအေရးတ႔က ျပညသလထ၏ အေျခခအခြငအေရး ဥပေဒထတြငထညသြငးျခငးသည ထးျခားသည အမတလကၡဏာကလညး ေဆာငေစႏငပါသည။ အထးသျဖင လကရတရားရးမားထက လထက ပ၍လကလမးမေသာ၊ ရႈတေထြးမႈကငးေသာ အပခပေရးစနစခရးသစမားက စနစတကျပငဆင စဥးစားၿပး ဖြ႔စညးေပးႏငပါက ပ၍ ထေရာကႏငပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငငဥပေဒစနစ အထးသျဖင အေျခခဥပေဒ၏ အေရး လကၡဏာမား ေၾကာင အျခားႏငငမားမ သခၤနးစာမားက ယလင ဓေလထးတမးစဥလာ ဥပေဒစနစ ကငသးေသာ ႏငငမားသာမက တရားမဥပေဒကငသးေသာႏငငမား၏ ဥပမာမားကပါ ေလလာသငေၾကာငး အႀကျပလပါသည။

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Bingham Centre Myanmar Project: Federalism in Asia


November 2014


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Rohan Edrisinha, United Nations Development Programme

INTRODUCTION

1. Asia is witnessing the rise of “identity politics.” People are mobilizing along ethnic, religious, racialand cultural lines, and demanding recognition of their identity, acknowledgement of their legalrights and historic claims, and a commitment to their sharing of power.” (Will Kymlicka andBaogang He ( eds) 2005, Multiculturalism in Asia, (Oxford, OUP)

2. Whether one likes it or not, identity based politics is a reality of South Asian and Asian politics.Even in other parts of the world, societies are becoming more plural, heterogeneous andmulticultural in character. In this context there is renewed interest in federalism as a constitutionalmechanism that responds to the reality of diversity in society. Many scholars and commentatorshave argued in recent years that a federal constitution may be more appropriate than a unitaryconstitution in managing multi-ethnicity and a plural society. Many scholars have cited India’sfederal constitution as a reason for its success in managing its multiethnic and multi religiouspolity; Pakistan has recently strengthened its constitution’s federal characteristics; Sri Lanka’s bestchance for a durable peace with justice between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minoritywas when it explored constitutional reform based on federalism between 1996 and 2004; Nepal,following a decade long conflict that ended with a peace agreement in 2006 is working on thedetails of a new constitution that will introduce a federal, secular, democratic, republic. TheMalaysian and Indonesian constitutions contain federal features while there is discussion inThailand and the Philippines on federal type reforms to address minority aspirations in thesecountries.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNITARY AND FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONS

3. The term federal is difficult to define and has no fixed meaning. The terms unitary and federalcan be considered to cover a range or a spectrum of meaning. However, notwithstanding this, itis possible for the purposes of this paper to develop a working definition by comparing andcontrasting the terms, unitary and federal, in order to understand the essence of the federal idea.

4. A unitary constitution is generally defined as one with the habitual exercise of political power byone, central authority. (C.F. Strong, Modern Political Constitutions) (Unus= one in Latin).

5. Power may be decentralized or devolved within a unitary constitution, but this is granted or givenby the central authority and therefore can be taken back by that authority unilaterally. The powergranted to the decentralized authority is therefore relatively insecure.

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6. As Strong has observed

“It does not mean the absence of subsidiary law making bodies, but it does mean that they exist and can be abolished at the discretion of the central authority.”

7. A Federal Constitution, on the other hand, is different, as the powers that are granted to theprovinces or states are more secure as they are guaranteed by the constitution, the supreme lawof the land.

8. Ronald Watts, a Canadian scholar, provides a useful working definition of a federal constitutionwhich highlights 5 features:

a. Two tiers of government each acting directly with the people;b. A written, supreme Constitution with a clear division of powers and which because it is

deemed to be a covenant or contract between the two tiers of government, cannot be changedunilaterally.

c. Provincial/state representation at the centre;d. An umpire to resolve disputes;e. Mechanisms to facilitate inter-governmental cooperation.

9. Contrasting these five features of a federal constitution with the definition of a unitary constitutionhighlights some key differences. In a federal constitution there are more than one tiers ofgovernment with powers that cannot be taken away by unilateral action. Whether it actuallyhappened or not, a federal constitution is considered to be like an agreement and as such anychanges to such agreement have to be made by the parties to the agreement consenting to suchchange. The term “federal” comes from the Latin, foedus, which means a covenant or compact.The division of powers and competencies is therefore more secure as it is set out in a writtenconstitution that is supreme. Parliament is not supreme, rather it is the constitution that is supreme.A federal constitution is more complex than a unitary one as it involves two, rather than one tierof government with constitutionally guaranteed powers. Since there are bound to be disputesbetween the tiers of government, an independent, impartial umpire who commands theconfidence of both tiers of government, is necessary. In many federal countries the finalarbiter/umpire is a Constitutional Court. Watts’ final feature is noteworthy as he suggests thatmodern federations need to be cooperative rather than competitive and that the two tiers ofgovernment have to collaborate and cooperate to make them successful.

10. The essence of a federal constitution is therefore, a combination of shared rule and self-rule.Watts’ third feature, provincial/state representation at the centre is important in appreciating theshared rule dimension of federalism. In most federal countries, the provinces/states arerepresented at the centre through a second chamber which forms part of a bi-cameral legislature.There are two rationales for a second chamber that provides for the provinces/states to berepresented at the centre:

a. A Protection of the Devolution rationale;b. A Protection of the National Unity rationale.

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A. The Protection of Devolution rationale

11. In a federal system, the second tier of government or province/state is responsible for certainpowers and responsibilities provided in the constitution. However, very often, central legislaturestend to encroach upon the powers granted to the provinces/states. If the provinces have a voiceat the centre in a second chamber whether it be a Senate ( like in the U.S.) or a Council ofProvinces ( like in South Africa), the provinces have a mechanism whereby they can raise thealarm or object to any attempt at undermining provincial powers in the central legislature itself.Furthermore such a chamber also provides a forum for provincial concerns and interests to beraised at the central level.

B. The Protection of National Unity rationale

12. Ensuring that the provinces, in addition to enjoying certain powers over subjects and functionsthat directly affect their people, also have a stake at the centre or in the country as a whole, helpsto promote national unity and the territorial integrity of the country. If for example a regionalminority such as the Tamils in Sri Lanka who are largely concentrated in the north east of thecountry are given autonomy to look after some of their own affairs in a federal arrangement, itwill be in the long term interests of national unity if they are also given a voice in the affairs of thecentral government through participation in central institutions in Colombo.

13. Max Frenkel in Federal Theory has described federalism as follows:

“ A system for decision making is federalist if it is an entity composed of territorially defined groups, each of which enjoys relatively high autonomy and which together, participate in an ordered and permanent way in the formation of the central entity’s will.”

14. In the 5 features of federalism therefore, there is a combination of the shared and self-ruledimensions of federalism. A federal constitution is not merely focused on promoting autonomy;it is also focused on promoting power sharing and inclusivity at the centre. President NelsonMandela referred to the new South Africa as a “Rainbow Nation,” where the distinctiveness ofeach colour of the rainbow was recognized and celebrated, but within the context of one entity.The Federal Idea, which seeks to promote unity in diversity, and the Rainbow Nation concept havea great deal in common.

THE MYANMAR CONSTITUTION 2008

15. When assessed from the working definitions outlined above, the Myanmar Constitution of 2008can be described as unitary though it contains some quasi-federal features.

16. The constitution provides for legislative, executive and judicial power to be shared between theUnion and States, Regions, Self-Administered Divisions and Self-Administered Zones (Article 11(b)). It also provides for the establishment of legislatures at the State and Region level (Article 161)and in Self-Administered Divisions and Self-Administered Zones (Article 196). These legislaturesmay make laws on certain subjects. However, laws passed by the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw are superiorand there are few areas in which Region or State legislatures have exclusive law making powers(Article 198 (b)).

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17. The Constitution also gives executive power to Region or State governments in areas in whichRegion or State legislatures can make law (Article 249). However, Chief Ministers of the Regionand State are chosen by the President (Article 261 (b)) and are accountable to him. The powersof the Regions, States, Self-Administered Divisions and Self-Administered Zones can be withdrawnin the case of an emergency (Articles 411 and 413).

18. There are courts at the State, Region, Self-Administered Area, township and district level thatexercise judicial power. The President chooses the Chief Justices of the High Courts of the Regionsand States in consultation with the Chief Justice of the Union (Article 308 (b)).

19. The constitution forbids States, Regions, Self-Administered Divisions and Self-Administered Zonesfrom seceding from the Union (Article 10).

ANALYSIS

20. In Asia there are often myths and misconceptions about federalism that need to be clarified. Theseinclude:

a. That a federal state is established only by previously independent states coming together.b. That a federal constitution must include a right to secession.

21. Constitutional scholars recognise that there are two ways in which a federal constitutionalarrangement may be established. The more common method known as Integrative Federalism iswhere previously independent nation states integrate to form a new political entity. The secondmethod, known as Devolutionary Federalism is where a country that is unitary opts to change toa federal system by introducing constitutionally entrenched devolution of power that correspondsto the five features of federalism discussed above.

22. A federal constitution may or may not include a right to secession. Most federal constitutions donot include a right to secession. In many western countries federalism is often proposed as analternative to secession or as a strategy to undermine secessionist tendencies. For example inCanada, it could be argued that a federalist response countered the separatists in Quebec.Federal type reforms have been proposed in Spain, the United Kingdom and Belgium, in orderto counter the threats of secession by addressing reasonable aspirations for autonomy within aunited country. In Asia however, advocates of federal constitutional reforms are often seen assupporters of separation rather than as opponents (which is how they are seen in other parts ofthe world). In Sri Lanka for example advocates of constitutional reform based on federalism as asolution to the island’s protracted ethnic conflict were often criticised by leaders of the majoritySinhalese community as supporters of secession.

23. Developments in Canada following the referendum on secession in Quebec in 1997 where the“no” vote won narrowly are instructive. The Government of Canada sought an advisory opinionfrom the Supreme Court of Canada on two questions.

a. If the people of Quebec vote “yes” to secession, are they entitled to secede under theCanadian Constitution?

b. If the people of Quebec vote “yes” to secession, are they entitled to secede underInternational Law?

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24. The Canadian Supreme Court in a unanimous judgement, answered “No” to both questions, butsuggested that dialogue and negotiation had to take place in respect of the will expressed by thepeople of Quebec. With respect to International Law, the court observed:

“In summary, the international right to self- determination generates, at best, a right to external

self- determination in situations of former colonies; where people is oppressed..; or where a

definable group is denied meaningful access to government to pursue their political, economic,

social and cultural development. In all three situations, the people in question are entitled to a

right to external self-determination because they have been denied the ability to exert internally

their right to self- determination.” (Reference re Secession of Quebec, 1998 2 SCR, 217.)

25. The court held that the people of Quebec enjoyed meaningful access to government through theprinciples of democracy, federalism and the rights protected under the Canadian constitution andtherefore did not have the unilateral right to secession.

A. INDIA

26. There is a general consensus that federalism has helped to keep India united, democratic andstrong. Soon after India became independent in 1947, it convened a Constituent Assembly todraft and adopt a constitution that would derive its legitimacy from the sovereign people. TheConstitution that was adopted in 1950 remains one of the longest and most detailed constitutionsin the world.

27. The framers of the Indian Constitution were aware that given India’s size and diversity, they hadto construct an encompassing frame or constitutional structure that allowed adequate expressionof diversity while at the same time maintaining the unity that was essential for national cohesionand unity. The constitution did not use the term federal, but rather, a “union of states” as initiallythere was a reluctance to grant too much recognition to diversity or to grant too much power tothe states as there were fears that this might lead to disunity. But over the years India has evolvedinto a federal republic that has successfully managed ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity,dealt with secessionist movements, divided large states into smaller ones and successfullypreserved its unity and territorial integrity and democratic traditions. In recent years the IndianSupreme Court has declared federalism to be one of the basic features of the Indian Constitution.

28. India is a federation with a parliamentary system of government. It has 30 states, six “unionterritories” and a national capital territory. The states derive their powers directly from theConstitution. The Constitution provides for the division of powers between the centre and thestates in the form of 3 lists – one for the centre; one for the states; and one list of subjects overwhich power to legislate is shared (the “Concurrent List”). The central legislature has exclusivepowers to legislate on 97 subjects on the union list of competences and concurrent power withthe states to legislate on 47 subjects on the Concurrent List. The states have power over 66 subjectsspelled out in the state list. In the legislative sphere, India’s central legislature is when comparedwith other federations, generally quite powerful. In the executive sphere, the Constitution permitsexecutive power to be exercised by the states but in a manner that ensures compliance with theexecutive power of the union. The governor of each state acts not only as the nominal head ofthe state but also as the link between the state and the centre. Another mechanism by which thecentre exercises control over the states is through the All India Civil Service whose membersexercise oversight over the public services in the states.

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29. The Indian Constitution provides that sovereignty resides in the people of India, and recognisesone citizenship for the whole country. The Constitution protects the provisions dealing withfederalism by requiring that amendments to those provisions require the consent of the majorityof state legislatures. However today the federal character of the Indian constitution has evengreater protection as the Indian Supreme Court has declared federalism to be a basic feature ofthe Constitution thereby ensuring that it will always be a feature of the Indian Constitution. Theother basic features of the constitution include the supremacy of the constitution; the republicanand democratic form of government; the secular character of the constitution and the separationof powers. The Indian Constitution does not grant any state the right to secession. There is a singleconstitution for both the Union and the states.

30. The Indian Constitution recognises the principle of asymmetrical federalism where not all stateshave the same degree of powers. Where it was felt that a state for various reasons was entitledto some additional powers or distinctive powers, this was provided for in the constitution.

31. Over the years, India’s federal structure has been strengthened and with it the process ofdemocratisation. The 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution that were introduced in1992, gave constitutional recognition to local government institutions thereby strengthening theirrole and promoting participatory democracy at the local level. In India and in many Asiancountries considering federalism, the relationship between the 3 tiers of government raises difficultissues. The second tier provinces or the states are often worried that the first tier, the centre, willwork directly with the third tier of government to undermine its powers. In India and in countriesdebating federalism such as Sri Lanka and Nepal, often the champions of provincial autonomyhave been lukewarm in their support for a strong system of local government. This is unfortunateas the principle of subsidiarity, an important component of the federal idea suggests that thereshould be a presumption in favour of power being devolved as far as it is possible and effective.As such a strong system of local government can be viewed as an extension of the federalprinciple. The Amendments in India ensured the extension of the federal idea and participatorydemocracy to local communities and people.

32. As territorially located communities have begun to participate more effectively in their governanceboth at the state and national levels, the nation state as a whole has also been transformed intowhat scholars like Will Kymlicka have described as multi-nation states, thereby promoting unityin diversity.

B. SOUTH AFRICA

33. The South African Constitution of 1996 is considered one of the most progressive constitutions inthe world. Not only does the constitution provide for a comprehensive Bill of Rights and imposeeffective restraints on the wielders of political power, but it also has facilitated the healing of thewounds of the country’s bitter legacy of apartheid.

34. Between 1990 and 1996, following a negotiated political settlement, a new constitution for a newdemocratic South Africa based on equality, non- racialism and non-sexism was drafted andadopted by an elected and inclusive Constituent Assembly. The new constitution was expected tobe an instrument for national reconciliation and a new covenant that bound the peoples of SouthAfrica among themselves and with the newly designed nation state. As President Mandeladeclared:

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“We enter into a covenant that will build a society in which all South Africans, both black and white, will be able to walk, talk without any fear in their hearts, assured of their inalienable right to human dignity, a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world.”

35. The process by which the Constitution of 1996 was adopted was significant and demonstratedthe spirit of reconciliation and compromise that pervaded the transfer of power. There was distrustand suspicion both on the side of the National Party that held political power and the AfricanNational Congress (ANC) that had led the struggle against apartheid. The National Party wantedto ensure certain constitutional safeguards and the rights of the white minority whereas the ANCwanted the new constitution to be adopted by a democratically elected Constituent Assembly. Acompromise was reached whereby an Interim Constitution was adopted in 1993, under whichelections to a Constituent Assembly were held; the Interim constitution was described as a bridgebetween the past and the future and the parties agreed to 34 core constitutional principles thatwould be binding on the Constituent Assembly when it drafted and adopted the final constitution.When the Constituent Assembly adopted the new constitution in May 1996, the ConstitutionalCourt that had been established under the Interim Constitution, reviewed the draft to ensurecompatibility with the 34 principles. It ordered some changes to be made and the final constitutionwas formally adopted in December 1996.

36. One of the most significant features of the new Constitution is that it enshrines founding provisionsthat commit South Africa to core values that are justiciable including equality, dignity,accountability, responsiveness and openness. Over the years, the Constitutional Court that isrequired to be inclusive and reflect South Africa’s diversity has through constitutionalinterpretation, applied these values and the comprehensive Bill of Rights to facilitate the changethat South Africa needed with the end of apartheid.

37. The ANC was initially opposed to the introduction of a federal constitution as it felt that SouthAfrica needed a strong, powerful government to effect radical change to dismantle the legacy ofapartheid and that a unitary constitution would enable such a powerful government to be elected.However in a spirit of reconciliation, the ANC abandoned its commitment to a unitary state andthe final constitution is federal in all but name.

38. The new constitution established the principle of Cooperative Government (Chapter 3) whichprovides that the government is constituted as national, provincial and local spheres ofgovernment which are distinctive, interdependent and interrelated. All three spheres ofgovernment have constitutional status and have to recognise the other branches of government.The second tier of government consists of 9 provinces with provincial governments, a provincialpremier and a provincial executive council exercising executive power at the provincial level anda provincial legislature with a list of exclusive subjects and functions and limited revenue raisingpowers. Provinces share power with the centre on a number of subjects including education,health, and social welfare. The division of powers in South Africa provides for the nationalparliament to wield more power than provincial legislatures. The third tier of government consistsof municipalities that have specified responsibilities, limited revenue raising powers and whichdepend on fiscal transfers from the centre.

39. These centralised federal features are mitigated somewhat by an imaginative mechanism toprovide for provincial representation at the centre. The South African Constitution instead ofopting for a conventional upper house like a U.S. style Senate, introduced a National Council ofProvinces (NCOP) which together with the National Assembly (House of Representatives)

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comprises the bicameral National Parliament. The Constitution describes the role of the National Council of Provinces as the house that represents the provinces to ensure that provincial interests are taken into account in the national sphere of government. (Article 41 (4)). The NCOP has three main functions: it considers and passes national bills; it balances the interests of the three tiers of government through an oversight /watchdog function that the constitution provides for and it seeks to ensure that government is a partnership in keeping with the principle of cooperative government.

40. Membership of the NCOP is based primarily on provincial representation. Each of the 9 provincesis represented by a 10 member delegation including members from the provincial executive andlegislature. There are 6 “permanent” delegates elected by the provincial legislature in proportionto the political parties’ representation in the provincial legislature. The 4 “special” delegates aremembers of the provincial legislature who can change depending on the subjects/issues to bedeliberated upon in the NCOP. The Provincial Premier or his/her nominee heads the provincialdelegation. On matters that affect provinces each provincial delegation has one vote therebycompelling the provincial delegation to adopt a common position across party lines to ensurethat the interests of the province are upheld when a vote is taken in the NCOP. The design of thesecond chamber in South Africa ensures that the rationale for a second chamber in a federalconstitution: ensuring a provincial voice at the centre/the protection of devolution is effectivelyrealised.

41. The South African Constitution of 1996 with its emphasis on values and principles, a strong Billof Rights, an inclusive and empathetic Constitutional Court and the principle of cooperativegovernment which is interrelated, has helped to give practical effect to the ideal of the rainbownation.

C. SRI LANKA

42. Federalism has been part of the political discourse of Ceylon/Sri Lanka for many years. Soonafter Ceylon obtained independence from Britain in 1948, the main minority group the Tamilssought a federal constitution to provide for a certain degree of self-government within a unitedCeylon in the Tamil majority regions of the north east of the island. The main Tamil political partyfrom the 1950s to the 1970s was the Federal Party which was even willing to accept at variousstages devolution of power that fell short of federalism. The main political parties of Ceylon thatwere dominated by the Sinhalese and Buddhist majority population, rejected federalism whichthey believed would lead to secession. During this period, successive governments also sought toentrench the language and religion of the majority community at the expense of the Tamilminority. This culminated in the adoption of the first Republican Constitution of 1972 whichrepealed the independence constitution and its minority safeguards and made the new republicof Sri Lanka a unitary state with a privileged constitutional status for the Sinhala language andBuddhism, the language and religion of the majority. It is not surprising that the moderate,Gandhian and democratic leadership of the Federal Party was rejected by the Tamil youth inparticular in the mid-1970s.

43. The Tamil militant movement gained momentum in the following years with a direct demand fora separate state in the northeast of the island, the rise of Tamil nationalism, a violent ethnicconflict and the rise of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The LTTE waged a fanaticalcivil war, eliminating rival Tamil political leaders and groups and successfully resisted both theIndian and Sri Lankan armed forces for many years. In the mid- 1980s the main Tamil political

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forces including the LTTE adopted the Thimpu Principles as their basic set of political claims and demands. They included recognition of the Tamils of Sri Lanka as a distinct nationality; the recognition of the north and east of the country as a Tamil homeland; the recognition of the inalienable right to self- determination of the Tamil nation and granting equality and fundamental democratic rights to all Tamils. The main political parties in Sri Lanka interpreted the Thimpu Principles as a claim to a separate state and rejected them.

44. By the mid-1990s, the LTTE controlled territory in parts of the north and the east, ran a paralleladministration in those regions with its own police, administrative service and judicial system andprevented the writ of the Sri Lankan government from extending over those parts of the country.Between 1995 and 2000, the government of President Chandrika Kumaratunga worked withmoderate Tamil parties on a new constitution that sought to introduce greater rights for the Tamilsand other minorities and quasi federal devolution of power. The President had to abandon herattempts to introduce the constitution as it was rejected by hardline Sinhalese elements within herown party, a significant section of the Buddhist clergy and also by Tamil political forces whoargued that the constitution was “too little too late.”

45. In 2001, Norway began to facilitate negotiations between the LTTE (which had rejected the 1995-2000 constitution reform project from the outset) and a new coalition government of Sri Lanka.The Government of Sri Lanka was committed to maximum devolution of power within a unitarystate while the LTTE remained committed to the Thimpu Principles of the Tamil homeland,nationhood and self- determination. In a significant breakthrough in December 2002 in Oslo theLTTE and the Government of Sri Lanka agreed to explore a federal solution based on theprinciples of internal self- determination, in areas of historical habitation of the Tamil people,within a united Sri Lanka and affirmed that the solution should be acceptable to all communities,a clear indication that the Muslim minority in the Tamil majority regions would also be engagedin developing the political solution. The references to internal self- determination and a united SriLanka were crucial in allaying the consistent and perennial fear of the Sinhalese, that federalismwas a stepping stone to secession. For the Government of Sri Lanka responding positively to thefederal idea and internal self- determination was a significant change that was not too difficultgiven the groundwork laid by the constitution reform project of 1995-2000.

46. However within a few months opposition to the Oslo agreement grew both within the LTTE whichsaw it as an unacceptable compromise and also among the Sinhalese Buddhist majority whichremained trenchantly opposed to the federal idea. The distrust between the two negotiatingparties never abated with each side accusing the other of using the ceasefire and the protractednegotiations as an opportunity to fortify militarily. The promise of Oslo soon disappeared, thenegotiations collapsed and with the election of a new President in 2005 a bloody resumption ofthe conflict followed.

47. While discussions on a federal constitution have figured prominently in Sri Lanka as it has soughtto manage tensions between its two largest ethnic groups, a federal constitution has consistentlybeen rejected because of fears that federalism by emphasizing identity and ethnicity, the particularas opposed to the common, will encourage division and ultimately secession. This wasaccompanied by a majoritarian mindset that rejected any notion of power sharing andmeaningful minority rights.

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D. NEPAL

48. Nepal experienced a decade long conflict that ended with the signing of a Comprehensive PeaceAgreement (CPA) in November 2006. The CPA committed Nepal to a change agenda thatincluded a new constitution for a new Nepal that should be drafted and adopted by an electedand inclusive Constituent Assembly. The CPA also committed Nepal to “an inclusive, democraticand progressive restructuring of the state by ending the centralized, unitary state” and theempowerment of historically excluded ethnic groups, women and people living in backwardregions.

49. A 601 member Constituent Assembly was elected in 2008 under the Interim Constitution of 2007in order to ensure that Nepal’s diverse ethnic, caste and regional groups were represented in theconstitution making process. There were 197 women members. The Interim Constitution declaredthat Nepal would be an inclusive, secular, federal, democratic republic, all characteristics that didnot exist in Nepal prior to 2006. The CA had to flesh out the details. The members were dividedinto various thematic committees that considered the main constitutional issues that confrontedthe country.

50. The committees on state restructuring and natural resources focused on the federal design of thecountry. They agreed on a division of powers and functions between the central, provincial andlocal tiers of government, where like in South Africa, there would be a strong centre. The CA alsoagreed that the country should be divided into provinces on the basis of identity and viability. Butthe CA of 2008-12 could not agree on more detail and the issues of the name, the number andthe boundaries of the proposed provinces prevented a consensus on the constitution and the CA’sterm ended in 2012. After a crisis of constitutionalism and a political stalemate, a politicalunderstanding was reached and fresh elections held to elect a second CA in November 2013.The second CA has less representation from excluded groups but has agreed to build on the workof the first CA and accept identity and viability as the bases for the country’s federal structure. Atpresent the options have been narrowed to a federal structure with between 6 and 10 provinces.The second CA hopes to complete the task of constitution making in 2015.

51. There has in the past 8 years been a relatively informed debate on the pros and cons offederalism; how federalism can empower minority groups; how power can be moved away fromthe Kathmandu based dominant elite; how backward regions can be empowered; and also thestrengths and limitations of federalism. Legitimate concerns about federalism have also surfacedin the debate: Does federalism by emphasizing the particular do so at the expense of thecommon? Does federalism by in effect devolving power to the larger minorities in a provinceforget about the aspirations and concerns of the smaller minorities within such regions (theminorities within a minority critique of federalism)? Can federalism work in a country that is asdiverse as Nepal? Is federalism too complex a system for a poor country that lacks human andfinancial capacities and resources? As was the case in Sri Lanka, since the champions offederalism were groups that wanted autonomy, there has been insufficient focus on the sharedrule dimensions of federalism.

52. There is therefore in Nepal a consensus that Nepal will be a federal state and that identity andviability will be the bases for the demarcation of the provinces. Though the respective weightageto be given to these two criteria has prevented consensus on the details of the federal architecturefor the country, it is likely that a compromise will be reached and a centralized federal systemadopted in Nepal sometime next year.

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CONCLUSION

53. The introduction of a federal constitution to deal with societies that are multi-ethnic and plural incharacter is an option that has become increasingly popular around the world. It has provedeffective in dealing with the rise in the politics of recognition or identity based politics. The realityof politics in Asia suggests that identity and ethnicity cannot be merely wished away; nor can it besuppressed. While federalism may take different forms, the essence of the federal idea, promotingunity in diversity, celebrating difference but within a united whole, is a useful constitutional modelthat should be considered by constitution makers who have to design a constitution to respondeffectively to the political reality of their countries. This paper has attempted to capture many ofthe issues, challenges and design choices that constitution makers have to confront whenexploring federal arrangements particularly in the Asian context.

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Slide 1

CONSTITUTIONAL SYMPOSIUM - NaypyitawAccess to Laws – Publication of the law

Gaythri RamanHead of Rule of Law & Emerging Markets, Asia Pacific

3rd November 2014

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Access to Laws

LAWMAKING PUBLICATION OF LAW

Who?

• Parliament - legislation• Courts – case law

What?

• Clear set of laws that are easilyand freely accessible to all

Why?

• Benefit the people of Myanmarand the country

Rule of law cannot exist without a transparent legal system:

• Clear set of laws – peopleunderstand it

• Freely and easily accessible to all – people can find it and apply it

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Publication of Law – Why is it critical?

1. Foreign Investment Law• Informs all foreign investors

what they can do to invest in Myanmar and how to do so

2. Company Law• Guides local and foreign

businesses transactions

3. Farmland Law• Provides for ways in which

farmers can register theirinterest in cultivating land

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES

Why? • Promotes international trade• Facilitates in-flow of investment• Promotes economic growth• Creates small, medium and large

business enterprises• Increases earning capacity• Prevents land disputes• Informs the population• Reduces confusion

WHY

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Slide 4

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Publication of Laws – How?

Primary Law• Laws passed in Parliament and decisions in court are made available to all – transparent • All laws in clear, consumable format• Those who administer justice will know and understand• Those who practice law will use and apply• Every man on the street will know the law

Current• All revisions and amendments to laws are consolidated • We know which laws no longer apply and which laws are newly passed• We know where to find those laws• We know it is the most up-to-date and current version of the laws• We can access it at our fingertips – leverage technology• We have a choice of multiple formats

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Questions?

[email protected]

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Biographies Professor Sir Jeffrey Jowell QC KCMG is the Director of the Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law. He is also a practising lawyer at Blackstone Chambers. He is Emeritus Professor of Public Law at University College London (where he was twice Dean of the Law Faculty and a Vice Provost). He was knighted (KCMG) in the Queen’s Honours List 2011 “for services to human rights, democracy and the rule of law”. One of the UK’s leading public law scholars, he has authored numerous publications in the area of public law. He assisted with the 1994 and 1996 constitutions of South Africa and its Subsequent Administrative Justice statute and has acted as constitutional advisor to a number of national governments in the Commonwealth, Asia and currently, in the Middle East. From 2000 – 2011, he served as the UK’s member on the Council of Europe’s Commission for Democracy through Law (known as the ‘Venice Commission’) where he has assisted with the constitutions and public law of a number of European countries.

Naina Patel is Director of Education and Training at the Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law and a barrister specialising in public law and human rights at Blackstone Chambers in London. Naina has supervised a number of Bingham Centre projects including in Afghanistan, Bahrain and Libya and has most recently been involved in the Centre’s Myanmar work, attending a roundtable hosted by the Attorney General in May 2013, participating in training on constitutional awareness in November 2013 and co-authoring the Bingham Centre’s Working Paper 2014-01 Constitutional Reform in Myanmar: Priorities and Prospects for Amendment. In 2013, Naina assisted DFID. Between June 2010 and June 2011, Naina was Senior Justice Adviser to the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Helmand, Afghanistan and in 2008 she was awarded the Sydney Elland Goldsmith Bar Pro Bono Award for work on Access to Justice in Afghanistan (2008).

Alex Goodman is a research fellow at the Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law and a barrister specialising in constitutional and administrative law at Landmark Chambers in London. He has appeared in constitutional cases in the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and the European Court of Human Rights. He toured Myanmar in October-November 2013 conducting seminars as part of the national consultation on reform of the constitution. In October 2014 he undertook a scoping visit in Myanmar, meeting with the Attorney General and the Deputy Speaker. With Naina Patel he co-authored Constitutional Reform in Myanmar: Priorities and

Prospects for Amendment (2014) a Bingham Centre working paper.

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U Aung Soe is the senior Supreme Court advocate and Councillor of ASEAN Intellectual Property Association. He finished his degrees of B.A, R.L, D.B.L, D.M.L and D.I.L from Yangon University during his thirty five years as a lawyer. He attained a Diploma in International Intellectual Property Law and Diploma in International Business Organization from College of Law (U.K) in recent years. In October-November, 2013, he participated in the Bingham Centre’s bus tour relating to Constitutional Awareness across the whole of Myanmar (except Kayar State). On the other hand, he is also a well-known writer and film director. His pen name is Aung Soe Oo. He established Aung Soe & Ace Top Law Firm in 2000 and is currently running it as a CEO and Founder

Dr Marcus Brand is a senior legal and democratic governance expert. As a consultant with UNDP’s Asia Pacific Regional Centre (APRC) in Bangkok he has been the lead advisor on Myanmar with regards to rule of law, constitutionalism and justice sector reform. He is also a visiting Lecturer, Fellowship of Open Society Europe – at the University of Yangon. Prior to that, he served as senior constitutional advisor and policy specialist in UNDP’s to Constitution Building Support Programme in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Rohan Edrisinha teaches at the Faculty of Law, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka - specializing in Constitutional Law. He is also a founder, Director and Head of the Legal Division, Centre for Policy Alternatives, an independent public policy institute engaged in research and advocacy on conflict resolution, constitutional and law reform, human rights and governance related issues. LL.B University of Colombo; LL.M, University of California, Berkeley. Taught at the Faculty of Law, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa-1995. He was an unofficial advisor to the Chief Government negotiator, the Minister of Constitutional Affairs, during the peace talks between the Government of Sri Lanka and the LTTE in 2003/4 and attended the last 3 rounds of talks during that period. Recently worked on Nepal’s constitution for UNDP.

Dr Andrew McLeod is a Stipendiary Lecturer in Law at St John’s College, Oxford where he leads the Faculty of Law's engagement with Myanmar (Burma). Before coming to Oxford, Andrew was Lecturer in Constitutional Law at the University of Sydney and special advisor to the H C Coombs Policy Forum, a think tank established by the Australian Government at the Australian National University's Crawford School of Public Policy. He served as associate to the Chief Justice of Australia and has worked as a senior analyst and speechwriter within the Australian Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. He has particular expertise in executive power and constitutional transitions and has advised on constitutional reform processes in Africa and Asia.

Gaythri Raman is Head of Rule of Law and Emerging Markets for LexisNexis Asia Pacific. She is a lawyer by training. She has more than ten years’ experience in building capacity and competency for the legal profession and the justice sector across the Asian region. Gaythri is an expert in using social media to engender debate and change and loves combining technology and innovation to find solutions to the challenges we face today.

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Documents

Bingham Centre Myanmar Project€¦ · Bingham Centre Myanmar Project . Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law . October - November 2014