B'Tselem - Housing and Land Confisc Ation in East Jerusalem

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J e r u s a l e m , J a n u a ry 1 9 9 7

A P O L I C Y O F D I S C R I M I N A T I O NLAND EXPROPRIATION. PLANNING A N D BUILDING

IN EAST JERUSALEM

! / B T S E L E M

F ii e i s r a e l i I n f o r m a t i o n ( e n t e r t o r H u m a n R i y l n si n t h e O c c u p i e d T e r r i t o r i e s


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J e r u s a l e m , J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7

A POLICY OF DISCRIMINATIONL A N D E X P R O P R I A T I O N , P L A N N I N G A N D B U I L D IN G

IN E A S T J E R U S A L E M

1 / B ' T S E L E MT he I s ra e li I n fo r m a t i o n C e nte r fo r H um a n R i g h t sin the Oc c up i e d T e r r i to r i e s


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T h i s r e p o r t w a s p r e s e n t e d a t a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e h e l d o n 1 4 M a y 1 9 9 5 ,a n d it s f i n d i n g s a r e c u r r e n t t o t h a t d a t e . U p d a t e d d a t a r e g a r d i n gh o u s i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d h o u s i n g d e n s i t y m a y b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i xN o . 4 .

/ B'TSELEM( .)

93141 ,43 02/5610756 ,02/5617271

B 'TSELEM The Israeli Information Center forHu ma n Rights in the O c c u p ie d Terr ito ries43 Em ek Refa im S t . , J e rusa l em 93141

Te l . 02 /5617271 , Fax . 02 /5610756jVI Jl-^VI 1_rL!lljVI oL.j l i i l

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e-mai l : b t s e l e m @ a c t c o m . c o . i lh t t p : / /w w w .b t se l em .o rgB'Tselem Report No. 15

ISSN 0793-520X
mailto:[email protected]://www.btselem.org/http://www.btselem.org/mailto:[email protected]


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

S u m m a r y 9I n tr o duc t i o n 13P a r t O n e - B a c k g r o u n d

A. His tor ica l Bac kgro und 17B . Lega l S ta tus of Eas t Je ru sa le m 2 0C . I n t e r na t iona l La w 2 5

P a r t T w o - F i n d i n g sA. Da ta 3 1B. Policy 4 4C . Land Exp ropr ia t ion 5 5D . T o w n P l a n n in g S c h e m e s 7 1 E . Tow n P la nn ing S c h e m e f o r B e t Ha n ina a nd S hu ' a f a t 8 4F . Te s t im on ies of Eas t Je ru sa le m Residen ts 9 2

C o n c l u s i o n s 99R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s 101A p p e n d i x e s

Ap pen dix No. 1 : Pop ula t ion of Je ru sa le m , by Na t iona l i ty , in 107S e le c t e d Ye a r sAp pen dix No. 2 : Exist ing Ho using Uni ts in Eas t Je ru sa le m , 10 8by Nat iona l i ty and Ne ighborhood,F e b r u a r y , 1 9 9 5Ap pen dix No. 3 : R esp on se of the Je ru sa le m Munic ipa li ty 11 0Ap pen dix No. 4 : P lanning and Build ing in Eas t Je ru sa lem - 11 1U p d a t e d D a t a

B i b l i o g r a phy 113


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L i s t o f F i g u r e sFigure No . 1 : Cu r rent Munic ipa l Bo und ar ies of Je ru sa lem 18

a c c o r d ing to p r e - 1967 La nd De s igna t ion( P e r c e n t a g e s )F igure No . 2 : Inc rease in Pop ula t ion and Ho using Uni ts in 3 4J e r u s a l e m , b y N a t io n a li ty . 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 9 3( P e r c e n t a g e s )F igure No. 3 : Res ident ial Con st ruc t io n Co m ple ted in 3 5J e r u s a l e m , b y N a t io n a li ty . 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 3(Number of Housing Uni ts )F igure No. 4 : Res ident ial Co nst ru c t ion Co m ple ted in 37

Je r usa l e m , by Na t iona l i t y a nd Ar e a . 1967-1 9 9 5 ( P e r c e n t a g e s )L i s t o f T a b l e s

Table No. 1 : Ho using Uni ts Buil t, by Na t iona l i ty , 19 67 - 3 31 9 9 5Tab le No. 2: Po pul at ion and Residentia l Building Ar ea in 3 9J e r u s a l e m , 1 9 9 3Table No. 3 : G ap in Av erage Ho using Den si ty pe r 3 9Room in Je rusa lem, by Na t iona l i ty , inS e le c t e d Ye a r sTab le No: 4: N um ber of Families l iving in Ho usin g 4 0Densi ty of Three or More Persons pe rR oo m , by Na t iona li t y . 19 72 , 1 9 9 3Table No. 5 : G ap in Hou sing Densi ty in Je ru sa lem , by 4 1Nat iona l i ty , in Se lec ted Years (Percentageof Households l iving in Housing Density of

T h r e e o r m o r e P e r s o n s p e r R o o m )Table No. 6 : Su m m ary of Land Ex pro pr ia t io ns for Public 5 6P ur pose s unde r the La nds Or d ina nc eTable No. 7 : Pop ula t ion and Hou sing Uni ts on Land s 5 9Expr op r i a t e d f o r P ub li c P u r po se s

11M a p

Land in Eas t Je ru sa lem . 19 94


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"I do n' t w an t to give th em a feel ing of equa li ty. I kn ow tha t w eca nn ot g ive the m a fee l ing of equa l i ty . But I w an t , h e r e an dthere , where i t doesn ' t cos t us too much, and where i t i s on ly aninve s tm e n t o f m one y o r som e th ing , t o g ive the m ne ve r the l e s s afeel ing tha t the y can live here . If I do n ot give th em this fee l ing,we wil l suffer ."T e d d y Kollek. Mun icipal Council Meeting27 December 1987

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S U M M A R Y1 . S i n c e t h e a n n e x a t i o n o f E a s t J e r u s a l e m i n 1 9 6 7 , t h e I sr ae lig o v e r n m e n t h a s a d o p t e d a p o l i c y o f s y s t e m a t i c a n d d e l i b e r a t ed i sc r im ina t ion a ga ins t t he P a le s t in i a n p op u la t ion in Je r us a l e m in a llma t te r s re la t ing to land expropr ia t ion , p lanning , and bui ld ing .2 . Exa m ina t ion o f m un ic ipa l doc um e n t s a nd s t a t e m e n t s m a de by c i typ o l i c y m a k e r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t J e r u s a l e m ' s u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t i s b a s e d ,f ir s t and fo rem os t , on na t iona l -pol i t ica l con s ide ra t ion s . On e cen t ra l goa lha s d i c t a t e d m un ic ipa l p l a nn ing po l i c y : t o c r e a t e a de m ogr a ph ic a ndg e o g r a p h i c r e a li ty t h a t will p r e e m p t a n y f u t u r e e f f o r t t o c h a l l e n g eIsrae l i sovere ignty in Eas t Je rusa lem.3 . T h e I sr a el i a u t h o r i t i e s p r o m o t e e x t e n s i v e b u i ld i n g f o r J e w i s hn e i g h b o r h o o d s , a t a n e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t , i n t h e a n n e x e d a r e a . A tthe same t ime , by the i r ac ts and omiss ions , the I s rae l i au thor i t ie s choked e v e l o p m e n t a n d b ui ld i n g f o r t h e P a l e s t in i a n p o p u l a t i o n , w h o a r eperce ived as a "demographic threa t" to I s rae l i cont ro l of the c i ty .4 . The m e a ns to e nsu r e de m ogr a ph ic c on t r o l i nc lude , inter alia:

a . La nd Exp r opr i a t ion : m os t o f t he l a nds e xp r op r i a t e d s inc e 1 96 7w e r e p r i v at e ly o w n e d b y A r a b s . S o m e 3 8 , 5 0 0 h o u s i n g u n i t swere bui l t on th is land for the Jewish popula t ion , but not onehousing uni t for Pa les t in ians .b . T o w n P l a n n i n g S c h e m e s : t h e p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i t i e s u t i l i z e d t h et o w n p l a n n i n g s c h e m e s t o r e s t r i c t d e v e l o p m e n t o f P a l e s t i n i a nn e i g h b o r h o o d s , li m it t h e a r e a d e s i g n a t e d f o r P a l e s t i n i a nc ons t r u c t ion , a nd r e in f o r c e Je wish c on t r o l t h r ou gho u t t he c i ty .

5 . T h i s p o l ic y s e v e r e l y a f f e c t s t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e f a c i n g t h eP a le s t in i a n popu la t ion , wh ic h c u r r e n t ly c ons t i t u t e s a bou t 28 pe r c e n t o fthe c i ty ' s popula t ion .

a . C o n s t r u c t i o n : S o m e 6 4 .8 7 0 dwe l l ings , c ons t i t u t ing so m e 8 8 pe r c e n t of allh o u s i n g u n i t s , b u il t s i n c e 1 9 6 7 w e r e f o r t h e J e w i s hpopula t ion (about one-ha l f of them by publ ic cons t ruc t ion) . S o m e 8 ,8 9 0 dwe l l ings , c ons t i t u t ing so m e 12 pe r c e n t of a llt he hous ing un i t s , we r e bu i l t f o r t he P a le s t in i a n popu la t ion( the la rge major i ty by pr iva te cons t ruc t ion) .

S ince 1990, the d ispar i ty in the scope of cons t ruc t ion for thet w o p o p u l a t i o n s c o n t i n u e s t o w i d e n .

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b . Hous ing De ns i ty :At the end of 1993, the average hous ing dens i ty of the Jewishp o p u l a t i o n w a s 1 . 1 p e r s o n s p e r r o o m , w h e r e a s t h e a v e r a g ehous in g de ns i ty f o r t he P a le st in i a n popu la t ion wa s 2 .2 pe r so nspe r roo m . Th is g ap i s twice as la rge as th e ga p in h ous ingdens i ty tha t ex is ted in 1967.

c . Hous ing Ne e ds :P lanners and a rchi tec ts exper t in p lanning the c i ty ' s Pa les t in iann e i g h b o r h o o d s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e a m o n g t h eP a le s t in i a n popu la t ion e xc e e ds 20 ,000 hous ing un i t s .

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L A N D IN E A S T J E R U S A L E M , 1 99 4

LegendMunicipal boundaries

h Exprop riated landPalestinian neighborhoods1967 Green Line

# Proposed expropriations Area without town planning scheme,construction prohibited

0 5 10Km k' ' ' ' ! N

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I N T R O D U C T I O NThis repor t addresses p lanning and bui ld ing pol ic ies in Eas t Je rusa lemsince it w as ann ex ed by Israel in 1 9 6 7 , and th e effects of the se polic ieson the human r ights of the Pa les t in ian res idents of Eas t Je rusa lem.T he r e po r t is ba se d on o f f i c i a l do c u m e n t s of t he m un ic ipa l i t y a n dgove r nm e n t m in i s t r i e s , m inu te s o f m e e t ings o f t he M un ic ipa l C ounc i l ,e x a m i n a t i o n o f t o w n p l a n n i n g s c h e m e s , a n d fi el d w o r k . T h e r e p o r tinc lude s c om pa r a t ive da t a on the Je w ish a nd P a le s t in i a n p op u la t ion swi th r e spe c t t o l a nd e xp r op r i a t ion , s c ope o f c ons t r uc t ion , a nd hous ingde ns i ty .Th e right to ade qu a te ho us ing i s a fun dam ent a l hu m an r ight , secured ina r ti c l e 11 ( 1 ) of t he I n t e r na t ion a l C o ve n a n t o n Ec on om ic , S oc ia l a ndCultura l Rights , which Israel has ra t if ied, as fol lows:

The S ta t e s P a r t i e s t o the p r e se n t C ove na n t r e c ogn iz e the r igh tof everyone to an adequate standard of l iving for himself and hisfami ly , inc luding adequa te food, c lo th ing and hous ing , and to thec on t inuo us im p r ov e m e n t of l iv ing c ond i t ion s . The S ta t e s P a r t i e swi l l take appropr ia te s teps to ensure the rea l iza t ion of th is r ight ,recogniz ing to th is e f fec t the essent ia l impor tance of in te rna t iona lc oope r a t ion ba se d on f r e e c onse n t .

Israel is a lso oblig ated to resp ec t the fun da m en tal pr inciple of equali ty.Under ar t ic le 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of AllFo rm s of Rac ial Disc r imin a t ion , to which I s rae l i s a s igna tory , "S ta tesPar t ies under take to prohibit and to e l iminate racia l discr imination in a l li t s forms." One of the forms ment ioned , in a r t ic le 5(e ) ( i i i ) , i s theprohibit ion of discr imination as regards " the r ight to housing." 1T h i s r e p o r t e x a m i n e s I s r ae l 's c o m p l i a n c e w i t h i ts i n t e r n a t i o n a lo b l i g a t i o n s to e n s u r e a d e q u a t e h o u s i n g f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n of E a s tJe r u sa l e m a nd to r e f r a in f r om d i sc r im ina t ion be twe e n the Je w ish a n dP a le s t in i a n popu la t ions . I n th i s c on te x t , s e ve r a l que s t ions w i l l bee x a m i n e d : T o w h a t d e g r e e d o e s t h e w i d e s p r e a d e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f l a nd f o r"public purposes" actual ly serve the entire public?1 . T h e U . N . c o m m i t t e e o v e r s e e i n g c o m p l i a n c e w i th t h is c o n v e n t i o n h a sf requent ly he ld tha t the convent ion ' s provi s ions apply to the t er r i tor i es occupiedin 19 67 . See , fo r exa mp l e . Concluding Observation of the U.N. Com mittee onthe Elimination of Racial Discrimination Concerning Israel, i s sued a t theC o m m i t t e e ' s 4 5 t h s e s s i o n , A u g u s t , 1 9 9 4 , U . N . D o c u m e n t n o . C E R D / C / 4 5 /misc . , 14 Rev. 1.

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T o w h a t d e g r e e d o t o w n p l a n n i n g s c h e m e s in t h e P a l e s t i n i a nne ighbor hoods m e e t t he ne e ds o f t he i r r e s ide n t s? To wha t de g r e e ha ve the I sr a el i a u tho r i t i e s a c t e d to r e du c e thedispar i ty be tween the Pa les t in ian and Jewish popula t ions in hous ingdens i ty , hous ing condi t ions , and inf ras t ruc ture?The report does not deal with several subjects that are indirect ly re la tedto p lanning and bui ld ing in Eas t Je rusa lem: C u s t o d i a n of A b a n d o n e d P r o p e r t i e s : In S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 9 2 , a ni n t e rm i n i s t e r ia l g o v e r n m e n t a l c o m m i t t e e , h e a d e d b y t h e d i r e c t o rg e n e r a l o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e , a t t o r n e y H a i m K l u g m a n ,publ ished a repor t which found tha t the ins t i tu t ion of the Custodian

of A b a n d o n e d P r o p e r t i e s s e r v e d a s a m e a n s t o d i s p o s s e s sPalest inians of their land and proper ty. 2 M un ic ipa l S e r v ic e s : Ov e r the ye a r s , t he Je r us a l e m M unic ipa l i t ya l loca ted only so m e 10 pe r ce nt of i ts bu dge t for se rv ices to i tsP a le s t in i a n r e s ide n t s , who c om pr i se som e 30 pe r c e n t o f t he c i ty ' spop ula t i on , and fa iled to es tab l i sh an inf ras t ruc tu re suf f icien t to me e tthe i r ne e ds . 3Un der in te rn a t io na l law, Eas t Je ru sa lem is occ upi ed te r r i tory , and i tssta tus is the same as that of the rest of the West Bank. Accordingly, thisreport wil l examine, within the context of international law, the legali tyof the acts and polic ies of the Israel i author i t ies in East Jerusalem in thearea of planning and building. Since Israel i law is being applied de factoi n Ea s t J e r usa l e m , th i s r e po r t w i l l a l so e xa m ine the se a c t ions a ndpolicies in terms of Israeli law.Note : The cus tomary te rm "Eas t Je rusa lem" or " the eas te rn pa r t of thec ity" for the a rea an ne xe d in 1 9 6 7 is mis leading s ince mo re than 9 0percent of the a rea annexed to the wes te rn pa r t of the c i ty was outs idethe m un ic ipa l bo r de r s o f Jo r da n ia n Je r usa l e m . The use o f t he t e r m"East Jerusalem" for the Palest inian vi l lages that l ie outside the c i ty 'sboundar ies has c lea r pol i t ica l impl ica t ions . Never the less , a s the te rm" E a s t J e r u s a l e m " h a s b e c o m e e m b e d d e d i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o feveryone involved as re fe r r ing to a l l the annexed a reas , tha t i s the te rmused in this repor t .2. Th e orga niza t ion I rShaiem pet i t ione d the High Co ur t of Jus t i ce to d i r ec t theg o v e r n m e n t t o i m p l e m e n t t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e K l u g m a n R e p o r t , w h i c ht h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d a d o p t e d b u t n o t i m p l e m e n t e d . S e e H C J 2 1 7 9 / 9 5 , IrShaiemJerusalem us. Prime M inister et al.3. Se e M ero n Ben ven is t i , "Ci ty wi th a Wal l at i ts Ce nte r ," Ariel: A Journal onthe Land of Israel ( in Hebrew) , vol . 44-45 (March. 1986) , p . 94; Moshe Amirav,Israel's Policy in Jerusa lem since 19 67 (Palo Al to : S tanford Univer s i ty , Centeron Conf l i c t and Negot i a t ion , 199 2) , pp . 15 -16 .

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PART ONE - B A CK GROUND

A . H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n dB . L e g a l S t a t u s o f E a s t J e r u s a l e m

C . I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w


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A. HISTORICA L B A CK GROUN DB e tw e e n 19 48 a nd Ju ne , 1 96 7 , J e r usa l e m wa s d iv ide d in two : We s tJe r usa l e m , wh ic h c ove r e d a n a r e a o f a bou t 38 km 2 , was under Israel icont ro l , and Eas t Je rusa lem, an a rea of some 6 km 2 ( including the OldCity) , was ruled by Jordan.In J u n e , 1 9 6 7 , f o l l o w i n g t h e S ix - D a y W a r , Is ra el a n n e x e d s o m e70 km 2 t o t he m un ic ipa l bounda r i e s o f We s t J e r usa l e m . 4 In addit ion toEa s t J e r usa l e m ( the a r e a tha t wa s unde r Jo r da n ia n r u l e ) , t he a nne xe dlands inc luded an addi t iona l 64 km 2 , most of which were in twenty-e ight v i l lages in the West Bank, and the remain ing annexed lands werewi th in the munic ipa l boundar ies of Be th lehem and Be t Ja l la . The a reaof West Jerusalem thus tr ipled, making Jerusalem Israel 's largest c i ty.Pr ior to 1967, the re fore , most of the a rea compr is ing wha t I s rae l i s ca l ltoday "uni f ied Je rusa lem" was not a pa r t of Je rusa lem a t a l l , bu t r a the ra par t of the West Bank (see Figure No. 1) . The new borders, se t by acommit tee headed by Genera l Rehavam Ze 'ev i , a t the t ime ass is tan t tot h e h e a d o f t h e O p e r a t i o n s B r a n c h o f t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f , w e r ea ppr ove d by I s r a e l ' s gove r nm e n t .The gu id ing c ons ide r a t ion whe n se t t i ng the se bo r de r s wa s tha t t he ywou ld u l t im a te ly be c om e the s t a t e ' s bo r de r s . The de t e r m ina t ion wa sla r ge ly ba se d on se c u r i ty ( de l ine a t ion o f de f e ns ib l e bo r de r s ) a ndde m ogr a ph ic c ons ide r a t ions ; m un ic ipa l p l a nn ing wa s on ly o f s e c onda r yi m p o r t a n c e . 5T h e c o m m i t t e e ' s p r i m a r y d e m o g r a p h i c g o a l w a s t o e n s u r e a J e w i s hmajor i ty in the c i ty by exc luding heavi ly popula ted Pa les t in ian a reasf r o m J e r u s a l e m . A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l P a l e s t in i a n v i ll a ge s w e r e p l a c e douts ide the c i ty l imi ts , some of the i r lands were inc luded wi th in theci ty 's new borders, such as the lands of Bet Iksa and El Bireh, in theno r th , and sparse ly po pu la ted a r eas in the munic ipa l i t ie s of B e th leh emand Be t Sahur , in the south . As a resu l t , v i l lages and ne ighborhoodswere d iv ided; one por t ion of them remained in the West Bank, whi lethe o the r was annexed by I s rae l .4. As r egard s the l egal va lidi ty of the an ne xat ion , see pp . 2 0- 24 .5 . Se e Me ron Benv eni s t i , The Torn City ( Jerusa lem: Weidenfe ld and Nicol son,197 3) , cha p . 14 ; Dav i d Kr o yan ke r , " C i ty Faces " , Twenty-five Years of C i t yUnification; Chapters in the Municipal Biography of Jerusalem ( in Hebrew)( J e r us a l em: The J e r us a l em I ns t i t u t e f o r I s r ae l S t ud i e s , 1988) , p . 34 ; Ami rCheshin , "Eas t Jerusa lem - Pol i cy ver sus Real i ty" ( in Hebrew) , The New East,vol . 34 (1992) , p . 179.

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Figure No. 1: Current Mu nicipal Boundaries of Jerusalemaccording to pre-1967 Land Designation (Percentages)

Afte r t he anne xa t i on , I s rae l conduc t ed a census in t he ann exe d a reas ,and g ran t ed pe rmanen t r e s idency s t a tus t o r es iden t s who were t he re a tthe t ime of the census . 6 P ermanen t r e s iden t s were pe rmi t t ed , i f t heydesired and met certain condi t ions, to receive Israel i ci t izenship. Thesecondi t ions included swear ing a l leg iance to the s ta te , proving they areno t c i t i zens o f any o the r coun t ry , and demons t ra t i ng some knowledge

6 . T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t r u l e d t h a t t h e la w r e g u l a t i n g t h e r e s i d e n c y o fPa l e s t i n i ans in Eas t J e r u s a l e m is t he En t r y i n t o I sr ael Law, 1 9 52 . Se e , H C J2 8 2 / 8 8 , Muba rak Awad v. Prime Minister of Israel, P i skei Din 42(2) 424.

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o f H e b r e w . 7 F o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , m o s t r e s i d e n t s d i d n o t r e q u e s t I s r a e l ic i t i z e n s h i p . S e t t i n g t h e m u n i c i p a l b o u n d a r y in a c e r t a i n n e i g h b o r h o o d o rv i ll a ge c r e a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n P a l e s t i n i a n s a l s o a sr e g a r d s th e i r r i g h t s , s i n c e t h o s e l iv in g in t h e u n a n n e x e d a r e a s w e r es u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y r u l e .T h e Jerusalem Master Plan w a s p r e p a r e d b e t w e e n 1 9 6 7 a n d 1 9 6 8u n d e r t h e i n it ia t iv e o f t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y of J e r u s a l e m , in c o o p e r a t i o nw i t h v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t m i n i s t r i e s , w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f d i r e c t i n g t h ec i t y 's d e v e l o p m e n t . It s t a t e s t h a t "it is n o t d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e a r e a u n d e rm u n i c i p a l j u r i s d i c t i o n d i v i d e r e s i d e n t i a l n e i g h b o r h o o d s , a r e a s ,i n s t a l l a t i o n s , o r m u n i c i p a l r o a d s , " 8 b u t t h e p r o b l e m o f d i v i s i o n h a s n o tb e e n r e s o l v e d a n d r e m a i n s t o t h i s d a y .

7 . T he s t a tus of pe rm an en t r es iden t s d i f f er s f ro m that of c i t i zens of the s t a t e .A permanent r es ident votes in local e l ec t ions , but i s not ent i t l ed to vote inK n e s s e t ( P a r l i a m e n t ) e l e c t i o n s . U n d e r t h e P a s s p o r t s L a w . 1 9 5 2 , a p e r m a n e n tres ident i s ent i t l ed to a laissez passer, but no t to an I s rae l i pa ssp or t . Ap e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t w h o se t tl e s in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y l o se s p e r m a n e n t r e s id e n c ys ta tus in I s rae l ; a c i t i zen , on the o ther hand, r e t a ins c i t i zenship ( see paragraph11(C) of the Ent ry in to I s rae l Re gu la t ion s . 19 74 ) . Pa ra gr ap h 11(A) of the seRegu l a t i ons ho l ds t ha t a pe r manen t r e s i den t w i l l be cons i de r ed t o have s e t t l edab ro ad i f he or she 1) l ived for m or e tha n sev en y ea r s in a fore ig n co un t ry ;2) r ece ived the s t a tus of permanent r es ident in a fore ign count ry ; or 3) became ac i t i zen of a fore ign count ry . The r ight s and obl iga t ions of Nat ional Insurance a l soa p p l y t o a p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t . S e e N a t i o n a l I n s u r a n c e L a w [ C o n s o l i d a t e dVer s ion ] , 19 68 . As op po s ed t o r e s i den t s o f t he Oc cup i ed Te r r i to r i e s, a p e r m ane n tres ident i s subjec t to the I s rae l i c iv i l j udic ia l sys tem, and may enter and workwi t hou t r e s t r i c t i on i n I s r ae l ( s ee pa r ag r aph 13 o f t he En t r y i n t o I s r ae lRegu l a t i ons , 1974 . and t he For e i gn W or ke r s ( I l l ega l Empl oymen t ) Law. 1991) .For addi t ional de ta i l s about the s t a tus of permanent r es ident s , s ee a t torney SalahSa ' abna ( Quake r s Lega l As s i s t ance Cen t e r ) , " The S t a t us o f Pe r manen t Res i den t sin Israel" , a lecture given dur ing a seminar , held in Jerusalem on 28 July 1994, ont h e s u b j e c t o f " P a l e s t i n i a n R e s i d e n c y a n d E a s t J e r u s a l e m , " s p o n s o r e d b yHa M oke d : Cen t e r f o r t he Def en s e o f t he Ind iv idual . Oc t obe r . 19 94 , pp . 8 - 13 .8 . 1968 Jerusalem Master Plan (in Hebr ew ) . J e r u s a l e m M uni c i pa li ty , 19 72 .vol . 1, p. 11 9.

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B. LEGAL STATUS OF EASTJ E R U S A L E MA f t e r t h e S i x - D a y W a r , o n 2 7 J u n e 1 9 6 7 , t h e K n e s s e t a d o p t e d t h eL a w a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n O r d i n a n c e ( A m e n d m e n t N o . 1 1) L a w , 1 9 6 7 ,a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h " t h e l a w , j u r i s d i c t i o n , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e s t a t es h a l l a p p l y t o all t e r r i t o r y o f t h e L a n d o f I s r ae l t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n tp r o c l a i m s b y O r d e r " ( p a r . 1 ). T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t ofI s r a e l i s s u e d a n o r d e r s t a t i n g t h a t " t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e L a n d o f I s r a e ld e s c r i b e d i n t h e a p p e n d i x [ t o t h i s O r d e r ] is h e r e b y p r o c l a i m e d t e r r i t o r yi n w h i c h t h e l a w , j u r i s d i c t i o n , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e a p p l y . " 9T h e a r e a in c l u d e d in t h e a p p e n d i x c o n s i s t e d o f 7 0 k m 2 a n n e x e d t o t h em u n i c i p a l a r e a of W e s t J e r u s a l e m . T h i s l e g i s l a t io n s et t h e l e g alf r a m e w o r k f o r t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e Is r ae l i a u t h o r i t i e s in E a s t J e r u s a l e m . 1 0I s ra e l i i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w e x p e r t s , w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e l e g a l s t a t u s o f E a s tJ e r u s a l e m f o l l o w i n g e n a c t m e n t of t h e s e l a w s , o p p o s e d t h e u s e of t h et e r m " a n n e x a t i o n " 1 1 s i n c e u n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , a n o c c u p y i n g p o w e r

9. Law and Ad min is tra tion Or der (No. 1), 19 67 (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) . Inorde r to unify the c ity in the municipal aspect , an am en dm en t to the Municipali tiesOrd in a n c e wa s a l s o e n a c te d . Th i s a me n d me n t a u th o r iz e d th e Min i s t e r o f th eInterior to "extend, by proclamation, the borders of c ity X by including the arease t fo r th in an Order pursuant to paragraph 11B of the Law and Adminis t ra t ionOrdinance" (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) .10. Th e Knesset ena cted , on 3 0 July 19 80 , the Basic Law: Jeru salem , Capita l ofIsrael, which holds that "A whole and unified Jerusalem is the capital of Israel." Itspurpose was to secure, by law. "both the s ta tus of Jerusalem as the capita l ofIsrael and the unification and integrity of Greater Jerusalem." in the words ofthen-Knesse t member Geula Cohen , who submit ted the proposed law. dur ing theKnesse t deba te (Knesset Records. 14 May 1980 , vo l . 88 . bookle t 25 . p . 2866(translated by B ' T s e l e m ) . This law had no prac t ica l s ign if icance . See AmnonRubins te in , The Constitutional Law of Israel. 4th Ed. (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem:Schocken Publishing Co., 1991), vol. 1 , p . 86.11. Yo ram D instein, "Zion in International Law Will be Red eem ed." Hapraklit 2 7(1971 ) and "And the Redeem ed is no t Rede em ed or - Not De mo ns tra t io ns , bu tActs," Hapraklit 27 (1972) (bo th in Hebrew); and Professor Yehuda Blum, whoagreed with Dinstein on this point, a l though for different reasons, in "Zion inIn te rna t iona l Law is Redeemed," Hapraklit 27 (1972), and "East Jerusalem is notOccupied Terr i to ry ," Hapraklit 27 (1973) (both in Hebrew).

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is n o t p e r m i t t e d t o a n n e x o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y , e x c e p t p u r s u a n t t o ap e a c e t r e a t y . 1 2C o n s e q u e n t l y , in i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s , t h e I s r ae l i a u t h o r i t i e se m p h a s i z e d th a t n o a n n e x a t i o n h a d o c c u r r e d , a n d p r e s e n t e d t h e s u b j e c to f J e r u s a l e m a s a m a t t e r n o t y e t r e s o l v e d . 1 3 A r t i c l e 5 o f t he I s r ae l i -P a l e s t i n i a n D e c l a r a t i o n of P r i n c i p l e s , s i g n e d in O s l o o n 1 3 S e p t e m b e r1 9 9 3 . p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e p e r m a n e n t s ta t u s o f E a s t J e r u s a l e m h a s n o t y e tb e e n d e t e r m i n e d , a n d w ill b e a d d r e s s e d i n t h e f i n a l s t a g e ofn e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n Is r ae l a n d t h e P a l e s t i n i a n s .T o t h e Is ra e li p u b l i c , t h e Is ra e li g o v e r n m e n t p r e s e n t e d a n e n t i r e l yd i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n . I n K n e s s e t d e b a t e s r e g a r d i n g t h e le g a l s t a t u s ofJ e r u s a l e m , m i n i s t e rs r e f r a i n e d f r o m s p e a k i n g a b o u t " a n n e x a t i o n , " b u te x p li c it ly s u p p o r t e d t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t E a s t J e r u s a l e m is a n i n t e g r a l p a r to f I s r ae l . 1 4

12. In the com me nta ry of the In ternat ional Co mm it tee of the Red Cro ss (ICRC)on the G ene va C on ve n t io n , J ea n P ic t e t w r i t e s t ha t "a s l ong a s hos t i l i t ie scon t inue , t he O ccupy ing Pow er canno t t he re fo re annex the occup ied t e r r i t o ry ,even if i t occupies the whole of the terr i tory concerned. A decision on that pointcan only be reach ed in the p ea ce t rea ty . T hat i s a universa lly recogn ized ru lewhich i s end orsed by jur is t s and con f i rm ed by nu me rou s ru l ings of in terna t ionaland national courts ." J . Pictet (ed.) . Com mentary: Fo urth Geneva ConventionRelative to the Protection of Civilian P ersons i n T im e of War ( G e n e v a :Internat ional Commit tee of the Red Cross , 1958) , p . 275.13. Following the 1967 legislat ion, Abba Eban, Israel 's foreign minister at thet ime, wrote to the genera l secre tary of the Uni ted Nat ions tha t th is legis la t iondid not an nex Eas t Jeru sa lem in to Is rae l : "The term 'anne xat io n ' i s out of p lace . . .The measures adopted re la te to the in tegra t ion of Jerusa lem in the adminis t ra t iveand munic ipa l spheres , and furnish legal bas is for protec t ion of the holy p laces ."U.N . Doc S / 8 0 5 2 , 10 July 1 96 7. quote d by Eyal Zamir and Eyal Benvenis t i inThe Legal Status of Lands Acquired by Israelis before 1948 in the W e s tBank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem ( in Hebrew) (Jerusa lem: The Jerusa lemInsti tute for Israel Studies, 1993), p. 65.1 4 . In 1 9 6 9 , in H C J 2 8 3 / 6 9 , Ravidi and Mach es u. Military Court, HebronDistrict, Piskei Din 24(2) 419, the state was required to take a posit ion regardingthe ques t ion of whether movement of ant iqui t ies f rom the West Bank to Eas tJe ru sa l e m requ i r e s a l i cense unde r Jo r da n ia n l aw as an exp or t " t o ano th e rcount ry . The Ass is tant Sta te At torney, Y . Barse l la , c la imed tha t the imposi t ionof law, jurisdict ion, and administrat ion of the state on East Jerusalem is as if EastJerusalem had been annexed to Israel . As a result of this decision. MK S. Tamirasked the foreign minister , Abba Eban: "Is i t a problem for the foreign minister totel l the Knesset that al l of Jerusalem, including the eastern part , is part of Israel?"Eban answered: "I have no problem at al l saying that ." Knesset Records, vol . 59 .bookle t 6 , sess ion 125, 9 December 1970. p . 455 ( t rans la ted by B ' T s e l e m ) . S e ealso the comments of the jus t ice minis ter dur ing the Knesse t debate on thea m e n d m e n t t o t h e L a w a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n O r d i n a n c e , Knesset Records (inHebrew) , vol . 49 . bookle t 33 . sess ion 188. p . 2420.

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A d i s p u t e a r o s e in t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t a s r e g a r d s t h e q u e s t i o n ofw h e t h e r E a s t J e r u s a l e m h a d b e e n a n n e x e d . M o s t of t h e j u s t i c e si n v o l v e d in t h e c a s e h e l d t h a t E a s t J e r u s a l e m h a d b e e n a n n e x e d t oI s r a e l f o r a l l p u r p o s e s . 1 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e j u s t i c es d i s a g r e e d , c l a i m i n gt h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f I s r a e l i l a w i n E a s t J e r u s a l e m w o u l d n o t c o n s t i t u t ea n n e x a t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y . 1 6P r o f e s s o r A m n o n R u b i n s t e i n , a n e x p e r t in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w a n dc u r r e n t l y M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a t i o n , e m p h a s i z e d t h e p o l i t i c a l b e n e f i t o fr e f r a i n i n g f r o m u s i n g t h e t e r m " a n n e x a t i o n " w h e n r e f e r r i n g t o t h ea p p l i c a t i o n o f I s ra e li l a w . H o w e v e r , R u b i n s t e i n n o t e s , t h e q u e s t i o n o ft e r m i n o l o g y is i n s i g n i f i c a n t a s r e g a r d s Is r a el i la w :

It m a y b e t h a t u s e o f t h e w o r d " a n n e x a t i o n " is i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o rI s r a e l ' s p o l i t i c a l g o a l s : t o t h o s e p e r s o n s a b r o a d , t h e t e r m i s u s e dp e j o r a t i v e l y , b r i n g i n g m o s t o f t h e w o r l d ' s n a t i o n s t o o p p o s e i t :i n t e r n a l l y , s o m e s e e a n i m p r o p e r u s e of it a s r e g a r d s p a r t s o f t h eL a n d of I s r a el , i n g e n e r a l , a n d a s r e g a r d s J e r u s a l e m , c a p i t a l ofI s r a e l , i n p a r t i c u l a r ; b u t f r o m t h e a s p e c t of I s r a e l i l a w , t h ee x c h a n g e o f w o r d s c a n n o t a l t e r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a c t : E a s tJ e r u s a l e m b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I s r a e l f o r a l l p u r p o s e s .

15. In Rauidi, Jus t ice Y. Kah an cons idered the two leg is la tive en ac t m en ts of1967, and held, a t page 423: "By these two enactments , not only the law of thestate , but a lso i ts jurisdiction and admi nis tra tion ap ply to East Jer us ale m , a nd ,consequently, i t is a part of the terri tory of Israel" . In another case, Justice B.Halevi note d: "On 2 8 Ju ne 19 67 , then , the law, jurisdiction, an d adm inis tra tion ofIsrael replaced the law, jurisdiction, and adminis tra tion of Jordan, and from thatdate, a unified Jerusalem is an integral part of Israel" (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) .H C J 1 7 1 / 6 8 , Hana zalis u. Court of the Creek O rthodox Patriarchate et al,Piske i Din 23(1) 260 . 269 . See a lso the comments o f Jus t ice S . Agrana t in HCJ223/67, Ben-D ou u . Minister of Religions, Piskei Din 22(1) 4 4 0 , 44 2, and JusticeM . A l o n i n H C J 4 1 8 5 / 9 0 , Temple Mount Faithful u. Attorney General, TakdinElyon 93(3) , 1993 , p . 2404 .16. In the minority opin ion in Rauidi. a t page 423 , Jus t ice Haim Cohen ra ised adoubt as to whe ther appl ica t ion of Is rae l i law in Eas t Je rusa lem cons t i tu tedannexation, and he contended that nothing prevents application of Israeli law inthe Occupied Territories , even if there is no intention of annexing them. In a casethat dealt with the question of the legal status of the Golan Heights in light ofthe Golan Heights Law, Jus t ice A. Barak no ted , in l ine wi th the comments o fJustice H . Co he n, that " the applic ation of Israeli nor m X in place Y outs id e th eborders of the s ta te does not necessarily make place Y part of Israel. Everythingd e p e n d s o n th e p u rp o s e , l a n g u a g e , a n d imp le me n ta t io n o f th e n o rm b e in ginterpreted" (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) . H C J 2 0 5 / 8 2 , Kanagh Abuzalah et al u.State of Israel, Piskei Din 37(2) 718, 720. Justice Barak refrained, however, fromcom me nt ing on wh e the r accord ing to tha t p r inc ip le , Eas t Je ru sa lem is a pa r t ofIsrael.

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T h e l a w of E a s t J e r u s a l e m t o d a y is t h e s a m e a s t h e l a w o f W e s tJ e r u s a l e m a n d o t h e r a r e a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s t a t e a s a r e s u lt o f t h eW a r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . 1 7

B ' T s e l e m a c c e p t s t h i s p o s i t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h J e r u s a l e m w a sa n n e x e d de facto, i f not de jure, t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I s r a e l . A s w e h a v es e e n , u n i l a t e r a l a n n e x a t i o n is i ll eg a l u n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , s i n c e " t h eq u e s t i o n o f a n n e x a t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c p l a c e is n o t c o n t i n g e n t , of c o u r s e ,o n t h e a r b i t r a r y w ill o f e a c h s t a t e . " 1 8A r t i c l e 4 7 o f t h e F o u r t h G e n e v a C o n v e n t i o n e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t i n t h ee v e n t of u n i la t e r a l a n n e x a t i o n , t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w w h i c ha p p l y in t h e s i t u a t i o n of b e l l i g e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n r e m a i n i n e f f e c t . 1 9B ' T s e l e m a g r e e s w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y th a t E a s t J e r u s a l e mi s o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y , t h a t it s s t a t u s is t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f t h eW e s t B a n k . T h i s p o s i t i o n is e x p r e s s e d , inter alia, in n u m e r o u s U n i t e dN a t i o n s ' r e s o l u t i o n s , a n d in t h e o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s t a k e n b y m o s t o f t h ew o r l d ' s n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 2 0

17. Rubins te in . The Constitutional Law of Israel, vol. 1, p. 85.18. Dinstein, "Zion in Internationa l Law Will be Red ee me d," p. 7.19. "Pro tec ted pe rso ns wh o are in occu pied ter r i tory shall not be depr iv ed, ina n y c a s e o r i n a n y m a n n e r w h a t s o e v e r , o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e p r e s e n tConven t ion by any change in t roduced , a s t he r e su l t o f t he occupa t ion o f ater r i tory , in to the ins t i tu t ions or government of the sa id te r r i tory , nor by anyagreement concluded between the author i t ies of the occupied ter r i tor ies and theOccupying Power , nor by any annexat ion by the la t te r of the whole or par t ofthe occupied terr i tory." In the commentary of the ICRC, Jean Pictet adds: " . . . anO ccupy ing Pow er con t inues t o be bound to app ly the Conven t ion a s a w ho leeven when, in disregard of the rules of international law, i t claims during a confl ictto have annexed al l or part of an occupied terr i tory." Pictet , Commentary, p . 27 6 .20 . See r e so lu t ions o f t he U n i t ed N a t ions Secur i t y Counc i l 252 (1967) , 267(1969) , 298 (1971) . 446 (1979) , 476 (1980) , 672 and 681 (1990) . The U ni t edSta tes of America s ta ted i t s pos i t ion in Ambassador Goldberg ' s s ta tement to theG en era l A ssem bly in 19 67 and in A m bas sad or Y os t ' s s t a t e m e n t be fo r e t heSecur i ty Counci l in 1969. According to Ruth Lapidot , " the speeches of the twoambassadors d i f fer . A l though both noted tha t I s rae l ' s ac t iv i t ies in the c i ty wereonly temporary and tha t the c i ty ' s fu ture must be resolved through negot ia t ions ,Am ba ssa do r Yost add ed tha t East Jeru sa le m is occu pied ter r i tory on which theFour th G eneva Conven t ion o f 1949 Re la t ive t o t he P ro t ec t ion o f C iv i l i anPersons in Time of War applies" ( translated by B ' T s e l e m ) . In Pres ident J immyCar ter ' s le t te r to Is rae l and Egypt dur ing prepara t ion of the Camp David Accordsin 1978, he wrote tha t the pos i t ion of the Uni ted Sta tes remains the same astha t expres s ed by the tw o am bas sad or s . S ee Ru th Lap ido t , " H i s to r ica l -Lega lSurvey." Jerusalem-Political and Legal Aspects ( in Hebrew) (Jerusa lem: TheJerusalem Inst i tute for Israel Studies, 1994), p. 6.

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T h e a b o v e c o m m e n t s r e l a t e t o t h e c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f E a s t J e r u s a l e mu n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , a n d sh o u l d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s a d v o c a t i n g a n ypos i t i on by B ' T s e l e m c o n c e r n i n g t h e f i n al s t a t u s of E a s t J e r u sa l e m . A sm e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e f u t u r e s t a t u s of J e r u s a l e m m u s t b ed e t e r m i n e d i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n I s r ae l a n d t h ePa l e s t i n i a n A u t h o r i t y . B ' T s e l e m m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h i s is a n a p p r o p r i a t ef r a m e w o r k t o r e so l v e t h i s m a t t e r , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e h u m a n r i g h t s o f a l lp e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d a r e p r o t e c t e d .

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C. INTERNA TIONA L LA WAc c or d ing to in t e r na t io na l l aw , Ea s t J e r us a l e m i s und e r be l l i ge r e n toc c upa t ion . The r e f o r e , t he f unda m e n ta l p r inc ip l e s o f i n t e r na t iona l l a wtha t govern the re la t ionship of an occupying power to the res idents ofa n o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o E a s t J e r u s a l e m . 2 1 It is in thecontext of these pr inc ip les tha t we examine the lega l i ty of the I s rae l igove r nm e n t ' s a c t ions in Ea s t J e r usa l e m s inc e 1967 .

1. Ap pl icat io n of I srae l i law in East Je ru sa lemAccording to the pr inc ip les of in te rna t iona l law, the occupying count rym us t c on t inue to a pp ly the l e ga l p r inc ip l e s t ha t we r e in f o r c e be f o r et h e o c c u p a t i o n . T h i s p r i n c i p l e a p p e a r s i n a r t i c l e 4 3 o f t h e H a g u eRegula t ions of 1907. which s t ipula tes tha t :

The author i ty of the leg i t ima te power having in fac t passed in tothe hands of the occupant , the la t ter shal l take a l l the measures inhis power to res tore , and ensure , a s fa r a s poss ib le , publ ic ordera nd sa f e ty , wh i l e r e sp e c t in g , un le s s a bso lu t e ly p r e v e n te d , t helaws in force in the country.

T he im p os i t i on o f I s ra e l i l a w , j u r i sd i c t io n , a nd a d m in i s t r a t i on onJe r usa l e m by the l eg i s la t ion e na c te d in 1 96 7 c le a rly c o n t r a v e n e s th i sregula t ion of in te rna t iona l cus tomary law. The UN Secur i ty Counc i l , ini ts r e s o l u t i o n of 2 5 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 1 . h e l d , inter alia, tha t "everylegis la t ive and adminis t ra t ive ac t enac ted by I s rae l to change the s ta tusof Jerusalem" is "absolute ly invalid." 22

21 . O n the fun da m en ta l pr inc ip les apply ing in ins tan ces of be l l igerent oc cu pa t ion ,s e e A d a m R o b e r t s , ' P r o l o n g e d M i l it ar y O c c u p a t i o n : T h e I s r a e li - O c c u p i e dT e r r i t o r i e s 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 8 8 , " in E m m a P l a y f a ir ( ed .) , International Law and theAdministration of Occupied Territories ( Oxf o r d : Oxf o r d Un i ve r s i t y P r es s ,1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 2 5 - 8 5 ; A n t o n i o C a s s e s e , " P o w e r s a n d D u t i e s of a n O c c u p a n t inRe l a t i on t o Land and Na t u r a l Res our ces , " ibid., p p . 4 2 1 - 4 2 2 ; a n d C h r i s t o p h e rGr eenwood , " The Admi n i s t r a t i on o f Occup i ed Te r r i t o r y i n I n t e r na t i ona l Law, "ibid., p p . 2 4 2 - 2 5 0 .2 2 . U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l R e s o l u t i o n N o . 2 9 8 . T h i s r e s o l u t i o n w a s a d o p t e dwi t hou t any oppos i t i on , and t he Un i t ed S t a t e s and o t he r na t i ons f r i end l y t oI s rae l sup po r ted i t . Se e Dins te in , "And the Re de em ed i s not Re de em ed or - N otDemons t r a t i ons , bu t Ac t s , " p . 522 .

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2 . O ccu p a t i o n a s a p ro v i s i o n a l s i t u a t i o nA c c o r d i n g t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , e v e r y a c t o f t h e o c c u p y i n g p o w e r m u s tb e t e m p o r a r y , a n d it is n o t p e r m i t t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o m a k e a n y c h a n g e sw i th lo n g - t e r m i m p l i c a t i o n s . In t h e I C R C ' s c o m m e n t a r y t o t h e G e n e v aC o n v e n t i o n , P i c t e t w r i t e s t h a t " t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f t e r r i t o r y i n w a r t i m e i se s s e n t i a l l y a t e m p o r a r y , de facto, s i t u a t i o n . . . " 2 3U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e w n e i g h b o r h o o d s i n E a s t J e r u s a l e m i no r d e r t o p o p u l a t e t h e a r e a w i t h l a r g e n u m b e r s o f J e w i s h r e s i d e n t sc h a n g e d t h e m a p of t h e c it y , a n d c r e a t e d a n e w d e m o g r a p h i c ,p h y s i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n t o t a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t ht e m p o r a r y c h a n g e .

3 . N e e d s o f t h e o c c u p y i n g p o w e rU n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , t h e o c c u p y i n g p o w e r m a y u s e r e s o u r c e s i nt h e o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y o n l y f o r t h e n e e d s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h eo c c u p i e d a r e a . D e v i a t i o n f r o m t h i s p r i n c i p l e is p e r m i t t e d o n l y w h e r e as e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t is a t s t a k e . In t e r e s t s , w h e t h e r e c o n o m i c , n a t i o n a l , o ro t h e r w i s e , d o n o t ju s t if y d i v e r g e n c e f r o m t h i s p r i n c i p l e .2 '1In Jam'et Askan, J u s t i c e B a r a k r e f e r r e d t o t h i s m a t t e r :

T h e H a g u e R e g u l a t i o n s r e v o l v e a b o u t t w o m a i n p i v o t s : o n e -ensu r ing the leg i t imate secu r i ty in te r es t o f those ho ld ing the landb y b e l l i g e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n ; a n d t h e o t h e r - e n s u r i n g t h e n e e d s o ft h e c iv i li a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e t e r r i t o r y s u b j e c t t o b e l l i g e r e n to c c u p a t i o n . . . T h e m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r m a y n o t w e i g h n a t i o n a l ,e c o n o m i c , o r s o c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f h i s c o u n t r y i n s o f a r a s t h e y h a v en o r a m i f i c a t i o n s o n h i s s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t i n t h e a r e a , o r o n t h ein te r es t o f the loca l popu la t ion . 2 5

23. Pic te t , Commentary, p. 275. On th is subjec t , in ternat ional law exper ts dono t d i sag ree . See , fo r exam ple : L . O ppenhe im , International Law: A Treatise,Vol. II: Disputes, War and N eutrality, 7th Ed. , H . Lauterpacht (ed . ) (London:L o n g m a n s , 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 4 3 2 - 4 3 3 .24 . See Casses e , "Powers and Duties ," p . 42 2 .2 5. H C J 3 9 3 / 8 2 , Jam'et Askan Almalmo n and Lithonia AlmahdoraLamsaulia, Cooperative Association Registered According to Law at theJudea and Samaria Regional Com mand v. Com mander of IDF Forces in theRegion of Judea and Samaria et al. Piskei Din 37(4) 788, 794-795 ( t rans la tedby B'Tselem).

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As wi l l be shown subsequent ly , l and expropr ia t ion and bui ld ing ofJewish neighborhoods in Eas t Jerusalem s ince 1967 served nei ther theneeds of the Pales t in ian popula t ion nor secur i ty cons idera t ions . As theseacts were in tended to serve Is rael ' s nat ional , economic, and socia lin teres t s , they c lear ly v io la ted the aforement ioned pr incip le .

4 . Sp ec i f i c pro hib i t ion s und er in terna t iona l lawSome of the act ions of the Is rael i government in Eas t Jerusalem areprohib i ted not only under general pr incip les of in ternat ional l aw, butalso under certain specific prohibi t ions.

a. Exprop riation of landIn ternat ional l aw prohib i t s expropr ia t ion of pr ivate l and , 2 6 excep t fo rexpropr i a t i ons neces sa ry fo r mi l i t a ry pu rposes . 2 7 H o w e v e r , w h e n t h emunicipal l aw, wi th which the occupying power must comply , permi t sexpropr ia t ion of pr ivate l and for a publ ic purpose , i t may use th i spower so long as i t i s for the benefi t of the local populat ion, and notfor i t s own benef i t . 2 8 Benef i t of the popula t ion does not refer to thepopulat ion of the occupying country set t l ing in the occupied terri tory.E x p r o p r i a t i o n o f l a n d s i n E a s t J e r u s a l e m t o e s t a b l i s h J e w i s hne ighborhoods v io l a t es t hese ru l es o f i n t e rna t i ona l l aw s ince t heexpropr ia t ion was not executed for mi l i t ary reasons or for the benef i tof the occupied popula t ion . 2 9

b. Populating East Jerusalem with JewsThe F our th Geneva Conven t ion p roh ib i t s t he s e t t l emen t o f c i t i zensfrom the occupying power in the occupied ter r i tory . Ar t ic le 49 of theConven t ion s t i pu l a t es , inter alia, that "The Occupying Power shal l notdeport or t ransfer parts of i ts own civi l ian populat ion into the terri toryi t occupies."

26 . Se e the Ha gu e Regu la t ions of 19 07 , ar t ic l e 46 .27 . Th e Ha gue Regu l a t i ons of 19 07 . a r ti c le 52 .28 . Se e Zamir and Benven i s t i, The Legal Status of Lands , p . 11 9.29 . For de ta il s , s ee the cha pte r on l and exp ropr ia t ion in Eas t Jeru sa le m, p . 5 5 .

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Numerous jur i s t s have emphas ized tha t th is prohib i t ion not only forb idst ransfe r of people f rom i t s te r r i tory , but a l so the i r volunta ry se t t lementin the occupied te r r i tory .Professor Yehuda Blum, who la te r se rved as I s rae l ' s ambassador to theUni t e d Na t ions , wr o te , f o r e xa m ple :

Th e d is t inc t ion be tw een (prohib i ted) "de po r ta t io n or t r ans fe r" ofa popu la t ion o f t he oc c upy ing powe r to the oc c up ie d t e r r i t o r y ,and (pe rmi t ted) " se t t lement" of i t s c i t izens "as such" in to theoc c up ie d t e r r i t o r y wou ld be in t e r e s t ing we r e i t no t f o r t heo f fi c ia l c o m m e n ta r y o f t he F our th Ge n e va C o nv e n t ion th a t wa spub l i she d by the I n t e r n a t ion a l C o m m i t t e e o f t he R e d C r o ss ,which s ta te s tha t the re levant prov is ion i s in ten ded , inter alia, top r e v e n t " c o l o n i z a t i o n " o f t h e o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y b y t h eo c c u p i e r .3 0

T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n e w n e i g h b o r h o o d s i n E a s t J e r u s a l e m , a n d t h egrant ing of f inanc ia l benef i t s to encourage Jews to l ive the re , c lea r lyc o n t r a v e n e t h e I C R C ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e F o u r t h G e n e v aC o n v e n t i o n .In c on c lus ion , t he a c t s of t he I s ra e li go ve r n m e n t de sc r ibe d in th i srepor t - imposi t ion of I s rae l i law on Eas t Je rusa lem, es tab l i shment ofI s r a e l i ne ighbor hoods , c ha ng ing the m a p o f t he c i ty , a nd e xp r op r i a t ionof lands - cont radic t the pr inc ip les of in te rna t iona l law tha t govern there la t ionship of the occupying power to the popula t ion of the te r r i toryoccu pied , an d i ts obl iga t ions to tha t po pu la t io n .

30 . B l um, "Eas t J e r u s a l em is no t Occup i ed Te r r i t o r y , " p . 1 89 . (A l t hough t heICRC cont inues to r e ly on the commentary of Pic te t , i t i s no longer ca l l ed " theof f ic i a l co m m en tar y" of the organiza t ion . ) S imi lar op inio ns are tho se of Rob er t s ," P r o l o n g e d M i l ita ry O c c u p a t i o n , " p . 6 7 ; D i n s te i n , " S e t t l e m e n t s , D e p o r t a t i o n s ,and Occupied Ter r i tor i es" ( in Hebrew) . Iyuneh Mishpat 7 ( 1979) , p . 189 .

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PART TW O - FINDINGS

A . D a t aB . P o l i c y

C . L a n d E x p r o p r i a t i o nD . T o w n P la n n i n g S c h e m e s

E . T o w n P l a n n i n g S c h e m e fo r B e t H a n i n a a n d S h u ' a f a tF . T e s t i m o n i e s of E a s t J e r u s a l e m R e s i d e n t s


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31/127

A. DATA 1

In 1 9 6 7 , a f t e r 7 0 k m 2 h a d b e e n a n n e x e d t o W e s t J e r u s a l e m ,a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 6 7 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s r e s i d e d in J e r u s a l e m , i n c l u d i n g 6 9 , 0 0 0P a l e s t i n i a n s a n d 1 9 8 , 0 0 0 J e w s . 3 2 A t t h e e n d of 1 9 9 3 , s o m e 5 6 7 . 0 0 0p e r s o n s r e s i d e d in J e r u s a l e m , a m o n g t h e m 1 6 1 . 0 0 0 P a l e s t i n i a n s a n d4 0 6 , 0 0 0 J e w s . B e t w e e n 1 9 6 7 a n d 1 9 9 3 , t h e r e f o r e , t h e P a l e s t i n i a np o p u l a t i o n in J e r u s a l e m g r e w b y 1 4 4 % , w h i l e t h e J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o ni n c r e a s e d b y 1 0 5 % . S o m e o f f i c ia l s m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e P a l e s t i n i a np o p u l a t i o n i n J e r u s a l e m i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e o ff i c ia l c o u n t o f t h e C e n t r a lB u r e a u o f S t a t i s t i c s , s i n c e t h e l a t te r ' s f i g u r e s d o n o t i n c l u d e t h o u s a n d s o f

3 1 . N u m e ro u s p ro b le m s e x i st r e g a rd in g d a t a o n b u i ld in g , d w e l l in g s , a n d h o u s in gdens i ty in Je rusa lem. For ce r ta in years , on ly par t ia l s ta t i s t ics ex is t . For example ,in t h e p a s t , a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e of d w e l l i n g s a p p e a r e d in t h e " u n k n o w n "c a t e g o ry , i n T a b le X / 2 1 o f t h e Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1992 , whichs e t s f o r t h t h e n u m b e r of d w e l l in g s b y n e i g h b o r h o o d , 1 6 , 0 5 3 d w e l l in g s , m o r eth a n 1 0 % of t h e c i ty ' s t o t a l , a p p e a r in t h i s c a t e g o r y . I n t h e m o s t r e c e n tY e a r b o o k (Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993, T a b l e X / 1 9 ) , t h e n u m b e r o fd w e l l i n g s in t h a t c a t e g o r y w a s s u b s t a n ti a l l y l o w e r ( 2 , 3 9 4 . w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e dso m e 1 .5 % o f t h e t o t a l u n i t s ) . T h u s , c u r r e n t s t a t i s t i c s a r e r e l a t i v e ly p r e c i s e .H o w e v e r , t h e i n c o m p le t e d a t a of t h e p a s t m a k e i t d i ff i cu l t t o a s se s s c h a n g e s o v e rthe years in the number o f res iden t ia l un i t s ava i lab le to the two popula t ions . Ina d d i t i o n , a t t im e s t h e s t a ti s t i c s p ro v id e d b y o n e so u rc e d i f f e r g r e a t ly f ro m th o s eo f a n o th e r . F o r e x a m p le , t h e s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e J e ru sa l e m Mu n ic ip a l i t y , b a se d o nm u n ic ip a l p ro p e r ty t a x p a y m e n t r e c o rd s , i n d i c a t e d th a t t h e n u m b e r o f h o u s in gu n i t s in J e r u s a l e m in N o v e m b e r of 1 9 9 2 w a s 1 3 6 , 4 9 0 ( Jerusalem Sta t i s t i ca lYearbook 1992, T a b l e X / 2 1 ) , a n d in A u g u s t of 1 9 9 3 , t h e n u m b e r w a s 1 4 4 , 7 7 0( u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ). T h i s c h a n g e i n d i c a t e s th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m o r e t h a n 8 , 0 0 0h o u s i n g u n i t s d u r i n g t h a t e i g h t - m o n t h p e r i o d . B u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i g u r e sa p p e a r i n g i n T a b l e X / 1 8 of th e Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993, w h i c hd e ta i ls c o n s t ru c t io n s t a r t e d a n d c o m p le t e d in J e r u sa l e m in 1 9 9 3 a n d i s b a se d o nf ig u re s o f t h e Min i s try o f H o u s in g , o n ly 2 , 7 2 0 h o u s in g u n i t s w e re c o n s t ru c t e d .N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e g a p in c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d h o u s i n g d e n s i t y b e t w e e n t h e J e w i s ha n d P a l e s t i n i a n p o p u la t i o n s is so g r e a t t h a t , n o tw i th s t a n d in g th e im p re c i s io n oft h e s t a t i s t i c s , t h e t r e n d s a r e c l e a r . S i n c e o f f i c i a l s e s t i m a t e t h e n u m b e r o fP a l e s t i n i a n s i n t h e c i t y t o b e m u c h h ig h e r t h a n th e n u m b e r f i x e d b y th e C e n t r a lBu rea u of Stat is t ics , i t is very l ikely that the ga ps ar e ev en wid er.3 2 . 1968 Jerusalem Master Plan, vol. 1 , Table No. 1 , p . 29.

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P a l e s t i n i a n r e s i d e n t s o f t h e W e s t B a n k w h o liv e in J e r u s a l e m b u t d o n o th o l d I s r a e l i - r e s i d e n t id e n t i t y c a r d s . 3 3In 1 9 9 3 , t h e r e w e r e 1 4 4 , 3 0 0 h o u s e h o l d s in J e r u s a l e m , 1 1 6 , 1 0 0 oft h e m J e w i s h , a n d 2 8 , 2 0 0 P a l e s t i n i a n . 3 4 P a l e s t i n i a n h o u s e h o l d s t h u sc o n s t i t u t e d 1 9 . 5 % of J e r u s a l e m h o u s e h o l d s . T h a t s a m e y e a r , t h ea v e r a g e n u m b e r of p e r s o n s in a P a l e s t i n i a n h o u s e h o l d w a s 5 . 4 1 , a so p p o s e d t o 3 . 5 3 a m o n g t h e J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n . 3 5S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , t h e P a l e s t i n i a n p o p u l a t i o n in t h e c it y h a s g r o w n a t a r a p i dp a c e . A p r i m a r y c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s g r o w t h is t h e i n c r e a s e d d e m a n df o r h o u s i n g . T h e s iz e of t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e a m o n g J e r u s a l e m ' sP a l e s t i n i a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e s t a n d a r d of h o u s i n g f o rJ e w s a n d P a l e s t i n i a n s a r e e v i d e n t f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s t i c s .

33 . No p r ec i se da t a ex is t a s r ega r ds t he ex t en t of t h is ph en om en on . Accor d i ngto Dr . Sarah Hershkowi tz , Di rec tor of the Uni t for St ra t egic Analys i s of theJeru sa le m M unic ipali ty , th i s is the s itua t ion of 20 ,0 0 0 P ales t in ians or m or e . Se eS a r a h H e r s h k o w i t z , East Jerusalem: Background Statistics f o r a s emi na r on"Conf l i c t s and Di lemmas in Munic ipal St ruggles in Eas tern Jerusa lem" ( in Hebrew) ,Munic ipal ity of Jeru sa le m, Of f i ce of the Di re c tor Ge nera l , Th e Uni t for St ra t eg icAnalysis , Apri l , 1994, p. 7. See also, Is rael Kimhi , Jerusalem, Broadening itsArea of Jurisdiction ( in Hebrew) , October , 1989, c i t ed in the r esearch of ShaulAmi r , Rache l A l t e r man , and Amnon Fr anke l , Evalua tion of the Expec ted Effectsof the Proposal to Expand the Borders of Jerusalem Westward, C e n t e r f o rU r b a n a n d R e g i o n a l R e s e a r c h , T h e T e c h n i o n - I s r a e l I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y ,November , 1990 , p . 25 . The Po l i ce M i n i s t e r , M K M os he Shaha l , on t he o t he rhand, s t a t ed , on the "Popol i t i ca" t e l evi s ion program on I s rae l i t e l evi s ion , on 10Oc t o be r 19 94 , t ha t s om e 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 P a l e s t i n i ans live in Eas t J e r us a l em . If we t akei n t o cons i de r a t i on t ha t t he annua l g r owt h i n r ecen t yea r s amoun t ed t o abou t4 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r y e a r ( Je ru sa le m Statistical Yearbook 1992, Table I I I /1) , thenumber r ep r es en t s 36 , 000 pe r s ons mor e t han t he o f f i c i a l e s t i ma t e .34 . Ce nt ra l Bureau of Sta t i s ti cs , Statistical Abstrac t of Israel - 1994, N o . 4 5 ,J e r us a l e m, 19 94 , Tab l e 2 . 3 3 . A " hous eho l d" is de f i ned by t he Cen t r a l Bur eau o fS t a t i s t i c s " a s a g r oup o f peop l e pe r manen t l y l i v i ng t oge t he r i n an apa r t men tdur i ng mos t o f t he week , and who s ha r e a f ood budge t . " Accor d i ng t o t heBur eau , " s i nce t he end o f 1987 , t he pe r s ons conduc t i ng t he s u r vey have beenunab l e t o con duc t t he s u rvey in East J e r us a l em as p l ann ed . It ha s onl y b eenexecu t ed a s r ega r ds hous eho l ds i n wh i ch i t was pos s i b l e t o do t he s u r vey byph on e ; t he s ta t is t ic s on t he non - J ewi s h pop u l a t i on in J e r us a l em s hou ld be us edwi th caut ion . " Ibid., p . 41 .35. Cent ra l Bureau of Sta t i s t i cs , Statistical Abstrac t of Israel - 1994 , T a b l e2 . 3 3 .

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1 . H o u s i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n

a. Construction of housing unitsS i n c e 1 9 6 7 , J e r u s a l e m h a s u n d e r g o n e u n p r e c e d e n t e d h o u s i n gc o n s t r u c t i o n . B e t w e e n 1 9 6 7 a n d F e b r u a r y , 1 9 9 5 , 7 6 , 1 5 1 h o u s i n gu n i t s w e r e b u i l t i n t h e c i t y , c o n s t i t u t i n g a 1 0 8 .6 % i n c r e a se i n t h en u m b e r o f h o u s i n g u n i t s .T h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e da lm os t exc lus ive ly fo r t he c ity 's Je w ish p op u la t ion ( see Tab le No . 1 ).Table No. 1: Housing Units Built, b y Nationality, 1967-199536

J e w s Pale s t in ia ns Unknown TotalNumber o fu n i t s - 1 9 6 7 57 .500 12 ,600 - 7 0 , 1 0 0Number o fu n i t s - 1 9 9 5 1 2 2 .3 6 7 2 1 ,4 9 0 2 ,3 9 4 1 4 6 , 2 5 1Units Built1 9 6 7 - 1 9 9 5 6 4 , 8 6 7 8 , 8 9 0 2 , 3 9 4 7 6 , 1 5 1

T h e s e f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t b e t w e e n N o v e m b e r of 1 9 6 7 a n d F e b r u a r yof 1 9 9 5 , 8 8 % of a ll h o u s i n g u n i t s w e r e bu il t in J e w i sh n e i g h b o r h o o d s( a b o u t ha lf t h r o u g h p u b l i c c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , a n d 1 2 % w e r e b ui lt i nP a l e s t i n i a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s ( t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y t h r o u g h p r i v a t ec o n s t r u c t i o n ) .D u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , P a l e s t i n i a n s c o n s t i t u t e d b e t w e e n 2 5 . 8 to 2 8 . 6p e r c e n t o f t h e c i t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n ( s e e A p p e n d i x N o . I ) . 3 7 A l t h o u g h t h er a t e of g r o w t h a m o n g P a l e s t i n i a n s w a s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t a m o n g t h e36 . Sources :- Israel Kimhi, Binyamin Hym an, Gabriel Claud e. Jerusalem 19671975: ASocio economic Survey (in Hebrew), Hebrew University, Jerusalem, TheInstitute for Urban and Regional Studies, 1976. Table 41, p. 58.

- Mun icipality of Jer usa lem , Th e Jer us alem Institute for Israel Stud ies,Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993. Table X/19 (this is the only tablethat provides statistics for February, 1995).37 . Th e statistics for 19 94 and 19 95 have not yet been published.

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Jews , t he pe rcen t age o f hous ing un i t s cons t ruc t ed fo r P a l es t i n i ansdecreased (see Figure No. 2).Figure No. 2: Increase in Popu lation and Hou sing Units inJerusalem , by Nationality, 1967-19 93 (Percentages)

D w e l l i n g sP o p u l a t i o n

Palestiniansews

140

120

100 -

80

60

40

20

Sources:Jerusalem 1967-1975 : A Socio-econom ic Survey. The Hebrew Univers i ty ofJerusa lem, The Ins t i tu te for Urban and Regional Studies , 1976. Table 41.

- Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993. T a b le s I I I / l . X / 1 9 .

The d ispar i ty between the scope of cons t ruct ion of hous ing uni t s fort he two g roups has i nc reased s i nce 1990 : of the 9 ,3 6 6 hous ing uni t s com pleted betw een 19 90 an d the end of1993, only 467 (5% of the uni t s cons t ructed dur ing th i s per iod)were bui l t in Pales t in ian neighborhoods .

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the greates t d i spar i ty occurred in 1993, the la tes t year for whichdata are avai lab le ; of the 2 .720 hous ing uni t s completed that year ,only 103 (3 .8% of hous ing uni t s bui l t that year) were bui l t inPales t in ian neighborhoods (see F igure No. 3) .Figure No. 3: Residential Con struction Com pleted inJerusalem, b y Nationality, 1989-1993 (Num ber of HousingUnits)

12.000

1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 3J e w s ] Palest inians |

10,000

8,000

6.000

4 , 0 0 0

2,000

1 9 8 9

T a b l e X / 1 7 .T a b l e X / 1 6 .T a b l e X / 1 6 .T a b l e X / 2 0 .T a b l e X / 1 8 .

Yearbook 1989Yearbook 1990Yearbook 1991Yearbook 1992Yearbook 1993

S o u r c e s :Jerusalem StatisticalJerusalem StatisticalJerusalem StatisticalJerusalem StatisticalJerusalem Statistical

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b. Area of buildingThe gap i n t he s cope o f cons t ruc t i on fo r t he two popu la t i ons i sexpressed not only in the number of housing uni ts bui l t , but also in thenumber o f square mete r s cons t ruc t ed . In 1991 , t he a rea bu i l t fo rPales t in ians was 8 .5% of the to ta l cons t ruct ion . In 1992, that f igurewas 9 .3%, and in 1993, 6 .3%.38

c. Construction in East JerusalemMost of t he cons t ruc t i on in J e r usa l em s ince 1 96 7 occ ur red i n t heJewi sh ne ighborhoods i n Eas t J e rusa l em ( see F igu re No . 4 ) . InF ebruary o f 1995 , t he number o f hous ing un i t s i n t he J ewi shne ighborhoods i n Eas t J e rusa l em was abou t twice t ha t o f t hose i nP a l e s t i n i a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s . T h e P a l e s t i n i a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s c o n t a i n e d20 , 900 hous ing un i t s , and t he J ewi sh ne ighborhoods i n Eas t J e rusa l emcontained some 38 ,500 uni t s (see Appendix No. 2) .

38 . Ce nt ra l Bu reau of Sta t i s ti cs , Construction in Israel - 1993, ser ies of specialpub l i ca t i ons , pub l i ca t i on No . 989 , J e r us a l em, November , 1994 , Tab l e No . 50 .

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Figure No. 4: Residential Con struction Com pleted inJerusalem, b y Nationality and Area, 1967-1995(Percentages)

Jewish - East JerusalemJewish - West Jerusalem

HI Palest inian| Unknown

Sources:Jerusalem 1967-1975 : A Socio-econom ic Survey. The Hebrew Univers i ty ofJerusa lem, The Ins t i tu te for Urban and Regional Studies , 1976. Table 41.Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993. Tab les I I I / l , X /1 9 .

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2 . H o u s i n g d e n s i t yD e n s i t y , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m e a s u r e in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s t a n d a r d ofhous ing , r e fe r s to the number of pe rsons l iv ing in a room ( regard less oft h e r o o m ' s si ze ). In t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d , h o u s i n g i s c o n s i d e r e do v e r c r o w d e d w h e n m o r e t h a n t w o p e r s o n s liv e in a r o o m . T h ea ve r a ge hous ing de ns i ty in the We s t i s 0 .7 pe r sons pe r r oom . 3 9Th e s ta t i s t ic s indica te tha t hou s ing dens i ty in Je ru sa l em is h ig her am on gP a le s t in i a ns tha n a m ong Je ws . As o f 1993 : Av e r a ge hous ing de ns i ty pe r r oo m a m o ng P a le s t in i a ns wa s tw ice a sh igh a s a m ong Je ws . The de ns i ty a m ong Je ws wa s 1 .1 pe r sons pe rr o o m , w h i l e a m o n g J e r u s a l e m ' s P a l e s t i n i a n s , a v e r a g e d e n s i t y w a s2 . 2 p e r s o n s p e r r o o m . Alm ost one- th i rd of Je r us a le m 's Pa les t in ian s (32 .3 % ) w ere living inc ond i t ions o f hous ing de ns i ty o f m or e tha n th r e e pe r sons pe r r oom ,a s o p p o s e d t o o n l y 2 . 4 % a m o n g J e w s . Th i r ty- four pe rce nt of Je w s l ived in hou s ing uni t s in wh ich hou s ingde ns i ty is l es s t ha n o ne p e r son pe r r oom , a s op po se d to only 8 .9 %of Palest inians.4 0Th e num be r of squa re m ete rs pe r pe rso n i s fur th e r ev id ence of the g apin h o u s i n g d e n s i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e a v e r a g eres ident ia l a rea p e r Jew ish res iden t in Je r usa lem is m or e than twice ash igh as tha t of a Pa les t in ian res ident . As of December of 1993, the rewe re 18 .4 squa re m ete rs of bui l t -up land for eac h Je w , an d only 7 .8squa r e m e te r s pe r P a le s t in i a n .

39 . See Huber t Lu- Yon and Rache l Ka l us h , Housing in Israel, Policy andInequality ( in Hebrew) (Tel Aviv, Adva Ins t i tute, 1994) , Table 17.4 0 . Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993, T a b l e V I / 1 4 . T h e Y e a r b o o k n o t e s ,in no te 2 : "Due to d i f f icul t i es in as sem bl ing data on Eas t Je ru sa lem f rom 1 9 8 8onw ar ds , f i gu r es con ce r n i n g no n- J ew s s hou l d be t r ea t ed w it h r e s e r va t i on . "


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Table No. 2: Population and Residential Building Area inJerusalem, 1993

Population (inth o u sa n d s)1 1

Residential Building Area(in thousands of m 2 ) 4 2

Square Metersper Person'3

T o ta l 5 6 7 . 2 1 0 , 1 7 8 -J e w s

4 0 6 . 4W . Je rusa l em 5 , 2 7 7

18.4J e w s

4 0 6 . 4 E. Jerusa lem 2, 21 0 18.4J e w s

4 0 6 . 4T o t a l 7 , 4 8 7

18.4

P a l e s t i n i a n s 1 6 0 . 8 1 , 2 5 5 7 .8U n k n o w n - 1 , 4 3 6 -

B e t w e e n 1 9 6 7 a n d t h e e n d o f 1 9 9 3 , t h e g a p in h o u s i n g d e n s i t yb e t w e e n t h e t w o p o p u l a t i o n s d o u b l e d , f r o m 5 0 % t o 1 0 0 % ( se e T a b l eN o . 3 ) .Table No. 3: Gap in Average Housing Density per Room inJerusalem, by Nationality, in Selected Years

Y e a r s 1 9 6 7 1 9 7 2 1 9 8 3 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3J e w s 1.6 1.4 1 .06 1.1 1.1 1.1 1 .1P a l e s t i n i a n s 2 .4 2 .7 2 .04 2 .2 2 .5 2 .0 2 .2G a p 5 0 . 0 9 2 . 8 9 2 . 4 1 0 9 . 0 1 2 7 . 2 8 1 . 8 1 0 0 . 0

4 1 . Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993, Table I I I / l .4 2 . Ibid., Tab le X /1 9 Th e num ber s a r e rounded off t o t he nea res t hun dred .4 3. Th e calculat ion is ma de by dividing the residential buil t-up are a for eac h of thepopula t ions by the number of persons in each popula t ion .4 4 . S o u r c e s :- 1968 Jerusalem Master Plan, Table No. 1.- Ce ntral Bu reau of Stat ist ics, 1972 Census and Housing Publications:Housing and Hom e Equipment Conditions, Table No. 1.- Ce ntral Bu reau of Stat ist ics, 1983 Census and Housing Publications:

Housing and Hom e Equipment Conditions, Je rusa l em . 1986 .Table No. 1.- Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1992, Tab le V I /4 .- Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1993, Tab le V I /14 .

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T h e 1968 Jerusalem M aster Plan f o r e c a s t e d a d e c r e a s e f o r t h eJewish popula t ion f rom 1 .6 persons per room in 1967 to 1 . 2 i n 1985 ,and fo r t he P a l es t i n i an popu la t i on , a dec rease f rom 2 . 4 pe r sons pe rroom to 1 .6 for the same per iod . 4 5W hi le dens i t y o f t he J ewi sh popu la t i on dec reased even more t hanpredic ted (s tanding a t 1 .1 persons per room in 1986) , hous ing dens i tyamong Pales t in ians d id not decrease as predic ted , and remained aboutthe same (2 .2 persons per room in 1986) . 4 6The increasing gap in housing densi ty s ince 1967 is part icularly evidentwhen cons ide r ing t he number o f r e s iden t s l i v ing t h ree and morep e r s o n s p e r r o o m . B e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 9 3 , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o fPalest inian famil ies l iving three or more persons per room increased vis-a-vis the ent i re populat ion of Jerusalem l iving in that housing densi ty(see Table No. 4).Table N o. 4: Nu mber of Fam ilies living in Hou sing Density ofThree or more Persons per Room , by Nationality, 1972, 1993

1 9 7 2 4 7 j 99348

J e w s 5 , 2 5 0 ( 4 2 . 7 % ) 2 , 7 0 2 ( 2 2 . 9 % )Pales t inians 7 , 0 4 5 ( 5 7 . 3 % ) 9 , 0 9 8 ( 7 7 . 1 % )Total 1 2 , 2 9 5 ( 1 0 0 % ) 1 1 , 8 0 0 ( 1 0 0 % )

Th e f igures show that the propo r t ion of Palest in ian fami l ies co m pa redwi th Jewish fami l ies l iv ing under these condi t ions of hous ing dens i tyincreased dur ing that per iod: in 1 9 7 2 , for ea ch Jew ish family l iving in ho usin g den si ty of thr eepersons or more per room, 1 .3 Pales t in ian fami l ies l ived in thosesame cond i t i ons in 1 9 9 3 , fo r ea ch Jew i sh fami ly l iv ing in t h i s ove rc r ow de dcondit ion, there were 3.4 Palest inian famil ies4 5 . 1968 Jerusalem Master Plan , Jerus a lem , 1 97 2, vol. 1 , Table No. 1 , p . 2 9 .46. No s ta t i s t ics for housing densi ty in 1985 exis t , and the s ta t i s t ic re la tes ,t he re fo re , t o 1986 . See Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook 1992, Tab le V I /4 .47 . Th er e are no sta t is t ics for housin g densi ty in 19 67 . Th e Jeru sa le m MasterPlan detai ls only average density. See, 1968 Jerusalem Master Plan, Table No.1 , p . 29 . The f igure on dens i ty for 1972 are adapted f rom s ta t i s t ics appear ing inTable N o. 1 of the Cen t ra l B ureau of Sta t i s t ics , 1972 Census and HousingPublications: Housing and Hom e Furnishings Conditions.48 . Th e s ta ti s tics for 1 99 3 are ada pted f rom those ap pe ar in g in the JerusalemStatistical Yearbook 1993, T a b l e V I / 1 4 .

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Among the J ewi sh popu la t i on , t he re was a s i gn i f i can t dec rease i n t henumber of households l iv ing in such hous ing dens i ty , whereas amongthe Pales t in ian popula t ion , the number of such households increased . Asthe yea r s pas sed , t he d i spa r i t y g rew be tween t he two popu la t i ons asregards the percentage of famil ies l iving in such densi ty (see Table No.5 ).Table No. 5: Gap in Housing Density in Jerusalem, byNa tionality, in Selected Years (Percentage of Hou seholdsliving in Housing Density of Three or more Persons perRoom)

Y e a rs 1 9 7 2 1 9 8 3 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3J e w s 8.4 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.2 3.1 2.4Palest in ians 49.0 26.5 33.5 47.9 27.2 30.9 32.3Gap 48 3.3 2108.3 2133.3 21 80 .9 1136.3 896.7 1 2 4 5 . 8

3 . H o u s i n g n e e d sS ince t he c i t y has no t conduc t ed any resea rch t o as ses s P a l es t i n i ann e e d s , t h e p r e c i s e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e a m o n g t h eP a l e s t i n i a n p o p u l a t i o n is u n k n o w n . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s p r e v i o u sl ym ent io ne d, off ic ia l s es t ima te the curren t Pales t in ian pop ula t ion a s muc hhigher than the f igures given by the Central Bureau of Stat is t ics . Ci typ l a n n e r s a n d a r c h i t e c t s w h o s p e c i a l i z e i n p l a n n i n g i n J e r u s a l e m ' s

49. Sources:- Cen tral Bureau of Statistics, 1972 Census and Housing Publications:Housing and Home Equipment Conditions. Table No. 1.- Cen tral Bureau of Statistics, 1983 Census and Housing Publications:Housing and Home Equipment Conditions. Table No. 1.- Jerusalem Statistical Yearboo k 1992. Table VI/4.- Jerusalem Statistical Yearboo k 1993, Table VI/14.

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P a l e s t i n i a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e a m o n gP a l e s t i n i a n s e x c e e d s 2 0 , 0 0 0 u n i t s .5 0A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e r e a r e c u r r e n t l y s o m e 2 0 , 9 0 0 h o u s i n g u n i t s i nJ e r u s a l e m ' s P a l e s t i n i a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s . A d d r e s s i n g t h e P a l e s t i n i a nh o u s i n g s h o r t a g e w o u ld r e q u i r e , t h e r e f o r e , a 1 0 0 % i n c r e a s e in t h enumber o f hous ing un i t s ava i l ab l e t o Pa le s t in i ans .

C o n c l u s i o n

M u n i c i p a l p l a n n i n g o f f i c i a l s h a v e o f t e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e i s s u e ofo v e r c r o w d i n g i n P a l e s t i n i a n h o u s i n g a n d t h e e x i s ti n g g a p b e t w e e nJ e w i s h a n d P a l e s t i n ia n n e i g h b o r h o o d s in h o u s i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n dm u n i c i p a l s e rv i c e s r e s ul t f r o m t h e J o r d a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t ' s n e g l e c t ofE a s t J e r u s a l e m b e t w e e n 1 9 4 8 a n d 1 9 6 7 . F o r e x a m p l e , a b r o c h u r epub l i shed by the Je ru sa l em Mu nic ipa li t y i n Apr i l o f 1 9 9 4 s t a t e s :T h e A r a b s e c t o r in e a s t e r n J e r u s a l e m c u r r e n t l y s u f f e r s f r o m am a j o r d e f i c i e n c y o f m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s , b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d so c i a l .M u c h o f t h i s r e s u l t s f r o m t h e e n o r m o u s g a p b e t w e e n t h e t w opa r t s o f t he c i ty , which a l ready ex i s t ed in 1967 . 5 1

50 . Accord ing to research conduc ted in Ju ne of 1 99 4 by Sara h Kam inker (whowas in charge of Palestinian neighborhood planning in the Jerusalem Municipali tyfrom 1976-1981 , and la te r was a member of the Loca l P lanning and Bui ld ingCo mm i t t e e ), th e h ou s in g s h o r ta g e a m o n g J e ru s a le m Pa le st in ia n s is a b o u t 2 1 ,0 0 0hous ing un i ts . Sarah Kaminker and Assoc ia tes , Planning and Housing Issues inEast Jerusalem, a repor t p repared for the Soc ie ty of S t . Yves in response toHig h Co u r t of J u s t i c e p e t i t io n 1 0 9 1 /9 4 . p . 2 6 . Ac c o rd in g to Ze ' e v Ba ra n ,architect and town planner, who prepared, for the municipali ty , a number of plansfo r th e Pa le s t in ia n n e ig h b o r h o o d s , th e s h o r ta g e of r es id e n t ia l u n i t s a m o n gP a l e s t i n i a n s e x c e e d s 2 5 , 0 0 0 . S e e Z e ' e v B a r a n , The Palestinian Sector ofJerusalem: Needs. Po licies and Expectations (unpublished).5 1 . East Jerusalem: Backgrou nd Statistics for a seminar on "Confl ic ts andDilemmas in Municipal Struggles in Eastern Jerusalem" (in Hebrew), Municipali tyof Je ru sa le m , O ff ice of the Direc tor Gen era l , T he Uni t fo r S tra te g ic A na lys is ,April, 1994, p. 3 (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) .

4 2


43/127

T h e m u n i c i p a li ty c o n t e n d s t h a t it m a d e n u m e r o u s e f f o r t s t o c l o s e t h eg a p . A b r o c h u r e p r e p a r e d i n 1 9 8 6 s t a t e s t h a t :

S i n c e t h e n [ 1 9 6 7 ] , e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e t o r e d u c e t h ed i spa r i ty i n t he p rov i s ion o f munic ipa l se rv i ces , t o make p rogressi n p l a n n i n g , a n d t o a c t i n t h e e a s t e r n s e c t o r a s i n t h e w e s t e r npar t of the c i ty . 5 2T h e s t a t i s t i c s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e s h o w t h a t t h e s e c l a i m s a r e u n f o u n d e d .S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , t h e h o u s i n g g a p b e t w e e n J e w s a n d P a l e s t i n i a n s h a s n o td e c r e a se d , a n d a s w ill b e sh o w n , n o e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e t o r e d u c ei t . In f ac t , t he oppos i t e i s t rue , fo r t he gap has g rown wide r and wide r .

5 2 . Developm ent Plan for the Arab Sector ( in Hebrew) , Munic ipa l i ty ofJe ru sa l em . M unicipa l P l ann ing D e pa r tm en t . P l ann ing Po li cy Sec t ion , J e rus a l em ,1986. p . 2 ( t rans la ted by B T s e l e m ) .

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B. POLICY

"Th e fu l f i llmen t o f r i gh t s , in p ra c t i ce , is ex pre sse d w he n th ey a rer e s p e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e i r implementation in practice, w i t hequa l i t y and wi thou t i nva l id d i sc r imina t ion ."Supreme Court President Meir Shamga r53

"I a m l o o k i n g a f t e r t h e J e w i s h m a j o r i t y . . . t h e m a j o r i t y inJe r u s a l e m . T h a t i s w h y w e a r e h e r e , t o t a k e c a r e of t h a t . "

Teddy Kollek, while mayor of Jerusalem54

T h e h o u s i n g s h o r t a g e s u f f e r e d b y P a l e s t i n ia n s in J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e g a pb e t w e e n t h e J e w i s h a n d P a l e s ti n i a n p o p u l a t i o n s a r e t h e c u m u l a t iv er e su l t o f t h e sy s t e m a t i c d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h a t h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d I s r a e l ' sp l a n n i n g , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d h o u s i n g p o l ic i es s i n ce 1 9 6 7 .O f f i c ia l d o c u m e n t s of t h e J e r u s a l e m M u n i c ip a li ty a n d s t a t e m e n t s m a d eb y I s r a e l i p o l i c y m a k e r s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t o fJ e r u sa l e m h a s b e e n d i c t a t e d c h ie f l y b y n a t i o n a l - p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n si n t e n d e d t o a c h i e v e o n e c e n t r a l g o a l : t o c r e a t e a d e m o g r a p h i c a n dg e o g r a p h i c r e a li ty t h a t w o u l d p r e e m p t a n y f u t u r e a t t e m p t t o c h a l l e n g eI s r a e l i so v e r e i g n t y o v e r E a s t J e r u sa l e m . 5 5

5 3 . E l ec ti o ns A p p e a l 2 , 3 / 8 4 , Neiman v. Central Elections Comm ittee for theEleventh Knesset, Piske i Din 39(2) 225 , 261-262 ( t rans la ted by B ' T s e l e m .emphasis in the original).54 . Minutes of Je rusa lem Munic ipal Counc i l mee t in g , 24 Janu ary 19 82 , R eport42, pp. 11-12 (translated by B ' T s e l e m ) .55. Alread

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