Bridging the Research-Practice Gap: Teacher Preparation and Evidence-based Education

Bridging the Research-Practice Gap: Teacher Preparation and Evidence-based Education

Ronnie DetrichWing Institute

Goals for Today

• Discuss basic characteristics and processes of evidence-based education.

• Review the legal and ethical basis for evidence-based education.

• Highlight issues for higher education.

October 1957

USSR launched Sputnik.

U. S. Education quickly blamed.

Modern reform efforts began.

1983 A Nation at Risk

American students not performing well.

Education quickly blamed.

The Nations Report Card created.

1994 Goals 2000

All students will start school ready to learn.

High school graduation rate ≥ 90%.

All students in grades 4, 8, & 12 will demonstrate competency in challenging subjects.

2001 No Child Left Behind

By 2014 every student will be at grade level.

Instructional methods will be scientifically based.

Educators will be held accountable for outcomes.

Everybody’s Talking

• Teacher accountability often offered as solution for education troubles.

• Numerous proposals to pay and evaluate teachers based on student performance.o Proposals usually linked to performance on high stakes

tests.

Function of Accountability Systems

• Assure that all students are benefitting from educational services.

• Student performance primary source of feedback to educators about effects of interventions.

Scope of the Problem

Research to Practice• Gap concern in many

disciplines.• Education is not excluded.• Scientist/Practitioner model

aimed to close the gap.

Gap or Chasm?

James Lancaster first experiment demonstrating how to prevent scurvy.

1601

John Lind again experimentally demonstrated the effectiveness of citrus in preventing scurvy.

1747 1795

British Navy adopted policy to have citrus on all ships in the Royal Navy.

Scurvy in the British Royal Navy:An Example of the Research to Practice Gap

Research to Practice Issues

• The lag time from efficacy research to effectiveness research to dissemination is 10-20 years. (Hoagwood, Burns & Weisz, 2002)

• Only 4 of 10 Blueprint Violence Prevention programs had the capacity to disseminate to 10+ sites in a year. (Elliott & Mihalic, 2004)

How Big is the Gap?

550 named interventions for children and adolescents

BehavioralCognitive-behavioral

Empirically evaluated

Evidence-based interventions are less likely to be used than interventions for which there is no evidence or there is evidence about lack of impact.

Kazdin (2000)

Goals for Evidence-based Practice in Education

• At its core the EBP movement is a consumer protection movement.o It is not about science per se.o It is a policy to use science for the benefit of

consumers.o “The ultimate goal of the ‘evidence-based movement’

is to make better use of research findings in typical service settings, to benefit consumers and society….” (Fixsen, 2008)

How is Education to Increase the Use of Evidence-based Practices?

• No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requires that interventions used to improve educational performance are based on scientific research.o In NCLB there are over 100 references to scientific

research.

• Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act [IDEIA] (2004) requires interventions that are scientifically based instructional practices.


• Specific requirements of IDEIA include:o Pre-service and professional development for all who

work with students with disabilities to ensure such personnel have the skills and knowledge necessary to improve the academic achievement and functional performance of children with disabilities, including the use of scientifically based instructional practices, to the maximum extent possible.


• Scientifically based early reading programs, positive behavioral interventions and supports, and early intervention services to reduce the need to label children as disabled in order to address the learning and behavioral needs of such children.


• The Individualized Education Program (IEP) shall include a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services, based on peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a statement of the program modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided for the child.


• In determining if a child has a specific learning disability, a local education agency may use a process that determines if a child responds to a scientific, research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures.

The Ethical Basis

• Most national psychological and educational organizations have ethical standards requiring science-based practices to address problems.o American Psychological Association Ethical Standard 2.04:

Psychologists’ work is based on the established scientific and professional knowledge of the discipline.

The Ethical Basis

• National Association of School Psychologistso Standard III F 4.

School psychology faculty members and clinical or field supervisors uphold recognized standards of the profession by providing training related to high quality, responsible, and research-based school psychology services.

The Ethical Basis

• National Association of School Psychologistso Standard IV 4.

School psychologists use assessment techniques, counseling and therapy procedures, consultation techniques, and other direct and indirect service methods that the profession considers to be responsible, research-based practice.

The Ethical Basis

• Behavior Analyst Certification Boardo Standard 2.09a

The behavior analyst always has the responsibility to recommend scientifically supported, most effective treatment procedures. Effective treatment procedures have been validated as having both long-term and short-term benefits to clients and society.

o Standard 2.09bClients have a right to effective treatment (i.e., based on the

research literature and adapted to the individual client).

Another Ethical Responsibility

• Education services are largely funded through public dollars (taxpayers dollars).

• There is an implicit assumption that the money will be spent for the public good.

• A fiduciary responsibility exists when one person or organization is charged with managing another person’s money.

Another Ethical Responsibility

• The primary responsibility of a fiduciary is to act solely for the benefit of the other party.

• Being a fiduciary carries the weight of ethical conduct.

• Those of us charged with providing education services have a fiduciary responsibility to assure that the taxpayers are receiving the greatest possible return on their investment.

How Do We Meet Our Fiduciary Responsibility?

• Interventions that have an evidence base are more likely to produce positive effects for students.o Does not assure positive outcomes but increases the

probability.

How Do We Meet our Fiduciary Responsibility?

• The impact of a non-evidence based intervention is unknown.o Using a non-evidence-based intervention when

evidence-based interventions available may constitute unethical practice.

o Use a non-evidence based intervention should be considered research All of the safe-guards afforded research participants and their

families should be in place.o Conducting research with tax-dollars provided for

education services may constitute a violation of our fiduciary responsibility.

Becoming Evidence-based

• Clearly, the intent of Congress, the U.S. Department of Education, and Office of Special Education Programs is to rely on interventions that have a scientific basis.

• Professional organizations place great value on scientific knowledge.

• What does it mean to be evidence-based?

What is Evidence-based Practice?

• Evidence-based practice has its roots in medicine.o Movement has spread across major disciplines in

human services:PsychologySchool PsychologySocial WorkSpeech PathologyOccupational Therapy

What Is Evidence-based Practice?

• EBP is a decision-making approach that places emphasis on evidence to:o guide decisions about which interventions to use;o evaluate the effects of an intervention.

Professional Judgment

Best available evidence

Client Values

Sackett et al (2000)

Professional Professional JudgmentJudgmentBest Available EvidenceBest Available EvidenceClient Client

ValuesValues

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Evidence-basedEvidence-based

InterventionIntervention

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Phases of Evidence-based Intervention

What is Evidence-based Education?

• The term “evidence-based” has become ubiquitous in last decade.o Often used interchangeably with empirically supported

and best practice.o No consensus about what it means.o At issue is what counts as evidence.o Federal definition emphasizes experimental methods.

Preference for randomized trials.Definition has been criticized as being positivistic.

IdentifyIdentify

What Counts as Evidence?

• Ultimately, this depends on the question being asked.o Qualitative methods are best for answering social

validity questions.

• In EBP the goal is to identify causal relations between interventions and outcomes.o Experimental methods do this best.

IdentifyIdentify

What Counts as Evidence?

• Even if we accept causal demonstrations to be evidence, we have no consensus.o Randomized Clinical Trials (RCT) have become the

“gold standard.”o There is controversy about the status of single subject

designs.Most frequently criticized on the basis of external validity. WWC has recently established standards for SSDs .

No well established method for calculating effect sizes.

IdentifyIdentify

Distinguishing Between Evidence-based and Empirically Supported

• Evidence-based refers to practices that have been validated through a systematic review.o Can involve meta-analysis.o WWC reviews are systematic reviews.

• Empirically supported refers to practices that have received support in peer reviewed journals.o Have not been systematically reviewed to establish

strength of evidence.

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Applying Best Available Evidence Construct

• If validated intervention available adopt it.o Assuming it is appropriate to context.

• If no validated intervention select empirically-supported intervention.

• If no empirically-supported interventions develop intervention based on principles.o Principles of scientific reading.o Principles of behavior.

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Applying EBP Framework

• Professional judgment involved at all levels of selection an intervention.

• Interventions must fit competencies of those implementing.

• Interventions must be acceptable to consumers and fit values.

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How Are Evidence-based Interventions Identified?

• Identification is more than finding a study to support an intervention.

• Identification involves distilling a body of knowledge to determine the strength of evidence.

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• Distillation requires standards of evidence for reviewing the literature.o Standards specify:

the quantity of evidence the quality of evidence

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Continua of Evidence

Quality of the Evidence

Personal Observation

Expert Opinion

Current “Gold Standard”High Quality

Randomized Controlled Trial

Uncontrolled Studies

General Consensus

Single Case Designs

Semi-Randomized Trials

Well-conducted Clinical Studies

Quantity of the Evidence

Janet Twyman, 2007

Meta-analysis (systematic review)

Single Case Replication (Direct and Parametric)

Single Study

Various Investigations

Repeated Systematic Measures

Convergent Evidence Threshold of Evidence

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• Two approaches to validating interventionso Threshold approach:

Evidence must be of a specific quantity and quality before an intervention is considered evidence-based.

What Works Clearinghouse» Meets evidence standards. » Meets evidence standards with reservations.» Does not meet standards at this time.

o Hierarchy of evidence approach: Strength of evidence falls along a continuum with each level

having differential standards. National Autism Center

» Established» Emerging» Unestablished» Ineffective/Harmful

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Evidence-based InterventionEvidence-based InterventionEvidence-based InterventionEvidence-based Intervention

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No Agreed upon Standards

How are consumers to decide?

Validated Not Validated

Standard 1

Standard 2

Intervention X

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Most likely with hierarchy approach

Most likely with threshold approach

Effective IneffectiveEff

ectiv

eIn

effec

tive

True

Positive

True

Negative

False

Positive

False

NegativeAsse

ssed

As

sess

ed

Effec

tiven

ess

Effec

tiven

ess

Actual EffectivenessActual Effectiveness

Effective IneffectiveIn

effec

tive

Effec

tive

IdentifyIdentify

Choosing Between False Positives and False Negatives

• At this stage, it is better to have more false positives than false negatives.

False Negatives:Effective interventions will not be selected for implementation.

As a consequence, less likely to determine that they are actually effective.

False Positives: Progress monitoring will identify interventions that are not effective.

IdentifyIdentify

Role of Higher Ed in Identifying Evidence-based Practices

• Conduct systematic reviews to identify effective practices.o Multiple organizations are have processes for validating

interventions. What Works Clearinghouse Best Evidence Encyclopedia Campbell Collaboration Center for Evidence-based Policy National Autism Center Promising Practices Network CEC developing standards for review.

Role of Higher Ed in Identifying Evidence-based Practices

• Independent reviews for journals:o Evidence-based Communication Assessment and

Interventiono Browder, et al., 2006: Research on Reading Instruction for

Individuals with Significant Cognitive Disabilities, Exceptional Children.

• Expand dissemination efforts.o Specify “audience.”

Different audiences may require different methods.o Expand methods.

Diffusion of InnovationRogers, Diffusion of Innovation, 2003

• Diffusion of innovation is a social process, even more than a technical matter.

• The adoption rate of innovation is a function of its compatibility with the values, beliefs, and past experiences of the individuals in the social system.

Principles for Effective Diffusion:Improving the Odds (Rogers, 2003)

• Innovation has to solve a problem that is important for the “client.”

• Innovation must have relative advantage over current practice.

• It is necessary to gain support of the opinion leaders if adoption is to reach critical mass and become self-sustaining.

• Innovation must be compatible with existing values, experiences and needs of the community.

Principles of Effective Diffusion:Improving the Odds

• Innovation is perceived as being simple to understand and implement.

• Innovation can be implemented on a limited basis prior to broad scale adoption.

• Results of the innovation are observable to others.

Q & A

Implementation: Bridging the Research-Practice Gap

• Is identifying evidence-based interventions sufficient to meet regulatory and ethical requirements?o Intent of both legal and ethical guidelines is to have

positive impact.Evidence-based interventions are assumed to give to give us

that chance.

• Identification is necessary but not sufficient to assure that intervention will be effective.

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What We Know

• Teachers are primary means of exposure to interventions.

• Students will not benefit from effective practices if they are not exposed to them.

• Data suggest that preparation programs are not preparing trainees to use evidence-based practices.

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What Are Universities Teaching What Are Universities Teaching About Formative Assessment?About Formative Assessment?

Response to Intervention and Teacher Preparation, Spear-Swerling, 2008

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Are We Training Educators to Know What to Do?

Survey of School Psychology Directors of Training

29%

Evidence-based interventions

Knowledge

(Shernoff, Kratochwill, & Stoiber, 2003)

Training41% programs

directors

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Teacher Preparation Programs Under Scrutiny

By almost any standard, many if not most of the nation's 1,450 schools, colleges, and departments of education are doing a mediocre job of preparing teachers for the realities of the 21st century classroom.

Arne Duncan, Secretary of Education

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Teacher education is the Dodge City of the education world…it is unruly and disordered. There is no standard approach to where and how teachers should be prepared.

Levine, 2006


The nation’s leading educators concede that there is presently very little empirical evidence to support the methods used to prepare the nation’s teachers

Walsh, 2006

Is this really our choice?


• National Council on Teacher Quality reviewing all 1400+ teacher preparation programs in U.S.o Graded on 17 standards.

Classroom management Instructional Practices in reading, math, and ELL. Field work experience. Assessment practices. Instructional Design

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Scientific Methods of Instruction

Assessment and Data Interpretation

Scientific Basis of Early Reading

University Accountability

Implementation: Where Good Interventions Go to Die

• Implementation is not important unless it is done with integrity.

• Evidence-based drug education programs are implemented with integrity only 19% of the time. (Hallfors & Godette, 2002)o This may be a generous estimate.o No reason to assume that other interventions fare better.

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Why Treatment Integrity is Important?

• Kovaleski, Gickling, Morrow, & Swank (1999)o Evaluated high vs low implementation of Instructional

Support Teams (IST).School-wide organizational change.Students benefited from IST processes only when implemented

with high fidelity. Implementing with low fidelity resulted in no better outcomes for

students than control group not exposed to IST processes.Having structures in place was not sufficient to assure high fidelity.Fidelity assessed one time per year.

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Why Treatment Integrity is Important?

• Horner (2005)o Effect of high fidelity vs low fidelity on office discipline

referrals.Schools that implemented with high fidelity had 25% fewer

office referrals for major rule violations than schools that did not meet fidelity criterion.

Fidelity measures taken 2 times per year.

• If we want to increase the integrity of implementation we need a different training model.

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OUTCOMES

(% of Participants who demonstrate knowledge, demonstrate new skills in a training setting,

and use new skills in the classroom)

TRAININGCOMPONENTS

Knowledge SkillDemonstration

Use in the Classroom

Theory and Discussion

10%

5% 0%

..+Demonstration in Training 30% 20% 0%

…+ Practice & Feedback in Training

60% 60% 5%

…+ Coaching in Classroom 95% 95% 95%

Joyce and Showers, 2002

Effects of Training

Mortenson & Witt, 1998

Challenges for Teacher Preparation Programs

• Adoption or adaptation?o Must we implement exactly as prescribed or can we

adjust to fit local circumstances?

• Research suggests that programs are almost always adapted.

• Presumably adapted to improve outcomes.o Some adaptation for other reasons:

Better fit teaching style.Do not like some elements of program.

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Challenges for Teacher Preparation Programs

• If adapted is program still research-based?o If teacher’s allowed to adapt then program more

acceptable.o Teacher’s made better adaptation of reading programs if

they were well grounded in principles. (Klingner, Vaughn, Hughes, & Arguellas, 1999).

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Challenges for Teacher Preparation

• Teach principles of instruction or teach specific methods of instruction.o Principles of reading: 5 elements of scientifically based

instruction.Reading Mastery contains all elements.

o Not all schools use Reading Mastery. If train to Reading Mastery then may not be skilled at

implementing other reading programs. Principles are always expressed as part of a package.

Not all packages created equally. There are more reading programs than is feasible to teach to pre-

service teachers.

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Challenges for Teacher Preparation

• If emphasize specific curricula:o May not be able to adapt because do not have principles

of instruction to guide decision making.

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Training Methods for New Teachers

• How do we increase generalization from pre-service to classroom?o Clinical training Model gaining traction.

Will require reorganization of much of training and field work experience.

How skills are taught at pre-service level. How mentors interact with trainees. How mentors are selected. How competencies of mentors are defined and evaluated. Length of training?

Additional Training Content: Seven Questions Parents Should Ask and Why They Are Important

1. What is the evidence-base for this intervention?o What is known about the effects for children like mine?o What is known about effects in settings like this?

Seven Questions Parents Should Ask and Why They Are Important

2. What are the other options?

• Both Picture Exchange Communication System and Sign Language are evidence-based for non-verbal children with developmental disabilities.o Usually practitioners recommend one without discussing

options.


3. Why is this intervention being recommended?

• A good answer describes how the recommended intervention is a good fit for a particular child.o A less desirable answer is anything that does not describe

how it is the best match for this child.


4. What are the risks?• All interventions have risks.

o A good answer reflects that risks have been considered and steps taken to minimize when possible.

o Both PECS and Sign Language have risks: PECS requires the child always have access to the communication

system which can be difficult to transport. Sign language requires a community of others who sign.


5. Do those responsible for implementing have the necessary training, skills, and knowledge to implement with adequate levels of treatment integrity?


6. Are the resources available to implement with adequate levels of treatment integrity?

• Most commonly cited reasons for failing to implement with integrity:o Lack of trainingo Lack of materialso Lack of time


7. How will the effectiveness of the intervention be evaluated?o How will the family be kept informed about effects?o When shall we meet again to review progress?

Evaluation of Intervention

Evaluating Evidence-based InterventionsProgress Monitoring

• Implementation of evidence-based intervention does not assure success.o Necessary to evaluate impact in local context.

No intervention will be effective for all students.Cannot predict who will benefit.

o Progress monitoring is practice-based evidence about evidence-based practices.

o Consistent with legal requirements and ethical standards.

EvaluateEvaluate

Ethical Standards and Progress Monitoring

• National Association of School Psychologistso Standard IV C 1b.

Decision-making related to assessment and subsequent interventions is primarily data-based.

o Standard IV 6.School psychologists develop interventions that are appropriate to

the presenting problems and are consistent with the data collected. They modify or terminate the treatment plan when the data indicate the plan is not achieving the desired goals.

EvaluateEvaluate

Ethical Standards and Progress Monitoring

• Behavior Analysis Certification Boardo Standard 4.04

The behavior analyst collects data or asks the client, client-surrogate, or designated other to collect data needed to assess progress within the program.

o Standard 4.05The behavior analyst modifies the program on the basis of data.

EvaluateEvaluate

• Fundamental to IEP process.o Must report on same schedule that grades are reported in

general education.• Response to Intervention is accepted as alternative

means for determining eligibility for Learning Disability classification.o Progress monitoring is the heart of RTI.

All students routinely and systematically monitored to assure adequate progress is occurring.

Legal Requirements for Progress MonitoringEvaluateEvaluate

Why Teach Progress Monitoring?

• Progress monitoring 2-5/week in math and reading:o 4 times as effective as 10% increase in per pupil spending;o 6 times as effective as voucher programs;o 64 times as effective as charter schools;o 6 times as effective as increased accountability.

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Yeh (2007)

Why Teach Formative Assessment?

Hattie, Visible Learning, 2009 Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986

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Evaluating Evidence-based Interventions

• Curriculum based measurement is a powerful means for evaluating impact of academic interventions.o Scores on CBM correlated with scores on high stakes test.

Can be used to predict how students will perform on state-wide tests.

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Evidence-based Education, Progress Monitoring and Treatment Integrity

• Student data provides feedback about progress.• If we know about adequacy of treatment integrity

then can make decisions:o Adequacy of interventiono Adequacy of implementation

If implementation is inadequate then focus should be on improving educator behavior.

If implementation is adequate then focus should be on changing intervention so student can succeed.

Decisions can be made about increasing or decreasing intensity of intervention.

EvaluateEvaluate

Grade Level Standard

Aim Line

Trend Line

Visual Aids Can Enhance Data Interpretation

Positive NegativeHi

ghLo

w

Continue Intervention Change Intervention

Unknown reason Unknown reason• Intervention problem?

• Implementation problem?

• Other life changes?

• Unknown intervention?

• Intervention is effective?

OutcomeIn

tegr

ityPositive Negative

High

Low

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Where are We?

• Being evidence-based is the law and it is ethical conduct; however, it is not as easy as it sounds.

• A common definition of evidence protects consumers.

• The research to practice gap limits the impact of evidence-based education.o The science of implementation is in its infancy.

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Where are We?

• Pre-service training should change to reflect current policy.o Current methods are not producing desired outcomes.o Changes in both method of training and content.

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Thank You

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Bridging the Research-Practice Gap: Teacher Preparation and Evidence-based Education