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INDIAN INSTITUTE OF e - BUSINESS MANAGEMENTpioneers in e-Business Management education
Business Communication, Personality Development & Grooming
Index
Sr. No. Chapter
1. Nature and Process of Communication
2. Written Business Communication
3. Business Communication
4. Oral Communication
5. Non-Verbal Communication
6. Presentation Skills
7. Group Discussions
8. Personal Interviews
9. Business Etiquettes
TM
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Part I : Theory of Communication {8 hours}
Introduction:
Modern organizations are complex social systems. This complexity calls for proper communication within the system. No social system functions effectively without meaningful interaction among its participants. Thus communication serves as a means to link organizational participants.
This part deals with various aspects of good communication.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of his unit, you will be able to: Explain the purpose of communication. Describe the process of communication and the factors that contribute to effective
communication. Identify the barriers to communication and suggest ways to overcome these
barriers.
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Chapter 1 : Nature and Process of Communication
Meaning and importance of communication : Role of communication
The teacher can start the topic with a game of drawing a picture/ geometric figure on the board by one student who gets his directions on how to draw from another student or by a case study.
Human beings are poor communicators. The irony is we hardly ever realize that when we fail to achieve our objective in relationships, negotiations or decision-making, it is, to quite an extent, owing to a failure in communicating our purpose and ideas accurately to the others involved.
It may be a failure in terms of the content of the message or the form of the message/ communication, or both.
Instances of such failures in communication are common in personal and organizational communications. You may have heard your colleagues or friends remark –“Sorry, I did not realize that you wanted me to ….”OR “I would have changed the arrangement, but nobody told me that it was to be changed in this way.”
The teacher can give any other example showing the failure of communication.
Defining Communication
The term ‘communication’ is freely used by behavioural theorists, management scholars and the general public. While the communication discipline has been varyingly defined over the years, recently, several definitions have been recognized and adopted to understand the meaning of communication.
The word ‘ communication’ is derived from “communis”(Latin), meaning “common”.
Newman and Summer define communication as “an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”
Keith Davis defines communication as “the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values. It is a bridge of meanings among people so that they can share what they feel and know. By using this bridge, a person can cross safely the river of misunderstanding that sometimes separates people.”
The teacher can give a few more definitions.
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Classification of Communication
We classify communication according to the number of persons to whom the message is addressed.
Intrapersonal communication : Talking to oneself
Interpersonal communication : It is the exchange of messages between two persons.
Group communication : It can be among small or large groups.
Mass communication : It occurs when the message is sent to large groups of people.
Communication can also be classified on the basis of the medium employed.
Verbal communication : It means communicating with words, written or spoken.
Non-verbal communication : It includes using pictures, signs, gestures and facial expressions for exchanging information between persons.
Communication can be categorized depending upon the channels.
Internal or Organizational communication : The communication that takes place between the members of an organization – within themselves, is internal communication.
External communication : It means communication between the organization and those outside the organization.
Formal communication : It is defined as communication which occurs through the official channels.
Informal communication : It is that which occurs outside the recognized networks such as talking in the canteens or hallways between employees.
Purpose of Communication
Broadly speaking, in business we communicate to – Inform Persuade
Often, these two goals are present in the mind of the communicator. However, he may sometimes seek only to inform, just as all scientific writings do. He would still want the reader to be convinced about the validity of his findings. Likewise, the communicator may basically seek to persuade the reader as all journalistic writings
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do. Or the communicator may both inform and persuade, as all sales letters / advertisements / announcements do.
Communication to inform : Communication to inform (expository communication) is directed by the desire to expose, develop and explain the subject. Its focus is on the subject of the communication.
The teacher can elaborate by giving examples.
Communicate to persuade : Essentially, all communication is a deliberate and intentional act of persuasion. A persuasive communicator wants the reader to understand the message and to be influenced, as intended by him.
The teacher can elaborate by giving examples.
Apart from the broad purpose of communication, it serves the following purposes in an organization :
Helps establish and disseminate the goals of an organization Facilitates the development of plans for the achievement of goals Helps managers select, develop and appraise the members of their
organization. Helps managers lead, direct and motivate employees and thereby create a
climate in which everyone is willing to contribute. Facilitates control and evaluation of performance.
Chester Barnard studied the communication process in organizations. He observed that communication linked people together in an organization to achieve a common purpose.
The purpose of communication is to “effect a change” or “to bring about a change”. Communication may also lead to some “new action”.
Teacher can elaborate by giving examples.
Elements of Communication
The various elements of communication are briefly described to help you understand the process of communication.
Message : It is information, written or spoken, which is to be sent from one person to another.
Sender : The person who transmits, spreads or communicates a message or operates an electronic device is the one who conceives and initiates the message.
Encoding : Encoding is changing the message into symbols i.e. putting ideas, facts, feelings and opinions into symbols.
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Channel : This is the vehicle or medium which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver.
Receiver : A receiver is the targeted audience of the message.
Decoding : This is the act of translating symbols of communication into their ordinary meanings.
Acting : Communication manipulates the receiver to act in a desired manner.
Feedback : This is the loop that connects the receiver in the communication process with the sender, who, in turn, acts as a feedback receiver and, thus, gets to know that communication has been accomplished.
Process of Communication
Normally, communication is interpersonal, wherein the information or message is transferred from one person to the other(s). The person who transmits the message is called the sender or transmitter. The person(s) receiving the message is the receiver. The transmitter is expected to send the information in a format which the receiver(s) can understand. The process of converting the information that has to be sent, into a format which the receiver can understand is known as encoding.
Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats – oral, written or visual. Once the message is encoded in a desired format, it is transferred through a medium called channel. A channel connects the sender to the receiver. Channels of communication may be a letter, memorandum, computer, telephone, fax, telegram or a television. The choice of the correct channel depends on the situation under which the communication takes place. For e.g. when you have to communicate extremely confidential information, direct face-to-face communication or communication through a sealed letter, is better than a telephonic conversation.
The information which is transferred to the receiver has to be interpreted. This process of interpretation is known as decoding. In order to decode the message, the receiver should be ready to receive the message. He should not be pre-occupied with other thoughts that would distract him.
Finally, the receiver will send a message back to the transmitter. It may be a reply to the query made by the sender or any apt response to the message delivered by the sender. This reply confirms whether the information sent has been understood or not. This process is known as feedback.
The diagram given below illustrates the communication process
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The other models of communication process are : The Linear Concept Shannon – Weaver Model
The teacher can explain these two processes of communication also.
Barriers to Communication
In communication, as a psycho-semantic process, the word barrier implies, mainly, something non-physical that keeps people apart or prevents activity, movement, and so on. For eg. social / thnic / language barriers or lack of confidence. These negative forces may affect the effectiveness of communication by acting upon any or all of the basic elements of communication act / process and the sender / receiver / channel.
The commonly experienced barriers to communication are –o Noiseo Lack of planningo Wrong / unclarified assumptionso Semantic problemso Cultural barrierso Socio-psychological barrierso Emotionso Selective perceptiono Filteringo Information overloado Loss by transmissiono Poor retentiono Poor listening
ResponseFeedback
Noise
Message
Media
Sender Encoding Decoding
Receiver
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o Goal conflictso Offensive styleo Time and distanceo Abstractingo Inferring
Broadly speaking, some of these barriers can be attributed to the sender and the receiver.
The teacher can further divide the above mentioned barriers into sender related and receiver related barriers to communication. The teacher can supplement the above mentioned barriers with relevant examples and case study.
Conditions for Successful Communication
In the communication process, the role of the receiver is as important as that of sender. There are 5 receiver steps in the process of communication – Receive, Understand, Accept, Use and Give a Feedback. Without these steps, being followed by the receiver, no communication process would be complete and successful.
Communication is successful when : The message is properly understood. The purpose of the sender is fulfilled. The sender and receiver of the message remain linked through feedback.
Characteristics of Successful Communication
There are 7 Cs to remember in verbal and written communication. They are :1. Candidness2. Clarity3. Completeness4. Conciseness5. Concreteness6. Correctness7. Courtesy
The teacher can elaborate with the help of examples and case study.
The Impact of Communication on Performance
Effective communication is the foundation of a well-defined strategy that enables any organization to achieve its set goals. It motivates its employees to perform better. A close tie between business, performance, technology and communication strategies provides a strong base for understanding and support within an organization. While various combinations of performance interventions have been developed to help build a high –performing organization, they cannot be effective without proper communication. Effective communication builds awareness and / or motivates the employees to action, and thereby enhance the personal growth of the employees on one hand and the growth of the organization on the other.
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An organization is more than a set of by-laws, financial reports or organizational charts. It is a group of “people”. We cannot deny the social aspects of the workplace because it inhibits the transfer of information and knowledge and hinders the organization’s ability to outperform and innovate.
It is more than often that you are in a dilemma about issuing new instructions. The problem is paramount especially when you have to address people representing mixed organizational ranks. Effective communication enables you to hold a “relaxed” meeting and read to them what you wrote so that they could critique.
The challenge before every employee in an organization is to harness the social nature of work for the benefit of the company. One of the primary advantages of the social side of work is that it is the primary conduit for the transfer of knowledge or the message with a view to initiate effective communication. Some of the keys for effective communication that create a positive impact on your performance are as follows :
1. Consideration for others2. Be democratic3. Keep smiling and thank people whenever necessary4. Have an open door policy5. Increase the face-to-face communication instead of written directives6. Leave behind your ego
Assignments
1. Why is communication important for good relationship and effective management?
2. Indicate the critical difference between successful and ineffective communication3. Do you agree that, in its final form, communication is a manifestation of the
personalities of both the sender and the receiver? Discuss.4. Briefly describe a communication incident and list the barriers to communication
which prevented the right message getting through.5. Conduct a 5 minute conversation with another member of the class in which one
of you plays the role of a manager telling an employee why he/she is not getting a raise in salary this year and the other plays the role of the employee, who realizes funds for raises are limited, but feels he/she should be one of those who does get a raise this year. After completing the conversation analyze :
How effective would you say you were in the conversation? How do the factors you had in mind help explain your degree of
effectiveness? How could you have been more effective?
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Part 2 Forms of Communication {23 hours}Introduction:
Writing is a skill which can be mastered, if the right skills are learnt and practiced. More than being methodical, you should also know to use the right words at the right time. To make your writing task easy, you should learn to put yourself in the shoes of the reader of your letter. While concentrating on the style of writing, use formal tone for the business letter and try not to impress your readers with complicated words. Among the types of communication, oral communication is the most important type that helps you to express clearly your intentions to the listener. Communication through words can be both informal and formal. At the informal stages, at your home, or among your friends, you do not pay much attention to the skills of oral communication. However, in the cases of formal environment, whether at office, or a seminar or conference, oral communication needs special attention to be effective. In addition para-language is also very important.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of his unit, you will be able to: Prepare notes during an oral presentation. Write notes from reference books and rewrite as an essay. Paraphrase given texts. Differentiate between letters and use effective language and style for different
letters. Write effective covering letters to apply for a job. Draft an effective résumé. Write faxes, telegrams and e-mails. Distinguish between the types of meetings and explain their uses. Organize a meeting, prepare an agenda and write the minutes of the meeting. Write memos, circulars and notices. Write technical reports. Make effective conversation over the telephone. Explain the importance of non-verbal communication. Develop non-verbal communication skills.
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Chapter 2 : Written Business Communication
Art of Writing
Writing is a mode of communicating a message for a purpose. Writing reveals one’s ability to think clearly and to use language effectively.
A manager is responsible for a variety of written communications such as replies to clients, enquires, memos, recording agreements, proposals for contracts, formal or informal reports to initiate action and so on. A manager should be able to convey information, ideas, instructions, decisions and welfare proposals in written form, in keeping with the level of the people who receive and read them. As historian Barbara Tuchman rightly says, “it takes two to complete the function of the written word.” But this function can be largely met only when the writer keeps the written form simple, concise and brief.
Purpose of writing
The first task for writing effectively is to identify the purpose of the communication. There are mainly two purposes of communication in business situations – to inform and to persuade.
Writing to Inform : When the writer seeks to give information and offers to explain it, the writing is called informative writing. The focus of informative writing is on the subject or the matter under discussion. Informative writing is found in accounts of facts, scientific data, statistics and technical and business reports.
Informative writing presents information not opinions. Its purpose is to inform and not persuade. It is, therefore, written with maximum objectivity.
The following questions must be answered in the affirmative to determine if any piece of writing is effective informative writing:
1. Does it focus on the subject under discussion?2. Does it primarily inform rather than persuade the reader?3. Does it offer complete and exact information?4. Can the information be ascertained?5. Does it present information logically and clearly?6. Does it make good reading?
The teacher can give an example for the same.
Writing to Persuade : Persuasive writing aims at convincing the reader about a matter, which is debatable; it expresses opinion rather than facts. This is why the writing is also called argumentative, for it supports and argues a certain viewpoint or position. The matter has two or more sides to it. But the writer seeks to influence and convince the reader to accept the position put forth.
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Persuasive writing focuses on the reader. The writer attempts to change the reader’s thinking and bring it closer to his own way of thinking. Persuasive writing is found in opinion essays, editorials, letters to the editors, business/research proposals, religious books, reviews or literature belonging to a certain political party or social philosophy.
Persuasive writing does more than just state an opinion. For that is not enough. The opinion must be convincing. There has to be supporting evidence or facts to back the (writer’s) opinion or point of view. The point of view should be well-argued. The reasoning should be logical, acceptable and clearly arranged.
The following questions must be answered in the affirmative for a passage to be persuasive.
1. Does it focus on the reader?2. Does it basically seek to convince rather than inform?3. Does it support its viewpoint by giving information or valid reasons?4. Does it clearly follow a logical arrangement of thought and reasoning?5. Does it finally evoke the intended response from the reader?
The teacher can give an example for the same.
Principles of effective writing
Effectiveness of written communication is achieved by following the principles of
Accuracy : To be accurate you should check and double check all information for – Facts, figures and words- Language and tone
Brevity : Brevity consists in saying only what needs to be said and leaving out unnecessary words or details. Being brief does not mean saying less than what the occasion demands. Brevity is not to be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor is brevity to be gained by sacrificing proper English.
Clarity : To help the reader read fast and know the main subject of the message at the very beginning of a sentence choose active choice. Often the use of sexist language is unconscious. We often fail to realize that a certain phrase or word used implies an unfavorable reference to the honor and competence of women. Do not use words which lower the dignity and status of women. Also never use slang words for women.
Note taking
After selecting and understanding the most relevant texts or speech/instructions, the next step is usually to make notes on the important sections of the texts or instructions that you require. Note taking is the practice of writing pieces of information, often in an informal or unstructured manner. Notes are frequently written in notebooks, though any available piece of paper can suffice in many circumstances. Note taking is an important skill for students, especially at the college level. Many different forms are used to structure information and make it easier to find later.
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Systems of note taking :
Cornell Notes : When using the Cornell note-taking system a strip of white space is left to the left side of the notes that are written as they come up. Questions or key words based on the notes are written in the white space after the session has ended. The Cornell method requires no rewriting and yet results in systematic notes.
Charting : Charting means that one creates a table with rows and columns. This is a useful method for facts and relationships.
Outlining : While notes can be written freely, many people structure their writing in an outline. A common system consists of headings that use Roman numerals, letters of the alphabet, and the common Arabic numeral system at different levels. A typical structure would be:
I. First main topic A. Subtopic 1. Detail 2. Detail B. Subtopic II. Second main topic A. Subtopic
However, this sort of structure has limitations since it is difficult to go back and insert more information. It is possible to simply leave large spaces in between, but another common alternative is a mind map.
Mapping : Here, ideas are written with lines connecting them together in a tree-like structure. Mind Maps are commonly drawn this way, but with a central point, many colors, little graphics and anything that helps to visualize the information easier. The Mind Map starts with a purpose or goal and then identifies all the ideas that contribute to the goal. It is also used for planning and writing essays.
Sentence method : Every new thought is written as a new line. Speed is the most desirable attribute of this method because not much thought about formatting is needed to form the layout and create enough space for more notes. Also, you must number each new thought.
SQ3R : SQ3R is a method for taking notes from written material, though it might be better classed as method of reading and gaining understanding. Material is skimmed to produce a list of headings, that are then converted into questions. These questions are then considered whilst the text is read to provide motivation for what is being covered. Notes are written under sections headed by the questions as each of the material's sections is read. One then makes a summary from memory, and reviews the notes.
Problems that arise from note taking
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Unfortunately, it is often the case that while students are busy taking notes, they do not pay sufficient attention to what the professor is actually saying or explaining. This fact justifies the use of handouts and conspectus printed out in advance and given out to each student. The flip side of this is that note taking makes learning "active learning" asopposed to "passive learning." When students have nothing to do but listen to the lecture, it is difficult for them to stay alert and attentive all of the time.
Possible solutions
An easy solution to the problem is to figure out if you are an auditory learner. If you are, then it's probably better to listen and review with your textbook. If you are a visual learner, then the best would probably be a combination of listening and note taking. If you learn by writing then you should focus more on note taking.
Note taking from reading
There are three main ways to take notes from written material.
The first is direct quotation, in which the note taker copies a passage verbatim from the original text. Normally the copied passage should be enclosed in quotation marks.
The second method is paraphrasing. This involves a rephrasing of the information in the reader's own words, indicating that he or she has read and comprehended the information enough to restate it.
The third method is summarizing. Summarizing involves not just rephrasing the information but condensing it to the essential meaning.
2.5 Paraphrasing
Paraphrase is restatement of a text or passage, using other words. The term "paraphrase" derives via the Latin "paraphrasis" from the Greek para phraseïn, meaning "additional manner of expression".
A paraphrase typically explains or clarifies the text that is being paraphrased.
A paraphrase need not accompany a direct quotation, but when this is so, the paraphrase typically serves to put the source's statement into perspective or to clarify the context in which it appeared. A paraphrase is typically more detailed than a summary.
One feature of a paraphrase is that it preserves the essential meaning of the material being paraphrased. Effective paraphrasing avoids the risk of plagiarism.
The teacher can elaborate with the help of examples and by giving exercises to solve.
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Assignments :
1. Think of a matter about which you know quite a lot. Now think of someone who knows very little, or even nothing about the matter – your boss, perhaps, or a friend.
a. Write them a briefing note, giving them all the information they would need in order to discuss the matter intelligently.
b. Now, if possible, test its effectiveness by showing it to the other person and asking them whether it would serve its purpose, whether you have got the level of detail right, whether you have written it in a comprehensible manner, whether, in fact, they would feel confident to attend a meeting at which the matter was to be discussed, simply on the basis of your briefing note.
2. Develop each of the following topic sentences into a complete paragraph a. Environmental and health problems aside, the bottom line for the production of energy is profit. b. Researchers see a lot of possibilities in cyberspace
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Chapter 3 : Business Communications
Letter Writing
Purpose of a Business LetterA business letter is a formal way of communicating between two or more parties. There are many different uses and business letters. Business letters can be informational, persuasive, motivational, or promotional. Business letters should be typed and printed out on standard 8.5" x 11" white paper.
Elements of a Good LetterThe most important element of writing a good letter is your ability to identify and write to your audience. If you are addressing your letter to the department of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms that only engineers would understand, even if your letter is addressed to an engineering company, chances are that the personnel in human resources does not have an engineering background.
The next element is that you make sure your present your objective in a clear and concise manner. Don't be vague about your objective, most people will not have the patience to sit there and guess at the meaning of your letter or the time to read a long-winded letter, just get to the point without going into unnecessary details.
Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a complaint letter, remain polite and courteous, simply state the problem(s) along with any other relevant information and be sure to avoid threats and slander.
Principles of writing letters
Following are the principles that should be followed to make our letters effective :
1. Courtesy and Consideration : The basis of any relationship is built on the strong edifice of feelings for others. Courtesy is like the oil which removes the friction, it makes life smooth and helps win friends. It softens the sting of an unpleasant piece of information, creates goodwill and produces a favorable response. The following sentences may help you word your business letter in a polite manner :
Many thanks for your letter of …………. Thank you very much for your letter of …….. We are glad to note that you are now in a position to pay our bill. We appreciate your writing to us so promptly. We regret to inform you that we cannot meet your order immediately. We are sorry that you did not receive the order in time.
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The more you use the phrases that are given above, you should avoid the following phrases as much as possible because they may irritate your reader for considering him inferior to you!
You state….. You are wrong in saying….. We find it difficult to believe….. Your claim that….. We must firmly state…. Your complaint that……… We cannot accede to your request…….. We are forced to refuse……… We demand………….
2. Conciseness : While writing a business letter it is important that your letter be concise and direct. Avoid old fashioned, stuffy phrases and long winded sentences associated with classic formal letter writing. In the present times, people are very busy and will be easily irritated to read unnecessarily lengthy letters. So you should focus directly on the message to be told. Express your idea in straightforward, plain English.
Don’t Use UseAs per In accordance withAttached hereto/herewith I am / We are attaching or Attached is….Enclosed hereto/herewith I am/ We are enclosing or Enclosed is….Pursuant to your request Following your requestWe are in receipt of your letter Thank you for your letterWe are/ I am pleased to advise We are pleased/ I am pleased to tell you
that or let you know that….You are hereby advised This letter is to let you know that….Please contact the writer Please contact me.
3. Clarity and Precision : Whenever you write a letter, be clear about what you want to say and say it clearly. Use short, simple words and language to relate whatever you want to tell in the letter. Use concrete words- two words in English will have similar meaning- in such cases, use the word which is commonly understood. E.g. : if you use the word ’house’ and it conveys the meaning that you intend, don’t use the word ‘residence’ which will make the message more complicated. Avoid long winded sentences (running into five lines and more). Spare your reader the tedious task of understanding your letter and try to make smaller sentences. To make your letter clear, break it into different paragraphs when you have to discuss more than one main point.
Finally, you have to understand that writing a good business letter involves a lot of practice which will gradually enable you to be an effective writer.
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Structure of a business letter
To make your letter effective, the presentation of the letter also has to be effective. Usually, the letter is drafted in two styles- Blocked and Semi Blocked.
Blocked – Every line in this style begins flush with the left hand margin. Paragraphs are differentiated by leaving a blank space in between them.
Semi blocked – The first line of each paragraph is indented in this style of writing letters.
You can follow any one style of writing a business letter.
The business letter contains the following elements :
Heading : Many organizations use their letter head for writing business letters. This covers one fifth of the total space of the page. The name and address of the organization is centered at the top and other information like the telephone numbers, telegraphic address, etc. are divided in the margin space.
Date : This is very important as it might act as a proof that you wrote on a particular date. Type the date two spaces below the last line of the heading at the left hand margin of the letter. E.g. : Remember to give the name of the month. Avoid the form 10/9/2005. In Britain it means 10th of September (first date and then month is written) whereas in USA, people understand it as 9th of October (first month and then date is written). E.g. 14th July, 1995; 14th July 1995; 14 July 1995; July 14th 1995, July 14, 1995.
Salutation : This is the vital part of the letter which is as good as wishing the person. It is important that you address the name of the person if you know it.E.g. Dear Personnel Director, Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss) Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
Salutation is written two line space after the last line of the address.
The Reference : The advantage of writing a reference is that it helps to trace the letter at a later date. Writing reference number is of two types – one indicates the reference number that you allot for the letter that you write; the other indicates the correspondent’s previous letter to which you are replying now. This is placed on the left hand side, two lines after the salutation. However, some prefer to write it in the body of the letter.
E.g. With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March, your phone call today, Thank you for your letter of March 5 th .
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Inside Address : The complete address of the person whom you are writing to should be written. You should place it two line-space after the date. Do not abbreviate or spell wrongly the name of the person. Add Mr. before the name of a man, Miss before the name of a woman if she is unmarried, Mrs. if she is married. Nowadays, the trend is towards writing Ms. before a woman’s name irrespective of her marital status. If the lady whom you are addressing to has a special title, such as Dr. or Professor, you can mention the titles and put Ms. inside the brackets after the title. E.g. : Dr. (Ms.) Anita Joshi.
Subject : This indicates to the reader of the letter what the letter is about. It saves the time of the reader. The subject of the letter is written two line spaces after the salutation.
Body : This contains the text of the letter that you write. You should organize the body of the letter into paragraphs depending upon the matter of your communication. A good business letter is concise. State the main point in the opening paragraph and use short sentences and paragraphs. When a letter has several paragraphs the first and last should usually be the shortest.
The body of a letter should be single spaced with double spaces between paragraphs. Following are various sentence openings for different types of letters :
The Reason for Writing
I am writing to inquire about apologize for confirm
Requesting
Could you possibly? I would be grateful if you could
Agreeing to Requests
I would be delighted to
Giving Bad News
Unfortunately I am afraid that
Enclosing Documents
I am enclosing Please find enclosed Enclosed you will find
Closing Remarks
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Thank you for your help Please contact us again if we can help in any way. there are any problems. you have any questions.
Reference to Future Contact
I look forward to ...hearing from you soon. meeting you next Tuesday. seeing you next Thursday.
Conclusion : The conclusion is also known as ‘complimentary close.’ The close should agree with the salutation that you have written. It should be typed two spaces below the body of the letter.
E.g. Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to) Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the person you're writing to) Best wishes, Best regards, (If the person is a close business contact or friend)
Signature : You should place your signature below the complimentary close. 4 line spaces are left after the complimentary close to write your name in full. This space is meant for your signature. Do not write any title (Mr. Ms. Mrs.) before the name. However, a woman may put a title after the name in brackets. Eg.: (Mrs.) Kiran. Beneath the name you may specify your position – CEO, Manager etc.
Enclosure : If you have to enclose any documents along with the letter, you must mention it. The word in abbreviated form encl. is typed two line space below the name / position that you had specified after the signature. If the documents are important you can specify the names of the documents or only the number of documents is indicated.
Reference Initials: If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.
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Business Letter Styles
The following pictures show what a one-page business letter should look like. There are three accepted styles. The horizontal lines represent lines of type.
Modified Block Style Block Style
Semiblock Style
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Blank Format of a Business Letter
Block Format: Business LetterReturn Address Line 1 / Letter Head 1Return Address Line 2
Date (Month Day, Year) 2
Mr./Mrs./Ms./Dr. Full name of recipient. 3Title/Position of Recipient.Company NameAddress Line 1Address Line 2
Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name: 4
Subject: Title of Subject 5
Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Closing (Sincerely...), 7
Signature 8
Your Name 9Your Title
Enclosures (2) 10Typist Initials. 11
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Sample Format of a Business Letter
3519 Front StreetMount Celebres, CA 65286
October 5, 2004
Ms. Betty JohnsonAccounts PayableThe Cooking Store765 Berliner PlazaIndustrial Point, CA 68534
Dear Ms Johnson:
It has come to my attention that your company, The Cooking Store has been late with paying their invoices for the past three months.
In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due date, we have implemented a discount model where we'll give you 2% off your invoice if you pay us within 10 days of receiving the invoice.
I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of our biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any questions, you can feel free to contact me at (555) 555-5555.
Sincerely,
Signature
Bob PowersAccounts Receivable
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Types of business letters
Letters have to be drafted differently for different reasons. The tone, language and style vary based on the circumstances which makes you write the letter. The different letters are complaint letter, invitations, apology letter and covering letter for job application. Let us study how to write these letters which are very essential in our career.
Cover Letter Writing
What is a cover letter?A cover letter is a brief one page letter sent along with the resume to potential employers. The purpose of the cover letter is to present yourself to potential employers and to let them know what position you are interested in and why you'd be a good fit for their company.
Cover Letter FormatThe cover letter format should be almost identical to the regular business letter format.
Cover Letter WritingGenerally the cover letter will consist of three paragraphs. The first paragraph is an introductory one which introduces yourself. You want to include information on the position you are looking for and how you heard about and why you are interested in the position and/or company.
The second paragraph should provide information on your skill, strengths, education, qualifications and/or experience. This paragraph should be concise and give specific examples of why you are the ideal candidate and not simply restate your resume.
The final paragraph should close up the letter by requesting an interview and possibly suggestion times that are convenient for you or stating that you can come in at a time that's convenient for the employer. Also you should let the recipient know what the best way and/or time to contact you is (you should let them know both your contact email and phone number so that they can contact you in their preferred method). Or you can let them that you'll follow up on this letter with a phone call in several days. You should thank them for their time to close up the letter.
Each cover letter that you send out should be unique and tailored to the specific company and position you are applying to. Using one cookie cutter cover letter will lessen your chances for landing an interview. Also be sure to check for grammar and spelling and keep the letter to one page in length.
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Sample Cover Letter
527 West Ave.Elmswood, CT 23865
October 28, 2004
Mr. Michael BlackDirectory of Human ResourcesGlobal Answers6542 Sioux Falls, NY
Dear Mr. Black:
It is with great interest that I am applying for the position of chief accountant. When I read the job description in your ad on the New York Times on August 12th, I felt that it was an ideal match with my career aspirations. I have always wanted to work for a Fortune 500 company such as Global Answers.
I believe that I am the ideal candidate for the position due to my extensive experience as an auditor for KPMG. At my current position at KPMG, I perform all of the same tasks that are described in your ad for the chief accountant position. In addition to that I have a reputation for being a hard worker who makes sure the job is done right the first time. My reports are always completed well ahead of the deadline.
Feel free to contact me and setup an interview at your earliest convenience. You can reach me by way of e-mail at [email protected] or by way of phone at (555) 555-5555. I look forward to discussing with you my future with Global Answers. Thanks for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Signature
Ken Jacobs
Enclosure: resume
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Letter of complaint
The complaint letter should be written in the business letter format. When writing a complaint letter you want to keep it short and to the point to help ensure that your letter will be read in its entirety, if you write a seven page complaint letter, it's highly unlikely that someone will sit down and read all seven pages.
The complaint letter should be addressed to the customer service/consumer affairs department or the head office if there is no customer service department. The address and contact information of the customer service department should be available on the company's products or website.
Complaint Letter WritingIn the first paragraph you should identify what the issue is and any relevant information that you believe is important. Be sure to include the following information if it's applicable to the situation: the date/time of the issue, location, name of person on duty, name of product, what the problem was, your account number, model number, price, warranty information and reference number. Be sure to stick with the facts and avoid putting emotions into your letter.
The next paragraph should state what you would like done to resolve the situation. If you received poor service, you could request an apology or a coupon. If a product malfunctioned, you could request that you could exchange the product for a new one or request a refund.
The last paragraph should thank the reader for the time. You can also throw in some compliments about something you liked about their company's product or service.
You should include your telephone number/e-mail address after your printed name so that they can contact you ASAP if necessary.
Be sure to keep a copy of the letter for yourself and include photocopies of any relevant documents and enclose them with your letter.
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Sample Complaint Letter
65 Market StreetVal Haven, CT 95135
June 30, 2004
Customer ServiceCool Sports, LLC8423 Green Terrace RoadAsterville, WA 65435
Dear Sir or Madam:
I have recently ordered a new pair of soccer cleats (item #6542951) from your website on June 21. I received the order on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it I saw that the cleats were used. The cleats had dirt all over it and there was a small tear in front of the part where the left toe would go. My order number is AF26168156.
To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for my cleats, I have already went out and bought a new pair of cleats at my local sporting goods store so sending another would result in me having two pairs of the same cleats.
Than you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many years and this is the first time I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at (555) 555-5555.
Sincerely,
Signature
Ken Thomas
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Response to a letter of complaint
The response to a letter of request, like any of the other letters already described, should Orient the reader Identify the purpose of the letter, reminding the reader of his or her request
and any conditions upon it. Provide the information requested
If the reader requested a physical object that will be sent in a separate package or at a later date, the writer should include any available information on the package’s status and projected date of arrival. If the reader requested information which is now available, the letter writer should try to include all the relevant information the reader requested without overwhelming the reader with irrelevant or unnecessary detail.
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Sample Response to a letter of complaint
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Job Interview Thank You Letters
You should write a thank you letter as soon as possible (within 24 hours is recommended) after the job interview, at a minimum this should be done through email but is recommended that you do this through a hard-copy of a letter printed out of your computer which can be sent in through the postal mail or faxed in. Hand written notes on thank you cards are also acceptable and good for short thank you notes.
A hard-copy thank you letter should be written in the business letter format, while an email should be sent in the same format but without the heading (your return address, their address, and the date).
Thank you letter writingThe first paragraph should consist of thanking the interviewer for the interviewing you (remind him/her about the position you interviewed for and the date of your interview). You can also include information about your impressions about the company.
The second paragraph should state your interests in the company and include any additional information about yourself that was not brought up in the interview which would make you a good candidate for the position. You can also emphasize your qualifications that were already discussed during the interview (don't make this paragraph too long, try to keep it between 3-5 sentences, pick the traits that you think were most important to the interviewer and emphasize them).
The last paragraph should let the recruiter know that you expect to hear from them soon. Also let them know that you are available to come in again and are willing to discuss the job further. Write down your contact information again and what the best method and/or time to contact you is. To finish up the letter, thank them again for the interview.
Notes/Tips
A thank you letter shows that you have good business etiquette, your interest in the company and the position, and reiterates your positive qualifications to the interviewer so it should not be put off. If there was more than one interviewer; write individual thank you letters to each of the interviewers (make sure each letter is unique). If it was a panel of interviewers interviewing you at the same time, you can send out one letter and address it to the head interviewer and the interview panel and thank them as one group. If you forget the spelling or the names of the interviewers, simply call the company and request the proper spelling and title. Keep the thank you letter brief; make sure the letter does not go past one page in length. Check for proper grammar usage and spelling.
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Sample Interview Thank You Letter
215 Casandle DriveMiddle Brook, FL 32634
December 15, 2004
Mr. Nigel AdamsDirector of Human ResourcesNagata Resorts6528 Castle Point StreetSouth Port, FL 38625
Dear Mr. Adams:
I would like to thank you for taking the time to interview me for the position of hotel manager on December 14. I was very impressed with the amount of vacationers that you stay at Nagata Resorts every year.
I appreciate the time that you spent discussing the responsibilities of the position. I believe that my credentials make me an ideal candidate for the position. As I mentioned in my interview with you, I already have 7 years experience as a hotel manager. I am very organized and have a high attention to detail. I also believe that the customer is the most important asset, so I always treat them with the utmost respect.
I look forward to hearing your decision about the position. You can contact me at (555) 555-5555, if you have any further questions, I'd be more than willing to come in and discuss them with you. Thanks again for the opportunity to interview with Nagata Resorts.
Sincerely,
Signature
Chad Ulster
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Letter of Enquiries - Asking for Information
We write an enquiry when we want to ask for more information concerning a product, service or other information about a product or service that interests us. These letters are often written in response to an advertisement that we have seen in the paper, a magazine, a commercial on television when we are interested in purchasing a product, but would like more information before making a decision.
Remember to place your or your company's address at the top of the letter (or use your company's letterhead) followed by the address of the company you are writing to. The date can either be placed double spaced down or to the right.
Important Language to Remember
The Start: Dear Sir or Madam To Whom It May Concern - (very formal as you do not know the person to whom you are writing)
Giving Reference: With reference to your advertisement (ad) in...Regarding your advertisement (ad) in ...
Requesting a Catalogue, Brochure, Etc.: After the reference, add a comma and continue - ... , would (Could) you please send me ...
Requesting Further Information: I would also like to know ...Could you tell me whether ...
Signature: Yours faithfully - (very formal as you do not know the person to whom you are writing)
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Sample Letter of Enquiries - Asking for Information
Kenneth Beare2520 Visita AvenueOlympia, WA 98501
Jackson Brothers3487 23rd StreetNew York, NY 12009
September 12, 2000
To Whom It May Concern:
With reference to your advertisement in yesterday's New York Times, could you please send me a copy of your latest catalogue. I would also like to know if it is possible to make purchases online.
Yours faithfully
(Signature)
Kenneth BeareAdministrative DirectorEnglish Learners & Company
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Letter Responding to Inquiries and Requests for Information
It is very important to make a good impression when responding to inquiries from potential customers. Of course, the best impression will be made by providing the materials or information that the perspective client has asked for, this positive impression will be improved by a well written response.
Remember to place your or your company's address at the top of the letter (or use your company's letterhead) followed by the address of the company you are writing to. The date can either be placed double spaced down or to the right. You can also include a reference number for correspondence.
Important Language to Remember
The Start:Dear Mr, Ms (Mrs, Miss VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)
Thanking the Potential Customer for His/Her Interest:Thank you for your letter of ... inquiring (asking for information) about ...We would like to thank you for your letter of ... inquiring (asking for information) about ...
Providing Requested Materials:We are pleased to enclose ...Enclosed you will find ...We enclose ...
Providing Additional Information:We would also like to inform you ...Regarding your question about ...In answer to your question (inquiry) about ...
Closing a Letter Hoping for Future Business:We look forward to ... hearing from you / receiving your order / welcoming you as our client (customer).
Signature:Yours sincerely (remember use 'Yours faithfully' when you don't know the name of the person you are writing and 'Yours sincerely' when you do.
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Sample Letter Responding to Inquiries and Requests for Information
Jackson Brothers3487 23rd StreetNew York, NY 12009
Kenneth BeareAdministrative DirectorEnglish Learners & Company2520 Visita AvenueOlympia, WA 98501
September 12, 2000
Dear Mr Beare
Thank you for your inquiry of 12 September asking for the latest edition of our catalogue.
We are pleased to enclose our latest brochure. We would also like to inform you that it is possible to make purchases online at http:\\jacksonbros.com.
We look forward to welcoming you as our customer.
Yours sincerely
(Signature)
Dennis JacksonMarketing DirectorJackson Brothers
Writing an Apology Letter
An apology letter shows that you are sorry and says that you value your relationship with the other party. The sooner an apology letter is written and sent out the better it is for the relationship. Depending on the nature of the letter, it can either be written in the friendlyor the business letter format.
Friendly/Personal Apology LetterIf this is a personal letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient. Next you should admit your fault and take responsibility for your actions. Next you should volunteer or ask if there is any way that you can help out to resolve the situation. Then you should let the recipient that you will try to make sure that the situation will not happen again. To close off the letter you should apologize again. When writing a personal apology letter it should come from the heart and be sincere.
Formal/Business Apology LetterIf this is a business letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the
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recipient. Next you should give an explanation as to what went wrong. Then you should try to rectify the problem. To close off the letter you should apologize again.
Sample Apology Letter (Business)
5868 Maple Wood Street Fairfield, PA 37626
November 29, 2004
Mr. Joseph Bicman358 Noncook RoadJohn's Town, PA 57323
Dear Mr. Bicman:
I apologize for the mix-up of order #: 26429782. We have just implemented a new packaging system that still has a few bugs to be worked out, but we did fix your order and sent it out this morning. For your trouble, we have enclosed a $25 gift certificate which can be used at any of our stores. Once again I would like to apologize for the mix-up in your order and any inconveniences this may have caused you.
Sincerely,
Signature
Scott MahoneyCustomer Service Manager
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Sample Apology Letter (Personal)
Dear Jolene,
I am sorry about forgetting about our lunch date. It was completely my fault; I was so busy at work that it must have slipped my mind. How about I treat you to lunch next Wednesday, at the new Italian restaurant Julie's at 12:30PM? I have marked this date in my planner so I will not forget about it. I'd just like to apologize again for missing the lunch date.
68 Pine Zaggat LaneHampervile, NE 25385January 5, 2005
Your Friend, Signature
InvitationsWriting and delivering invitations to customers, potential customers, or colleagues to attend your important business-related occasions requires careful attention: While great opportunities lie therein, if done improperly, it can cause undesired results that it’s wise to avoid.
When you plan a launch, a professional conference, or even an Open Day at the office, naturally you want to make it special; you also know that its success and effectiveness depend on how many of your invitees show up.
Most of your invitees who receive your business invitation letter will attend your business occasion. A professional, attractive, and effective invitation will bring more guests, while a poorly worded, blah, or sloppy one at best misses its mark, and at worst harms your business reputation.
Imagine that you’re starting an English Enrichment Course business. You send 1,000 invitations to your grand opening. Immediately after their delivery, you’re horrified to discover an embarrassing grammar or spelling mistake…
The following guidelines will help you make your business invitation letter professional and effective:
(1) Personal attention – Although it requires a little more effort, it pays off. Start your invitation with the recipient’s first name, i.e., "Dear George," is far more effective than: "Dear Madam or Sir". We all like to read our names.
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(2) Make it brief - People are busy; even if they already know you (or especially if they already know you…), they prefer a short, effective invitation that quickly answers the following questions: What? Where? When? Tell them, don’t tease them.
(3) Be creative - Think of a twist on the standard fare: Use humor―something related to your business and that makes people smile.
(4) Offer an incentive - It shows that you understand that your invitees’ time is valuable. Invite them to a complimentary luncheon or enter them in a prize drawing. Incentives also serve to keep your guests there until the end.
(5) Set a convenient date - Plan your occasion as far ahead as possible, and you give your invitees more opportunity to keep the date open. Make sure there are no conflicting occasions that day (sports events, holidays, etc.).
(6) Deliver a printed invitation - So, it’s a little more effort, but again, it pays off. The more personal the touch, the more guests will attend.
(7) Reminders - People liked your invitation; however, now they’re swamped. Send an electronic copy of your invitation as a reminder seven and three days before the occasion, with the Subject line “Countdown to Acme luncheon - only three more days!”.
(8) Proofread it - Recheck your business invitation letter for any grammar or spelling mistakes. Let two others read it to find mistakes that you may have missed.
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Sample Letter of Invitation
PJ Party22 Yew Street, Cambridge, Ontario
Tel: 416-223-8900
April 7th, 20--
Dear Valued Customer:
Our records show that you have been a customer of PJ Party Inc. since our grand opening last year. We would like to thank you for your business by inviting you to our preferred customer Spring Extravaganza this Saturday.
Saturday's sales event is by invitation only. All of our stock, including pajamas and bedding will be marked down from 50-80% off.* Doors open at 9:00 AM sharp. Complimentary coffee and donuts will be served. Public admission will commence at noon.
In addition, please accept the enclosed $10 gift certificate to use with your purchase of $75 or more.
We look forward to seeing you at PJ's on Saturday. Please bring this invitation with you and present it at the door.
Sincerely,
Linda Lane
Linda LaneStore Manager
*All sales are final. No exchanges.
Enclosure: Gift Certificate #345 (not redeemable for cash)
Writing a Resume
When you apply for a job, you should always remember that your application is not the only one which is seen; but your aim is to see that you write a resume that makes you really stand out as a superior candidate for a job you are seeking. So, even if you face fierce competition, with a well written resume, you should be invited to interview more often than many people more qualified than you. Such a resume needs conceptualization
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of your accomplishments and experiences all into one document. Your focus should be on the requirements of the employer. Therefore, your resume should contain
Your aims, goals, work experiences, achievements, qualifications Your projects or researches if done. Your skill sets Your objectives References Your experience in the previous company Your strengths and weaknesses depending on what is the requirement of the job.
Be careful while writing weaknesses; they should appear as if in the long run they are, after all, your strengths!
Your detailed contact information where the employer can reach you. Any other information that you feel can be relevant for you to portray yourself to
get the job based on your experience and qualification.
All these matters that are the requirements of the vacancy you are applying to should be written in a precise and concise manner. Remember that no employer has enough time to go through extensive and detailed resumes. So your resume should be easy to read and should impress the employer at the first glance.
Structure of Resume
1. The ‘one-page resume’ rule is now outdated. Try to keep your resume very compact and to the minimum required pages. The language should be very official and not general.
2. Include and highlight all important words so that they stand out and your resume gets recognized among others.
3. Avoid using the personal pronouns – I, You, Me.4. List your job information in order of importance. In listing your jobs, what’s
generally most important is your title/position. So list in this preferred order: Title/Position, name of employer, City/State of employer, dates of employment.
5. List your jobs in reverse chronological order. Your present job being the first, the previous second and so on.
6. Education also follows the principle that you followed while listing jobs. Thus the preferred order for listing your education is : Masters, Graduation, Pre-University Exams.
7. Avoid mentioning the reasons for leaving previous job(s), names of former supervisors, specific street addresses or phone numbers of former employers, salary information or any information that could be perceived as controversial, such as religion, church affiliations or political affiliations.
8. Don’t list references right on your resume. References belong in a later stage of the job search. Provide them only when they are specifically requested.
9. Proof read carefully. Misspellings and typos are deadly on a resume. Grammatical and other mistakes are to be totally avoided since that shows the incompetence of the candidate.
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Sample Resume
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF e - BUSINESS MANAGEMENTPioneers in e-Business Management education
Dino Philip
Indian Institute of e-Business Management, 98333 94226S. No. 114/1/3, Bhumkar Wasti,
[email protected] Mahuranje Road, 15th Sept 1974Mumbai – Bangalore Highway,Pune – 411057.
CAREER OBJECTIVE:
I want to ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………with the organization.
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:
Qualification University / Institute Year Percentage
MeBA(Marketing & HR)
MMM
B.Sc
H.S.C
S.S.C
SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE AREAS:
TM
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INDIAN INSTITUTE OF e - BUSINESS MANAGEMENTPioneers in e-Business Management education
Object-oriented design and programming with Java (J2EE) Imperative and functional programming with C, Perl, SML and Haskell. Good understanding of databases and SQL. Experience using Oracle through
JDBC. Software engineering: Requirements capture, UML modelling, design patterns,
prototyping, formal specification with Z. Text processing with regular expressions. Familiarity with various technologies for the delivery of Web content.
SUMMER INTERNSHIP:
Preparation of software for Hotel Management System at Aptech, which involved the preparation of software in Fox Pro for the entire management of Sun N Sand Hotel, Camp.
Carried out a Market Survey for Govind Milk and Milk Products on Employee Satisfaction.
STRENGTHS:
High Enthusiasm Levels. Optimistic.
WORK EXPERIENCE:
Worked with Coca Cola as a Marketing Executive for Industrial Sales for 2 years (10th Jan 2004 to 13th Jan 2006).
HOBBIES / INTERESTS:
Playing Cricket. Trekking and mountaineering. Adventure sports. Listening to Country Music.
MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS AND AWARDS:
TM
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Was awarded the Best Student Trophy in the 3rd year of Graduation.
LANGUAGES KNOWN:
English. Hindi. Marathi. French (Spoken).
Date:Place: Dino Philip
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Memorandum
The term ‘memo’ comes from the Latin word ‘memorandum’ which means “a thing which must be remembered .” The plural form is memoranda. The document that you use to communicate within the organization is called as memorandum. It has to stay within the organization. So, it is called ‘inter office memorandum’. When you need to convey information and decisions or to make short requests with the members of your department, upper management, employees at another branch in another city, etc. the best way to do is to write a memo. The exception to this is if you are preparing a document for a reader several levels above you or for a formal situation. One colleague can write a memo to another; except for memos which concern disciplinary action. Only officers authorized to issue them can issue memos concerning disciplinary action.
Language of memorandumIt is very important to learn the correct language of a memo to achieve its purpose.
1. Concise : A memo is always short. It is apt for a memo to be of two pages; after which a memo starts to turn into a report. Keep the paragraphs short; limit each paragraph to five lines or less. Put each reason in a separate paragraph rather than bunching them up in a forbidding 20-line block type. Equally important, memos are written to get someone to do or understand something- be it to spend money, meet a deadline, constructively criticize or say yes or no.
2. Personal : Use words like I, you and we. Use active voice to get the action done.3. Simple language : Let your language be lucid and easy to understand. Avoid
making emotional statements or using scholarly words and technical jargon. Plain and direct statements of facts help to achieve the aim of communication.
4. Avoid confusing words :While writing a memo, try to use the right words at the right place. When you have to use simple root words, don’t complicate them by using fancy suffixes like ‘tion’, ‘ance’, ‘ent’, ‘ment’, ‘ize’, and ‘ility.’
5. Don’t be trite : Try to avoid statements that are out of date and do not mean anything in the present context. Be sincere in your ending.
6. Don’t give too many “whys” : Though it is important to explain why you want something done, don’t overdo it. A reader can probably only absorb no more than 6 or 7 reasons at once. If you must cite more whys, put them on a separate sheet of paper, and staple the sheets together. This way, the basic memo message doesn’t get lost in a sea of details.
7. Check before you send the memo : It is human tendency to commit mistakes especially in names, dates or numbers. But such mistakes may cost you dearly. You should remember that memo establishes accountability. It is a record of facts and decisions, which can be referred in future if there is a need to find out who went wrong and at what stage.
8. Close with a call to action : Many memos don’t close with anything, leaving the reader hanging. If you want a response by Friday at 3 p.m., say so.
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Format of memorandum
Company NameCompany AddressDate of Memo
To:
From:
Subject:
Recipient of Memo
Writer of Memo Writer's Initials*
Title of Memo in Initial Capitals
Engineers and scientists use memos to make requests, to give announcements, and sometimes to communicate reports. Memos that make requests or announcements are read quickly. For such memos, get to the point in the first paragraph--the first sentence, if possible. In other words, state what you want up front. In the format suggested here, you should single space your memos and use a serif typeface. Skip a line between paragraphs.
In memos that make requests or announcements, keep the sentence lengths and paragraph lengths relatively short. Sentences should average fewer than twenty words, and paragraphs should average fewer than seven lines. Also, keep the total memo length to under one page, if possible.
Sometimes companies use memos to communicate short reports (two pages or more). For these types of memos, the format changes. For instance, you often include illustrations, attach appendices, and break the memo's text into sections. If references arise in the memo, you include a list at the end. In memos that act as reports, the style changes as well. For instance, the sentences and paragraphs are typically longer than in memos that simply provide announcements or make requests.
For all types of memos, space your memo on the page so that it does not crowd the top. Also, send copies to anyone whose name you mention in the memo or who would be directly affected by the memo. Finally, remember that final paragraphs of memos that make requests or announcements should tell readers what you want them to do or what you will do for them.
Attachments.
Copy to:Name to Receive CopyName to Receive Copy
*Initials should be written in ink
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Sample memorandum
TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive
FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant
DATE: June 14, 2007
SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion
Through market research and analysis, it has been discovered that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it is has become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing industry.
Internet Advertising
XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:
Google Facebook Myspace EBay iTunes
Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending more and more time on the internet downloading music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.
Television Adverting
It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows like Friends and Seinfeld for our target audience, but even the face of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into reality television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus group show that our target audience is most interested in shows like American Idol, The Apprentice, and America's Next Top Model. The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top ten most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is Desperate Housewives. At Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising budget on reality television shows and reduce the amount of advertising spent on other programs.
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By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales through effective advertising.
Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007; Survey Findings, January - April 2007
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Circulars and Notices
A circular is also a document that is circulated within an organization. It is usually an announcement sheet' that is sent to specific groups of people. For instance, if a manager wants to call a meeting of heads of department, he will send a circular to only heads of department requesting them to attend that meeting.
On the other hand a notice, depending on the information that is to be conveyed, could be for employees alone or for the general public. A notice is a legal document, which has to be put up on an official notice board. However, some types of notice are addressed to individual employees also.
Some examples of circulars and notices.
If you are the President of the science club in your college, and want to conduct a meeting to plan for Science Project competition you will have to send some information to those whom you want to involve in organizing the programs. If it is just a meeting to decide on how to conduct the competition, you will probably call your Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer and a few senior members of the club to attend this meeting. You may not want all the members to attend because it will take a lot of time and there maybe too many suggestions. You may not be able to take any firm decisions.
Therefore, to invite only a few people you will send them a circular, but you will not put up a notice. At this meeting if all of you agree on the rules of the competition, date, venue and so on, you may decide to raise funds through donations etc. You will not be able to raise enough funds without the support of all the club members. So you will put up a notice announcing the decisions taken at your meeting and requesting all the members to help with fund raising.
A notice and circular both have similar functions but are used differently depending on the nature of announcement or information that needs to be passed on. A circular is meant for distribution to a small group while a notice is meant for a large group of people.
A circular may also be sent when an immediate feedback is expected. You want to donate money for flood affected areas. What will you do? You may think of requesting your classmates to make a contribution. Keeping in mind, the economic capacity of the students, you may want to request only a voluntary contribution. In other words, you may allow each student to contribute only what they can afford. You may not suggest the sum. You may then send out a circular along with a feedback sheet on which students will have to write their names; the sum they wish to contribute and put their signature. This document will help you estimate the total collection and also help collect from those who have signed up.
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An example of a circular: To: Departmental Heads
CIRCULAR
Aspects of Safety In Science laboratories
The purpose of this circular letter is to indicate the importance of safety in research labs. The supervisors have a duty of care to research scientists in their charge. Fulfilment of this duty includes drawing their attention to any hazard that pertains to a particular activity. In this context supervisors should be familiar with relevant guidelines on laboratory safety and, they should be careful at all times to observe standard safety procedures when practical activities are being conducted in the laboratory.
Please bring this circular to the notice of the supervisors concerned, and to the notice of representatives as appropriate, for transmission to individual research scientists.
Ravi Kashyap, General Manager (HR)March 2007
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An example of a notice:
BANK OF BOMBAY, December5, 1999Tiger Circle, Manipal Ref: ADM/ N/44-99
NOTICE
Sub: Temporary suspension ot operations
We regret to inform you that due to unexpected problems with our computer network we are unable to carry out routine operations till December 7. However the bank will function during the weekend. We are making special arrangements to meet your emergency needs. You may contact the undersigned for help. Kindly excuse the inconvenience caused due to this unforeseen emergency.
Manager Manipal Branch
Copy to:
Head Office, Bombay All Branches in Karnataka
It is evident from the above example that it is a notice from an organization namely the Bank of Bombay to its clients, the general public. A notice has reference numbers, date and subject. If it is in response to a previous letter or other document, that document or letter will also be mentioned in a separate reference under the subject.
Please note that copies of notices may be sent to other offices, which may be affected by the content of the notice or simply for giving information.
Circulars and notices generally cover one subject. But a single notice may cover several different issues related to one subject. For example Staff may be informed that a particular holiday is declared. Then the same notice may mention a compensatory day off for those who, work on the holiday or it could also mention a different working day to compensate for that holiday. A notice or circular can be issued only by officers designated for the purpose.
There are notices, which are sent to individuals under special circumstances. If a staff in an organization is suspected of major misconduct the organization may issue a Show Cause Notice. This notice will mention the allegations against the staff concerned and ask
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for a written explanation within a specified time. It will also clearly state what action would be taken if there were no reply to the show cause notice.
Depending on the type of notice, the duration of display of a notice is specified under various legal provisions. A notice is a document that can be used as evidence in court cases. Therefore, words have to be chosen carefully before writing a notice. Secondly you must be very specific, clear and precise in writing a notice. The temptation to be elaborate and verbose (use too many words) should be avoided. The tone of the notice should be firm but not offensive or arrogant.
Indenting of paragraph may ,be allowed in notice and circulars. One should not be in too much of a hurry to put up notices. They are, impersonal communication. But then, they are read by a large number of people. Therefore, care must be taken while writing notices.
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Fax, Telegram and E-mail
Now we shall focus our attention on writing smaller messages. These depend on the technical instruments that are used while sending the message. Hence concentration should be on writing short messages. Avoid all words and phrases that do not add significantly to the message that you want to send. Brief reference to the context should be provided to make your message complete. So you may skip writing salutation, complimentary close, etc. But don't forget to include your name at the bottom. Fax and e-mail are used to send formal business letters. E-mail may also be used as informal medium of communication.
While composing a telegraphic message (telegram), only key words and phrases are used. Function words such as articles and prepositions should not be included. If essential, they may be used to a minimum. See the samples given below.
1) Fax: You should take much care while writing faxes.
1. Use fax template for cover document. This will have the layout of recipient's name, institution, fax no. etc. 2. In formal faxing, Do not hand-write. Use the formal conventions for starting and finishing as explained in forma/letter writing. The content should be structured as you would structure a formal letter.
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Fax from: Oberoi Shereton Towers 22 Alma Street. Sampangi Park 575222 Fax: 650 325 8723
Fax to: Sanjay Memon, Manasvi Inc.
Fax no: 2352663122
Date: 17 December 2001
Subject: Remittance of draft for Registration of classes.
No. of pages including this one: 1 From: Ashish Jain, Registration Manager
___________________________________________________________________________________Refer to our telephonic conversation on 15 December. The bank draft for Rupees Seventeen thousand has not yet been received. Please send by return post or by courier.
Ashish Jain
2) Telegram
Training Manager Cool Lounge Restaurant 10, Janpath New Delhi - 110001
Sixty five copies of Registration form Books sent today by courier. Buvan PatelManager Logistics
Not to be telegraphed: Bhuvan Patel, Manager LogisticsAccord Company Pvt. Ltd.24, Akashganga Marg Kolkatta - 432001
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3) E-mail: As a means of communication, emails have features of immediacy of both receiving and sending. The following guidelines will; help you to use the proper style of formal communication through e-mails. 1. Style of writing:
Take much care of what you say and how you say it. Avoid shortcuts or pop-conventions of e-mail culture like lower case letter at the
beginning of a sentence: 'i' instead of I, 'ur' instead of your, etc. will make a poor impression.
If you know the person to whom you are writing you may begin with his/her name followed by a colon.
If you don't know the person or are in very formal terms, start with the conventional format that is discussed earlier. Close with the corresponding closing.
The content should be structured in the same way as you would, in a formal letter.
2. Confidentiality: Keep your formal mails confidential by avoiding any message that you would not want others to read. 3. Permanence: Since the networks are not fail-safe, don't consider the files that you have sent or received as 'safe.' Print out hard copies of anything that is very important. 4. Commercial Sensitivity: Don't send commercially sensitive material by email. 5. Contractual material: Avoid sending contractual material by e-mail. Even if you haveto send it, follow it up with hard copies. 6. Attachments: While sending and receiving, scan for virus. If files are large, zip them. 7. Unnecessary messages: Don't send unnecessary-messages, while forwarding to large groups. It can cause irritation to the receiver, who is not concerned with your message. 8; Content of Auto signature: Your auto-signature should contain your name, address of your institution, telephone / fax numbers. You can also include the URL of a personal website.
Previous Next Reply Forward Forward
Date: 17 December 2006 From: Bhuvan Patel, Accord Company Pvt. Ltd.To: Training Manager, Cool Lounge Restaurant CC: General Manager- Training, Cool Lounge Restaurant Subject: Dispatch of Registration Form Books
We have sent today 65 books of Registration Forms by courier. Sorry for the delay.
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Report Writing
WHAT IS A REPORT?
After the letter and memo, the report is the most used form in business writing.
A report can be defined as a communication in which the writer (or speaker if it is an oral report) gives information to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so. It is an assigned communication for a purpose and for a specific receiver/reader.
The common element in all reports, as a distinct form of writing, is the element of responsibility. The writer is obliged to communicate what he/she knows to one who needs it, as a part of his/her assigned, clearly defined and time-bound task.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A REPORT AND OTHER FORMS OF WRITING
Other forms are subjective in nature. They reflect the writer's personality. Reports and projects generally draw on outside sources. They present facts,
conclusions and recommendations based on investigation and analysis of data obtained by observation of facts.
The word 'paper' can mean several things. It can mean an article, a detailed report, or a project report. But it is generally used for research writing.
Reports have a highly structured format. Each part is numbered and captioned with headings and sub-headings. Reports use language that is concise and concrete. Reports contain recommendations and conclusions. Reports make use of tables and graphs. Reports are usually preceded by a summary. Reports can also be oral but essays are only written.
An essay can be factual, but it remains subjective in its treatment and presentation. The essayist neither offers evidence for his facts nor does the reader look for it. But the reader of the report looks for facts and evidence.
As a form of creative writing, an essay's purpose is largely self expression (of the author) and a source of delight for the reader.
An essay's source is imagination, whereas a report's source is investigation and analysis. This is why an essay has a beginning, but it may not have a report's logically arrived at conclusion. And it has no signposts, headings or sub-headings, or bullets to indicate a coherent structure, moving from the beginning and through the middle to an end like a report. We should, therefore, first understand that a report is distinct from an essay or any other continuous form of writing.
PURPOSE OF A REPORT
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Report is primarily a source of information to the management or an individual to help in decision-making. It can be used also for offering a solution to a business problem. Its purpose can be
To give information about a company's activities, progress, plans and problems. To record events for future reference in decision making. To recommend specific action. To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial
situations. To present facts to the management to help decide the direction the business
should choose.
KINDS OF REPORTS Broadly speaking, reports are of two kinds- Formal reports that contain all essential elements of a report. Semi-formal/informal reports.
Reports are known by the names they get from their purpose and their form. Reports are usually identified as: • Reports made by filling in a printed form (Routine Report) • Reports in the form of letters (Letter Report) • Reports in the form of memos (Memo Report) • Reports on the progress and status of a project (Progress Report) • Periodic Reports • Laboratory Reports • Short Informal Reports (in the form of Letters and Memos) • Formal Reports
Factors Determining the Choice of the Form of Report
In the world of business, a report can be a short informal account of the present state of work, say a project (essentially a memo), to a long, formal, well-documented report of a corporate or government department.
Each organization, normally, has its own "in-house" method of presentation, which will always be adhered to by its report writers. The writer of a report in an organization is guided by: • a specific layout - sequence of information • its own cover - organisation, code number and other related information about the author, subject and details of submission.
Layout Recommendations and conclusions may precede discussion.
Assigning a report- Terms of reference In an organization, the task of producing a report on a specific problem can be assigned to an individual or a team. The problem, purpose, scope limitations, budget, cultural consideration, if any, related to ethical or ethnic values of the organization, and the date for submission (time-limit) are clearly given while authorising the person responsible for submitting the report. These specifications guide the report writer. They form what is called 'Terms of Reference'. The one who needs the report to be prepared sets down these terms.
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The process of writing a report is left entirely to the writer.
Report writing involves Research and Analysis and Presentation. The writer has to first investigate the problem, search for facts, gather evidence for the facts observed, and then analyse before presenting observations, conclusions and suggestions as solutions to the problem. The writer can, however, choose from various methods of enquiring into the problem - visits, interviews, questionnaires, data banks, studying records of the organisation, consulting existing literature and documents as relevant sources of information. The writer also needs to know the total context and background of the subject of investigation. Background study and data collection may sometimes pose difficulties, but without this effort, a report will not be authentic.
OBJECTIVES OF A REPORT While collecting data, you should remember that your report is not going to be a descriptive statement of facts, events or future possibilities. For example, the purpose of your report is not fulfilled if it speaks about "the possibility of change of work site". Instead, you should write your report to explain the reasons for changing the workplace, discuss the need for doing it, compare the relative advantages of different choices of the site and choose/recommend the best option. The basic purpose of your report is to help the management identify the reasons underlying a situation that the management already knows. What are the factors responsible for it, the alternatives available for solving it and the best course of action that emerges from the study of all relevant facts and factors, leading to specific conclusions regarding the problem's existence and solution.
The study should be comprehensive. It should examine a problem and its solution from all aspects. For example, the recommended solution and its advantages or disadvantages should be analysed in relation to the management as a whole, not just the entrepreneur but all groups - workers, staff, customers, and so on whose interests may be affected in different ways by a change in situation.
Guidelines for defining report objectives Consider the objectives of report from the point of view of its recipients and ask the following questions -• For whom is the report written? • What is their level of information and education? • How much do they already know about the problem? • Why do these people want the report? • What do they want to know, and in what detail? • How does the report's result (conclusion) help them? What do they want to understand, what action do they want to take, or what decision do they wish to?
WRITING REPORTS A report presents facts, conclusions, and recommendations in simple and clear words, in a logical and well-defined structure. The elements (parts) of a full report, in the order of their sequence (in a long formal report) are -• Cover • Title Page • Acknowledgements
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• Table of Contents • Executive Summary • Introduction • Discussion/Description • Conclusions • Recommendations • Appendix • List of References • Bibliography • Glossary • Index
The first five elements constitute the front matter, the next four elements form the main body and the last five, constitute the back matter.
Structure
Normal arrangement Conclusions and Recommendations after Discussion.
Alternative Arrangement
Business heads are usually short of time. They are, therefore, more interested in knowing the conclusions and recommendations of the findings. Detailed description of discussions may, therefore, appear after the conclusions and recommendations.
The order of elements in a formal business report may be as given below. The researcher also keeps in mind the non-technical background of his readers and therefore, demarcates certain parts differently as shown below –
Summary Non-technicalIntroductionConclusions Partly technicalRecommendationsDiscussion Fully technicalAppendix
Different cultures also demand different kinds of detail. For example: German report writers consider historical facts and in-depth explanations are very
crucial for a proper understanding of the problems and its solutions. French reports tend to present more abstract concepts and theories. The French
are theorists by nature and are known for their creative concepts in all forms of art and literature.
Latin Americans sometimes leave out negative information and potential problems may not be reported and discussed.
Indian report writers prefer to follow the conventional structure and offer expected quantity of details, but when guided by the psychology of the reader, Indians modify the form suitably.
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BASIC AND SUBSIDIARY PARTS OF REPORT
Parts of a Formal Report The basic parts The subsidiary parts
1.Executive Summary 1. Cover 2. Introduction 2. Title Page 3. Discussion 3. Table of Contents 4. Recommendations 4. Bibliography/References 5. Appendix 5 Glossary The subsidiary parts (3; 4, and 5) are used only in long formal reports. The cover and title page in short reports are replaced with the heading and other similar devices.
Short Management Report
A short report is usually written either in the form of memorandum (Memo) or a letter. Usually, reports meant for persons outside the company or clients are written in letter form. The short report-• Consists of the title page or just the reports' title as the heading or subject. • Usually, it is in direct order beginning with a summary or a statement or a statement summarising the whole content. • Presents findings, analysis, conclusions and recommendations.
Memos • Are used as internal messages • Are informal. • Need no introductory information • Solve problems.
Letters • Are written usually to cover short problems. • Are organised in the indirect order • End on a good-will note.
Sample of a short formal report
Report on the fall in profits at Shoppers Stop, Retail Store, Ansal Plaza, New Delhi
August 30, 2002
Terms of Reference
At the request of the General Manager, Shoppers Stop, in his letter of July 16, 2002 (ref PO/LT/44/03), the author was instructed to-1. Investigate the reasons for the fall in profits at the Shoppers Stop, Ansal Plaza, during the period January 1, 2002 to June 30, 2002. 2. Make recommendations in the light of the findings.
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Procedure
1. The sales records for the period January 1 - June 30, 2002 were inspected and compared with those for the second half of 2001. 2. Two hundred customers were interviewed over seven days (2-8 August). 3. The premises was carefully inspected, both internally and externally. 4. The store manager, three sales assistants and two cashiers were interviewed. 5. Recent developments in Khelgaon Marg and the surrounding area were noted.
Findings
1. Extent of the fall in profits
Profits fell from a monthly average of 8% in the second half of 2002 to an average of 6% in the first 6 months of 2002.
2. Factors contributing to the fall in profits.
A Internal
1. Since December 2001, the Manager Mr RS Shah has had a number of domestic problems, which have clearly affected his efficiency, particularly in the training and supervision of staff. 2. One of the cashiers, Ms P Kurien has been consistently discourteous to customers. A majority of the customers interviewed complained of her brusqueness and her negative attitude. She certainly made an unfavourable impression when interviewed. Ms Kurien had no satisfactory explanation to offer for her behaviour. 3. The three sales assistants appointed between December and April to replace those who left for other Jobs are inexperienced and inefficient. The RSM found that shelves had not been properly stocked and that the old stock had been kept on display after the 'sell-by' date
B External
1. The opening in January 2002 of a new branch of Ebony, South Extension, half a mile from the Shoppers branch has probably attracted customers chiefly by means of special offers and intensive advertising in the local press. 2. The completion of the flyover in March 2002 has diverted some trade from Khelgaon as a whole, as the new shopping mall at South Extension is now easily accessible.
Conclusions
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1. The decline in profits is partly the result of external developments - most notably, increased competition and restricted access to the store. 2. The fall in performance of the manager, together with the inexperience or discourtesy of some of the staff, is an additional important factor.
Recommendations
It is recommended that-1. An advertising campaign be mounted in the local press, including details of a competition and special offers. 2. The manager be advised that he must raise the standard of his work. 3. Ms. Kurien be issued with a verbal warning about her behaviour. 4. A training programme for the three sales assistants to be implemented immediately. 5. Staff performance to be reviewed in six weeks time. 6. The viability of the store to be reviewed in December 2002.
P Misra Sales Manager
WRITING ELEMENTS OF A LONG FORMAL REPORT
The Title Page Mention-
Name and status of author. Department and date of issue. The Heading (title of the report) should be short, clear and unambiguous.
Example of a title A feasibility report on the incorporation of outdoor health education activities in the ESCORTS Management Development Programme.
Acknowledgements You should thank everyone associated with the assignment and preparation of your report. Be generous in expressing your gratitude.
Sample I thank my organisation PPL Feedback Packaging Limited for giving me an opportunity to conduct the research project. A special word of thanks to Mr Suresh Kumar (Director & Chief Executive), Mr Nitin Khanna (DGM) and Executives of PPL Feedback Packaging Limited for giving me the necessary guidance and help in research work.
I also thank all the respondents of survey, who gave me valuable information to carry out the study.
Finally, I wish to thank my colleagues of the marketing department, who contributed valuable inputs to the research work.
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Market Potential and Entry Strategy Identification for Consumer Paper Bags
Submitted toMr Suresh Kumar Director and Chief Executive
ByAnil Gupta
Marketing Manager
PPL Feedback Packaging Ltd.Thane, Maharashtra September 29, 2003
Cover Letter
A cover letter is usually written by top management/or project guide as a preface or foreword to a report, reflecting the management's policy and interpretation of the report's findings, conclusions and recommendations. It forwards the report and tells why it is being sent to that person. It is placed between the cover and the title page. It is never bound inside the report. It can be written as a memo or a letter or a forwarding certificate.
Letter of Transmittal
Many times, a formal report is accompanied by a letter to outside readers. Although the letter of transmittal is usually placed after the title page, it functions as a greeting to the reader.
The letter covers a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations to give an idea of the report. It is best written in a direct conversational manner. 1. Begin directly by talking about the subject of the report.
Dear Miss Shobha,
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Here is the report you requested on August 20 about a nice plot of land for your proposed play school in Greater Noida. 2. Give a brief review of the contents of the report. 3. Acknowledge the contribution of others to your study, if any. 4. End the letter by thanking the authorising person or body and expressing hope for helping again.
You should write this letter in the personal style of a business letter - use personal pronouns, first person and active voice. The tone should reflect your sincerity.
Nowadays, a cover letter is generally preferred to a letter of transmittal.
Table of Contents
Long reports must have a Table of Contents placed after Acknowledgements and before the Summary. It is an important element in a long formal report. It identifies the topics and their page numbers in the report (or any long document) for the reader. The Table of Contents indicates the hierarchy of topics and their sequence also. Also mention the main sections of your report in the contents exactly as they are worded in the text.
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Sample
1. INTRODUCTION 22. EXISTING BUSINESS OF THE COMPANY 43. BACKGROUND 6 3.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6 3.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM 7 3.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 7 3.4 RESEARCH PROBLEM IN DETAIL 7 3.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 8 3.6 DATA SOURCES 84. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR STUDY 9 4.1 STATISTICAL METHODS 9 4.2 SURVEY METHODS 9 4.2.1 EXPERT -OPINION METHOD 10 4.2.2 CONSUMER INTERVIEW METHOD 10 4.3 MARKET AND PRODUCT ANALYSIS 13 4.3.1 BUYING INTENTIONS 13 4.3.2 MARKET TESTS 135. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF STUDY 15 5.1 MARKET SURVEY: RICE BAGS 15 5.1.1 DATA COLLECTION 16 5.1.2 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY AND DATA
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5.2 MARKET SURVEY : CONSUMER SHOPPING BAGS
20
5.2.1 DATA COLLECTION 22 5.2.2 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY AND DATA
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6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 256.1 RICE BAGS 256.2 SHOPPING BAGS 336.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 397. BIBLIOGRAPHY 408. ANNEXURES 41ANNEXURE I iANNEXURE II iiANNEXURE III ivANNEXURE IV vANNEXURE V viANNEXURE VI viiANNEXURE VII viiiANNEXURE VIII ix
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ABSTRACT AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An abstract or summary is placed immediately after the list of tables, or after the title page or on the title page itself.
Normally, a report uses either an abstract or an executive summary, according to the length of report or expectations of the readers. A company's practice may be to have both an abstract and executive summary with long reports. A summary-• Should give the context of report. • Provide most important findings, conclusions and recommendations • Should act as a time savet for the busy management.
Usually management reports use executive summaries instead of abstracts. An abstract is a summary of the report's most important points. An abstract can be either descriptive or informative, it is generally written in about 200 words in just one paragraph. An executive summary is a more detailed overview of a report than an abstract. It can run into one or two pages. It presents the reader with a preview of a report's main points, conclusions, recommendations and the way the findings are likely to affect company planning. Often, we like to know the contents of a report specially its conclusions and recommendations, just by reading a detailed synopsis in the form of an executive summary.
Descriptive Abstract
A descriptive abstract only mentions the topics discussed in a report. It does not give details of those topics. For details, the reader has to go through the report. Executives have little patience with such a skeletal account of a report's important conclusions and recommendations. Therefore, abstracts are less popular with writers of business reports. For example, consider writing a descriptive abstract of the report on "Market potential and entry identification for consumer paper bags". It would be as follows:
The study finds that the market potential for paper bags is not picking up due to its price as compared to price of polybags. It is recommended that the company PPL Feedback should supply paper bags at a lesser cost to compete with polybags.
Informative Abstract
An informative abstract discusses the main subjects, presents conclusions and recommendations. Formal reports and scientific and technical articles often use an informative abstract. An informative abstract on the same report for which the descriptive abstract was just given would read as follows –
This report explores new ways to expand the company's (PPL Feedback and Packaging Limited) business to meet its growth targets from industrial packs to consumer packs.
The objective of the study was to study the market potential of consumer paper bags for rice and to identify the entry strategies for the company. It was found that the market
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potential for paper bags for rice is about 27 lakh bags per annum at present; there is an interested segment whose requirement is 27 lakh bags. The recommendation is that the company (PPL Feedback) should supply bags at cost lesser than that of polybags.
This abstract provides more details of the report's contents than the earlier descriptive abstract.
Executive Summary
An executive summary covers all the major elements of a report's content -(a) background of the problem (b) major topics (c) important details (d) major conclusions(e) recommendations (f) discussion of the ways that the implementation of recommendations would affect the company.
For example, an executive summary of the PPL Feedback report could be as follows
Stiff environmental regulations have brought in new concerns in packaging. These concerns include hygiene, safety, disposability, and recyclability in a developed world. Paper being eco-friendly and carrying premium image has replaced other packaging material, such as tin, plastics and so on for packaging goods for exports.
The market for export is a highly fluctuating one and so is the demand of packaging material. Last year that is, in 2003, exports were low in the first half as compared to the second half. Also in segments like carbon black where paper packaging is used, the demand is almost saturated.
Considering these factors the company (PPL Feedback and Packaging Ltd.) is exploring new ways to expand business from industrial packs to consumer packs to meet growth target. The lucrative segments are shopping bags and consumer packs for rice, for which there is a steady demand.
The aim of this research was to study the market potential of consumer paper bags for rice and shopping bags, and to identify entry strategies for the company. To calculate the market potential, the consumer sample survey method, explained in Chapter IV was adopted. Chapters I and II provide details about the existing business of the company. Chapter ill provides details about the significance of the study for the company, the research objectives, scope of study and data sources. Chapter V explains the design and methodology of study. To estimate the market potential, the questionnaire approach was followed and the respondents were interviewed personally for relevant details about paper bags. Chapter VI provides details about the results and conclusions arrived at through the study. The market potential for paper bags for rice is for about 27 lakh bags per annum at present. There is an interested segment whose requirement is also for 27 lakh bags. The main factor working against the popularity of paper bags is its price in comparison to polybags. But PPL Feedback can supply bags at a lesser cost as it has an
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existent idle capacity to manufacture bags and its machines are fully depreciated. The consumer shopping bags market for paper bags has a potential of about 32.4 lakh bags per annum at present. If the company goes for mechanised operations at this stage, then the operations may not be profitable for the company in the short run as per the break-even capacity utilisation for the machine, (given on page 35). The operations, however, may be viable in the long run. This study was for the corporate retail segment only; there is another segment of individuals, and retail showrooms which also use paper bags. At the time of market testing for corporate retail segments, the company could study this segment under the set conditions of product mix, explained in Chapter VI, to calculate the size of market of paper bags for retail showrooms. At the time of test marketing, essential for entry-strategy finalisation, the company should go for testing the various possibilities identified in the marketing mix and specifications for the final product launch, explained in Chapter VI.
Introduction States the details of the -• Authorising person or body requesting the report • Author or group of authors responsible for investigation (and submission of the report) • Purpose or reason for the report • Methods of enquiry (the research method used) • Arrangement or grouping of data • General background to report's subject
Findings
Presents the results of the investigation.
Conclusions
• States the results of the investigation. • Offers answers to questions raised in the beginning of the report. • No new information should appear in the conclusion.
Recommendations • This part is the action centre of the report. • State how the conclusions should be acted upon. • Make clear and definite recommendations. • If further investigation is required, mention it as a condition for a more comprehensive study of the problem.
You cannot have a report without recommendations, even if you have not been asked to give them. Recommendations flow out of conclusions, as conclusions do from discussion.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND ANALYSES
This part is the main body of the report. It discusses findings and analyses results. The information is developed in one of the ways given, below.
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Chronological Development
• Chronological development - The information is arranged in the order in which the events happened. This is the simplest method of presenting information - in its sequence of occurrence, like a story with a beginning - a middle - the end. Chronological development requires little planning and organising. The writer selects and arranges the major topics in the order of their occurrence. Non-significant events are left out.
This method is usually used for writing short reports, progress reports describing progress of a project and investigative reports that discuss investigations conducted over a long time and involved visits to different places to gather evidence.
By discussing each event step-by-step, the cumulative effect of a variable (factor/thing) can be seen through the conclusions drawn at suitable intervals. The sequencing of information is easy to determine, for the report writer is guided by the order in which the events actually took place.
SUBJECTWISE DEVELOPMENT
• Subject development - The information is arranged according to the subjects. The subjects are grouped in a predetermined order. This arrangement makes the presentation of information coherent and logical.
When a research involves the study of two or more variables acting upon an event/happening, the writer has to arrange his discussion in subject order. The writer would describe the effect of one variable on a subject and would go on in chronological order to determine the cumulative effect of the variable on the subject of study. Then, in a similar manner he would study and describe the effect of the other variables, and record chronologically its cumulative effect.
The question is in which sequence the effect of each should be presented, if there are several variables. The writer has to choose the sequence according to the variable he wants to recommend. He can move in increasing order of suitability or begin from the most suitable to the least suitable. But before structuring information he should make his choice of order clearly known by stating, whether he is following the ascending or descending order in discussing each variable.
Suppose you want to recommend, as an automobile dealer, the most suitable model of a luxury car to an executive. You will follow the subject method and tell him/her that you have evaluated the price, fuel consumption, speed, automation, seating capacity, space and after-sales services guaranteed (free servicing for a year) for different models of luxury cars. You would then recommend the most suitable model for his/her use.
You have in fact, made a comparative study of the essential parameters that determine a buyer's choice of a car, and presented the information accordingly.
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CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
• Concept development - The information is organised "concept wise". The writer develops his argument and reasoning on the lines of his thought.
As a report writer, you can arrange the details of your topic by following the logical sequence of your investigation. You can develop the topic by describing each step as a sequence to the step that follows it, in a series of steps, which finally build up your argument (topic). The logic of your argument guides your organisation of the subject. Each part or stage of a project is seen as a well-linked procession of ideas forming a complete concept.
In the concept method you tell the reader how you arrived at the results and why they are valid.
This method is to be employed when the topic is complex and reasoning is required to explain the reader the various ideas and their careful consideration, in reaching the end result of the investigation. When a selection of the best result can be made, for instance, the choice of a car, or a site for a new house by a simple and direct analysis, the subject development would be appropriate, not the concept method. Whatever be your method of developing the main argument of your report, see that the report is logically organised and the narration is interesting and convincing to the reader. Distribution list When a report is meant to be sent to several persons, it will contain a list of all the persons who are supposed to receive a copy of report. The distribution list is placed according to its size or the customer's choice or company's practice. However, it seems proper to place it as a separate appendix if the list happens to be long. But a short distribution list can appear at the foot of the table of contents page.
GLOSSARY
Glossary is the list of technical or special terms used in a report/ technical paper placed at the end of a report and before the index. It alphabetically lists words or phrases which need special attention. It explains the usage of technical terms peculiar to industry. A glossary of usage includes rules for forming compound words, abbreviating technical terms, and writing unusual or difficult words. A glossary also acts as a dictionary of some select words, which often get confused, misused or wrongly spelt. These are: • Words often are confused because they are similar in meaning; for example diplex and duplex, ground floor and first floor, postpone and cancel or imply and infer. • Common unnoticed errors of grammar, such as many a times (should be many a time), one of the best option (in place of one of the best options), comprised of (for comprises) • Words that tend to be wrongly spelt; e.g. agism (correct ageism), accomodation (for accommodation), seprate (should be separate). • Words having more than one acceptable spelling; for example, program, programme. In case of words like symposiums and symposia where both versions are in use, both are given in the glossary and a choice is indicated for one of them.
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• Words like data, often wrongly used as singular or used as datas in the plural, are specially entered in the glossary and their usage is fully explained. Data is plural, (also treated as singular, although the singular form is datum). In scientific philosophical and general use, data generally means a number of items and is thus regarded as plural with datum as the singular. But in computing and related subjects, it is taken to denote a mass or collective noun and therefore used with words like this, that, and much, with singular verbs, for example, useful data has been gathered. The glossary, like the Oxford Dictionary, will draw our attention to the usage of the word data and point out that although some people consider the use of data with a singular verb incorrect, it is now in common use. It will also point out that data is not a singular countable noun and should not be preceded by words such as 'a', 'every', 'each', 'either' or 'neither' or be given a plural form datas.
APPENDIX
The appendix is used to give a variety of information separately, as its inclusion in the main body could interfere with the smooth reading of the report. It usually includes the text of questionnaires or other instruments of survey. Tables, flow charts, maps, summaries of raw data, and details of mathematical formulation are generally included in the appendix. Each appendix is numbered Appendix A, Appendix B and so on to help the reader identify the material given in appendix. Sometimes a descriptive title is given. Sometimes, the word Annexure is used for Appendix.
Bibliography All published and unpublished sources of information used in preparing the report are listed under Bibliography. All reference documents, previous reports, books, periodicals, and even letters written and received by the writer are mentioned in it.
INDEX
Index (plural indexes or indices) is the alphabetical list of subjects, names and so on with references to page numbers where they occur in the report or a book. It is usually placed at the end. It should not be confused with the contents which always appears at the beginning of a report or book.
In long reports and voluminous works, index helps the reader locate a subject easily in the text of the report wherever it has been mentioned or discussed. For ,example, order refusals 115 entered in a report's index means we can find it mentioned on p. 115. In a book's index, an entry like Research question 34 a - 675 would mean it appears on p. 675 discussed under section 34 a.
Normally an author's note about the symbols used in indexing subjects appears at the beginning of index entries, which helps the reader follow the way entries are made. For example, see Lynn Quitman Troyka's note on indexing in Handbook of Writers (1987) Simon & Schuster, USA.
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A degree symbol (") after an index entry signals that the term is defined in the glossary of Grammatical and selected terms. All entries in boldface italics (advice, advise, for example) are discussed in the usage glossary; in any other place listed section numbers are in boldface type and page numbers in regular type. The listing 6 a 160 thus refers you to page 160, which is in section 6 a.
THE PROCESS OF INVESTIGATION
A report involves three things -1. Research (investigation) 2. Analysis 3. Presentation
The reader's interest in the report is primarily in its well documented presentation of facts and conclusions. But a report can never meet the expectations or needs of the reader, unless the writer labours through careful research and makes a critical analysis of the data collected through research.
Therefore, to write reports (for decision makers in business) you should first understand some research methods and acquire analytical ability.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
In simple words research means a search for facts - answers to questions and solutions to problems. Business research can be defined as a systematic inquiry that offers information to guide business decisions.
There are two ways of searching for facts -1. Arbitrary, based on personal judgment, and hunch 2. Scientific
The scientific approach to research is a logical and systematic study of a problem, issue or phenomenon in a step-by-step manner, following a logical process of reasoning.
Research conducted in scientific manner involves the following process of investigations -• Defining the problem • Formulating hypothesis • Selecting/proposing a method • Collecting, organising and analysing data • Making deductions and arriving at conclusions
DEFINING THE PROBLEM
The problem or the subject of our investigation should be outlined well, so that the solution is correct. We should narrow down the problem to specifics - what exactly is required to be done. By delimiting the problem from general to particular and to more
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specific problems, you can recognise the real problem that needs to be answered. The well-known set of "what, why, who, where and when" questions will help analyse the general problem into specific problems. To know why something is wanted, we should first know what is wanted. So, we should first separate these two questions, the "why", and the "what". Once these two basic questions are isolated, we should note them down. The process of solution finding has begun. At this point, you have to assume a tentative solution of the problem. The hypothetical solution will be subsequently tested for its validity and correctness. But the search for solution has been given direction toward solution.
NARROWING DOWN THE PROBLEM
Let us see an example of how we narrow down a problem from the general to the specific.
Suppose we want to study the wages of women labourers. It is a vast subject. Millions of women workers, all over the country, fall within the scope of this problem. It will not be possible to study such a wide problem. Therefore, we should limit its scope by asking the questions - "What, why, where, when, who?" Assume you are at TISCO and are required to give a report on this problem. To study the wages of women workers at TISCO, Jamshedpur, this is how you can approach your investigation of the problem –
What To study the wages of women workers Why To determine whether their wages in our company are fair and uniform When Present Where In TISCO Jamshedpur Who Women workers
You have now limited the proposed problem of your study to the present wages of women workers at TISCO Jamshedpur. The limiting of the problem has been possible by asking the "why" question - the purpose of study. And once the purpose is well defined, the problem will accordingly become specific and exact.
Still, the subject/ problem needs to be further clarified. The terms fair and uniform are vague. Women may be doing different work at different sites of work at TISCO. Their work at TISCO may be different from their work in Jamshedpur as a whole, say, at TELCO. So, when we talk of wages being fair and uniform, do we mean the wages of women workers within TISCO or compared to the wages of women/workers elsewhere? Also, we enter another question of fairness. Are the wages of women and men equal? Is the principle of fairness (equality) applied to all women and all men for their wages for doing the same type of work at all sites in TISCO and TELCO?
CONCEPTUALISATION
This process of clarifying our concepts and terms is known as conceptualisation.
We conceptualise by defining our terms by stating them in specific terms of their meaning, with regard to the specific context of use. For instance, the term wages is vague
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unless we specify it by considering 'hourly', 'daily', 'weekly'; if daily, then how many hours make a day; if 'weekly', then, how many days make a week (is Sunday included?) or if 'monthly', then, whether a month is the calendar month. Such questions would help us to be exact in our concepts involved in our research.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
After clarifying all these questions, we can now state our problem thus - "This study proposes to survey the wages of women workers in TISCO, Jamshedpur, to determine whether the company wages are fair and uniform."
The problem phrased in this way is limited in its scope.
Formulating Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the possible cause and solution of a phenomenon. It is a tentative answer to the present question. It is called tentative because it is assumed to be true but its validity is to be tested. Hypothesis is based on supposition and is to be proved or disproved as a result of research. For example, we may be interested in studying the percentage of savings in families with changes in family income. We may assume that the percentage of saving will increase if the income of families increases. It is just our supposition, not a proved fact. We can use a hypothesis "An increase in the income of the family leads to a rise in the percentage of income saved." This hypothesis is positive. Its validity is to be proved by testing it through the results of our research.
Null Hypothesis
Many researchers think that a positive hypothesis is framed by expecting a favourable "yes" result of the study. Therefore, they prefer to use a neutral hypothesis, called Null hypothesis, that is required to be disproved to prove what is valid. The null hypothesis is stated in terms that show no prejudice to the result of research. We can state the above problem of family income in the following null hypothesis -"No increase in percentage of the income saved will result if the family income increases."
In business research we prefer to use the null hypothesis as it indicates an objective and unbiased attitude towards the result.
SELECTING A SUITABLE METHOD OF SOLUTION
The next step after defining the problem and postulating a hypothesis is to select a proper method of collecting the required information from the following commonly used methods of research-1. Library research 2. Survey research 3. Observation research
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4. Experimental research
The main concerns of business research in social sciences and management research are about finding solutions to problems such as unemployment, poverty, social unrest, human relations, and problems in organisations .. Research attempts to establish factual data on prevailing plans and schedules for development on a realistic basis. Research studies bring out necessary facts for making sound decisions before committing resources.
Research studies seek to help planners evaluate alternative strategies and select the most suited strategy for development of different sectors, such as education, agriculture, industry, health, and social welfare.
Evaluation studies of ongoing projects and schemes such as lead bank schemes and integrated rural development programmes, are undertaken to indicate whether the plans need any modifications or new implementation strategies.
Keeping in mind the basic purpose, the researcher selects usually one or two of the four research methods mentioned above.
Library research In every research we need to know what others have already done. For collecting this information and knowing other views related to our investigation, we consult the existing literature. This kind of collection of information is known as library research, which is a part of all other forms of research. It constitutes study of the background and involves the survey of all existing body of knowledge in the field of the proposed study of research.
Library research helps us in the following ways-• It avoids unnecessary repetition and duplication of effort and waste of valuable research time and funds. • It establishes points of departure for new research work. • It sets out direction and areas for doing research in the field proposed for study.
Library research is done for solving problems in business and it relates to the study of an organisation's records, annual reports, periodicals, account books or other documents recording the business policies, decisions, and previous studies of the same or similar problems.
Because library research provides us with material already contributed by others, it is known as "secondary source" and the information collected is called "secondary data". Primary data is what we gather through our own observations, surveys and experiments.
In using library research for collecting data, we should be careful not to create a heap of information. Collect only relevant material. Also avoid piling up the entire data at one place. It will be better to note and record information on separate sheets/cards under different headings with exact details of their source - a book, journal, news bulletin, company's specific file and so on. This will help you use the collected material properly at the appropriate places in your report. You will be helped also in preparing your bibliography.
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Normative survey research In business research this method is frequently used to know the actual status of the thing at the time of our study. It uses survey tools -questionnaires, interviews, checklists, and opinionnaires to obtain information that may add to information already collected through secondary sources or validate the finding obtained from the library research.
The surveys are called "normative" because they lay down "norms" or "standards" or "what is", or determine the present status of a thing, or establish customary behaviour. The normative survey method is descriptive in nature. The limitation of this research method is that findings through such surveys are to be considered valid only for the present and not for the future, because the state of mind, attitude, or situation of the subject of study may change.
For example, suppose we want to conduct a study of the attitude of employees towards the voluntary retirement scheme (VRS) in a company. The only way to do this is to conduct a survey (through personal interviews or questionnaires) of all those employees, who, at the time of study, fall within the age group indicated for VRS eligibility. The findings, based on the responses given by this group of employees, will be valid about the present employees only. The management of the company will not be deciding wisely if these findings were held valid and applied to the employees after, say, five years during which the Company's economy may have dramatically changed or employees' attitude towards work may have drastically altered.
Reliability and validity of survey results The survey may be done through personal interviews or questionnaires. The findings are considered reliable when they are found close to what is generally accepted as true. And they are held valid, if they measure what they are supposed to measure.
Reliability also results from consistency in findings. A simple example of a situation in which a result may be valid but not reliable is measuring a person's temperature with a thermometer. We get a reading of fever which is valid because it is done with an instrument that measures what it should measure. A thermometer is meant to record human temperature. But suppose we doubt the correctness of the reading and we again at that very moment record the temperature with some other thermometer. We may get either the same reading or a different reading. Now we are confused. We do not know which reading is true. In order to determine which thermometer is reliable, we should again take temperature with the first thermometer, first for one minute, again for 2 minutes, and finally for say 3-5 minutes. If the readings are not the same then the thermometer is not reliable in its calibration. If it lacks consistency, which is the basic principle of the calibration of thermometers, the particular thermometer is unreliable.
Similarly, the principle of validity assumes that the results are true of not a specific group interviewed or questioned but of the total, say, employees supposed to be covered by the study. In order that the results are both reliable and valid we have to adopt the method of selecting a fairly true representative sample or group (to continue our VRS example) of the company's employees. Population is the total number of individuals (items) to be
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surveyed _ interviewed or questioned through mailed questionnaires. But the whole (the population) may be in thousands (something unmanageable); hence we select a smaller number of employees as representing the whole population (all the employees in VRS age). This process is called sampling.
In order to make the sampling reliable and valid we follow the techniques given below –
Random sampling We need to do sampling to ensure that each and every individual member of the concerned population is studied by us. For making it possible, we use random sampling in which there is no-zero chance for every individual to be included in the sample. This is, of course, a very difficult task. In order to achieve it, we should take a fairly large number at random from a population so that persons representing varying characteristics of the population get included in the sample proportionately. That is to say, the sampling group and the total population will possess the same characteristics in the same proportions. To illustrate this point, let us carry on with our VRS employees example. Our sampling is valid if our sampling group has the same percentage of different age groups, different salary groups, different years of service, different ranks as the total population of employees has.
As the term 'random' suggests, we do not choose, but allow an equal chance to all the members in a population to be chosen. One of the ways to do it is to first determine the size of the sample we want. Write down each name (of the population) on a piece of paper and mix them under a cover. Now, you draw from it the number of slips you want for your sample group. The name thus drawn from the whole lot will be representative of the total population.
Stratified random sampling But it is possible that the sample thus formed does not reflect the same percentage of various characteristics belonging to the population. Therefore, we do what is called stratified random sampling. That is to say, we will go on drawing the lots so long as we do not get from each category, the sample group, in the same percentage as exists in the total population.
Systematic random sampling Random sampling becomes systematic random sampling if we apply a system of picking out names in a definite sequence. For example, we write names from lID and pick at random a name which is listed at 8. Then we write down that number 8 name and choose every tenth name on that list; 8th, 18th, 28th, 38th, 48th and so on till we complete the required number for our sample group. This method ensures the 'no-zero' chance for every individual in the population to get picked up for the sample. Such techniques of sampling are useful to survey the preferences, habits, attitudes of buyers for determining market trends, or consumer behaviour.
Instruments of survey The survey is usually done with the instruments of written questionnaire or personal interview.
Questionnaire is a set of questions which are written in order to collect maximum factual information from the respondents about their habits, attitudes, views, rating, liking, and so on of the object under study.
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The questions may be grouped and sequenced according to the nature of the data. For example, if personal data is important for the analysis of the information gathered, then questions on age, sex, family, size, number of earning members, and number of dependents may be grouped together for easy analysis of the data. Usually the name is left out. A questionnaire is generally treated as anonymous.
Questions should be worded in simple, clear and exact language. Enough space should be left between the questions if we ask open ended questions, such as "What effect will the attrition policy / VRS scheme have on the economy of the steel plant?" The questions can be objective type with a number of options given in which case the respondent has just to write "yes" or "no" or just put marks as directed. For example, a question can be put in the following form –
Your company should have a five-day week Yes No No Opinionfor all its employees to motivate them forbetter production .
Guidelines for Creating an Effective Questionnaire
1. Ask objective and factual information. Opinions, likes, and so on cannot be avoided, but they should be inferred from the objective information.
For example, instead of asking whether a person likes to buy a particular brand of soap, you can get to know about his/her preference by knowing how many times she/he has bought that soap.
Rule - Do not base your conclusions on opinions, because they often change from time to time. Rely on facts, not opinions.
2. Do not ask questions that would embarrass or bother the respondent either to answer or to recall.
For example, when did you last go to be with your parents for more than a few hours? Or, have you stopped whistle blowing or inside trading? Or Have you stopped beating your mother? 3. Do not ask contradictory questions. 4. Avoid loaded questions which suggest built-in answers.
For example, Would you like your wages to be increased? Obviously, the answer cannot be "No". 5. Keep the number of questions to a reasonable limit. Normally, 10-15 questions shouldbe set. Long questionnaires are usually ignored as they take the respondent's time. 6. Assure the respondent that the information given by him/her will be treated confidential if you are asking questions on secretive matters.
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7. Sequence the questions from simple to difficult. Put easy-to-answer questions before the difficult ones. 8. Write a brief letter to be sent with the questionnaire. The respondent should know why
he/ she is selected to answer the questionnaire. Also he/ she should be persuaded to answer each question freely. Instructions for answering the questions may also be given in the covering letter itself. Otherwise, the instructions may be briefly written on the top of the questionnaire.
9. If the questionnaire is mailed, it should be accompanied with a self-addressed duly stamped envelope. This would communicate your serious desire to receive the filled-up questionnaire.
10. Promise the respondents that the findings of the survey research will be shared with them. 11. Mention the probable date by which you have to submit your study report or indicate
the date by which the questionnaire may be returned. Remember that normally it takes time to respond and often the questionnaire remains unanswered. Hence, choose your respondents carefully and wisely.
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Sample questionnaire and letter
Reader's Digest
Music Products
Dear Friend of Reader's Digest
Will you do us a favor?
In the past, Reader's Digest has been able to produce many music collections, books and other products related to our reader's special interests only because friends like you have told us in advance what their preferences are.
This survey is being mailed to a small, select group of Reader's Digest customers. To ensure that replies truly reflect the opinions of all, it is important we hear from you. Your reply to this survey will help us plan future music collections designed to satisfy your particular tastes.
If the music collections described on the following pages are more likely to interest someone else in your household, please pass along this questionnaire to that family member. Kindly spend a few minutes to consider each collection in turn. Then answer the questionnaire attached.
A pre-addressed postpaid envelope has been provided for your convenience. Your reply involves absolutely no commitment or decision to buy.
Many thanks for your help in this important project.
Yours sincerely,
Bobby Thomas For Reader's Digest P.S. As a token of our appreciation, we will send you a FREE Mystery Gift when we receive your reply.
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How to Answer This Questionnaire
Enclosed you will find descriptions of four recorded music collections that Reader's Digest is considering producing in the near future. Would you be kind enough to tell us if you would be likely to send for each of these music collections, if it were offered to you through the mail, with its repertoire as described here? Please consider each collection separately, and indicate your interest by ticking a box in the appropriate space below each description:
1 2 3 4
Definitely would Probably would Probably would Definitely would order order not order not orderl.Great Music Greatest Hits2.Indian Film Song Collection 3.Melodies, Moods, and Memories 4. The World's Greatest Love Songs
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About You and Your Family
For purpose of tabulation, kindly indicate the following –
Q 1. The following is a list of types of Music available. Please indicate which types of Music you are interested in buying in the next 12 months. (Please tick as many boxes as apply)
Broadway Shows/Movie Soundtracks (13.1) Indian Classical Music (13.2) Hindi Mainstream Music (13.3) Christmas/Holiday (13.4) Country (13.5) Dance (13.6) Easy-listening (13.7) Western Classical/ Light Classical/Opera (13.18) Inspirational/Religious/Gospel (13.9) Western Vocal (13.19) Instrumental/ Mood Music (13.10) Others (13.20)
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Q 2. Have you ever bought music from Reader's Digest to give as a gift?
Yes (14.1) No (14.2)
Q 3. As a whole, how do you rate Reader's Digest music on value for money? Is it ....
Excellent Value (15.1) Good Value (15.2)
Fair Value (15.3) Poor Value (15.4)
Q 4. Where did you purchase your music recordings, tapes or CDs in the past 12 months? (Please tick as many boxes as apply)
Retail Store (16.1) Through Television Advertisement (16.4) Direct Mail Offer (e.g. Reader's Digest) (16.5) Through Telemarketing (16.6) Music Club (16.3) Over the Internet (16.2)
Q 5. Do you have access to the following? (Please tick as many boxes as apply)
Personal Computer (17.1) CD player (17.5) CD-ROM (17.2) Cassette Player (17.6) The Internet (17.3) MD player (17.7) DVD player (17.4) MP3 player (17.8)
Q6. YourSex
Male (18.1) Female (18.2)
Q 7. Your Approximate Age
19 years or below (19.1) 20-24 years (19.2) 25-29 years (19.3) 30-34 years (19.4) 35-39 years (19.5) 40-44 years (19.6)
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45-49 years (19.7) 50-54 years (19.8) 55-59 years (19.9) 60-64 years (19.10) 65-69 years (19.11) 70 years or above (19.12)
Q8. Your Education
Matriculate (20.1) Undergraduate (20.3) Graduate (20.2) Post Graduate (20.4)
Q 9. Have you consulted with your family when you completed this questionnaire?
Yes (21,1) No (21.2)
Q 10. Are there any children in the following age groups living in your household?
Up to 2 years (22.1) 2-3 years(22.2) 4-5 years (22.3) 6-7 years (22.4) 8-10 years (22.5)11-12 years (22.6) 13-17 years (22.7)
Q 11. If you have any comments on our music, please tell us (23.1)
__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
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Observation research In the observational method of collecting information, the receiver observes (inspects/monitors) the activities of a subject or a group of persons or a phenomenon or the nature of a thing without communicating with anyone. It differs fromthe survey method that involves an interrogation and response process, and is a method based on communication. The observational study uses the process of monitoring. The researcher notes and records the results obtained from his observations of each case. This
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is why the observational research is also called statistical research that involves statistical analysis of one or more sets of data.
Suppose we want to know if there is any correlation between time and traffic jams at a traffic intersection on a particular road, we will monitor the flow of traffic and record the count of traffic flow in different directions at different hours of the day and determine the statistical correlations between the two sets of data; the count of traffic flow and the hours of day.
Usually, in business, we use both observational and survey methods to answer problems. For example, a market researcher may first use the survey method to understand the buying behaviour of certain income groups. Then he would employ statistical analysis to observe/determine the correlation between buying habits and income levels. A combination of the two methods helps us identify the right markets for products.
Experimental research We are familiar with experimental research since our school days. We took two test tubes and filled them with exactly the same liquid. Then we added a new material to only one of them. The content in the other tube was kept as it was (original). After adding the new material to one tube, we noticed changes in that tube. It was obvious to us that any change that had taken place was due to the new ingredient. We noted our observations. The experiment explained the phenomenon of cause and effect.
A laboratory experiment is done under controlled conditions. The two samples are identical. The addition of a variable to one of the two samples causes certain changes in that sample. We conclude that the change is due to the variable. Thus, we can determine the causal relation between a variable and the change in the state of something. Accordingly, if we wish to bring about a particular change in the state of something, we can take help of the related variable.
Although in social sciences and management, experimental research is used to determine the effect of variables, there are limitations to its applicability to social sciences. Unlike in physical sciences, the study of social behaviour and human nature cannot be controlled. Motivation, efficiency, or tastes and choices cannot be subjected to controlled observation of the effect induced by a variable in one of the two otherwise identical groups of people. Although we keep on repeating the phrase, "other things remaining the same", as an essential condition for conducting experimental research in social sciences, it is largely an assumption and may not be, in fact, true.
Experimental research is, however, commonly used in agriculture to determine the effectiveness of fertilizers or pesticides on crops. The study takes two plots of identical size, soil, fertility, quality of seeds, irrigation facilities, and adds a different quality of fertilizer to one of them or leaves it without manure. Then we record the yields of both plots of land. The difference between the yields of two plots is due to the use of fertilizer.
Analysis Choose your method of data collection from the above discussed research methods according to the nature and purpose of your proposed study. And before you write the report, evaluate the information collected for its relevance and usefulness. Plan and organise the information. Group the findings to form an outline of the report.
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Organising Planning your message before writing it in the form of reports will make the communication ordered and clear. Planning involves organising the ideas already collected and identified to be communicated.
Ideas In case of a short and simple piece of writing such as a letter/memo, organise the material by deciding what points to include and how to arrange them. When the material to be covered is vast and complex, like long reports, plan not just the sequence of presentation, but also subordination and coordination of ideas and facts in relation to each other and to the text as a whole.
Organising involves two things -• Sequencing • Outlining
Sequencing Information can be arranged in three different ways-• Randomly • Sequentially • Hierarchically Random Random organisation as the term suggests, has no visible relation among the ideas/ facts presented. The communicator (writer/speaker) keeps expressing thoughts/ideas as they keep coming into his/her mind. It is just a string, not a pattern of ideas.
Sequence Sequence is a set of things belonging to one another in sequential order. Each item has the same relationship to each of the other items. For example alphabetical, numerical, or chronological ordering.
Hierarchical Hierarchical organisation ~ an ordering of items according to their relative importance. It is based on multi-level relationships. In this pattern items have other items placed under them. The hierarchical organisation is best shown as a tree-structure given below -
This hierarchical relation among ideas/ items is what an outline shows. And this is the form of organisation which helps a reader understand the information easily. The other two methods, random and sequential, which are used in computer theory, are not so well suited for the purpose of the reader. A reader would feel lost in the maze of unarranged and unpatterned ideas. Hence, you should put related ideas in separate groups. This is known as grouping ideas.
1
2 2
3 3
3
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Grouping ideas by levels of generality Grouping of material for writing is done by considering levels of generality. One idea is more general than another if it represents alarger category. For example, 'literature' is more general than 'novel' or 'communication' is less specific than 'report'. Again 'report' is more general than 'progress report' and in tum it is more general than 'Third Term Progress Report' which is again less specific than 'Third term Progress Report of XYZ'. So, generality is a relative concept. Each idea is to be viewed in the context of a whole relationship of ideas.
Considering levels of generality is useful as both general statements and specific details are included in effective communication. For example, in informative and persuasive writing, general statements have to be developed with specific facts, reasons, arguments, and examples.
Outline as a structuring device
An outline is a shape-giving device. It is a valuable planning strategy. By making an outline, we structure the ideas gathered and grouped together in terms of their generality. It can be used at different stages of writing a report. For instance, before a written version of a report or its oral presentation, an outline helps arrange and organise material; or when revising, it can be used to see how far the first draft is logically arranged and organised. An outline also points out any weakness in the written document - missing points or digressions from the main point.
An outline is just a tentative plan or projection of what the final draft of a subject is going to say. It is possible that your outline may get changed somewhat during the actual writing of the subject. In that case, get back to your outline and change it accordingly. And then check, if the changes made do not disturb the logic and order of your argument and ideas.
Formal outline In a formal outline the content and format are arranged according to conventions formed to show relationships among ideas clearly.
A formal outline can be a topic outline or a sentence outline. A topic outline consists of a word or a phrase, whereas in a sentence outline each item is a complete sentence. But the two methods are never used together in the same formal outline. However a sentence outline is found more helpful for writing purposes. For example, "differences in arts" in a topic outline would have more details in a sentence outline - "arts differ in terms of objects, manner and mode of imitation!"
Framing an Outline
1. Introductory and concluding sentences do not form part of a formal outline. The thesis or the topic statement is placed before the Roman numeral 1 sentence entry. 2. Numbers, letters, and indentations The formal outline begins with capital roman
numeral I to number the first main idea, then roman numerals (capital/II, III) are used to indicate major subdivisions of the topic.
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Indented capital letters ( A, B, C --) are used to mark the next level of generality, similarly, small letters (a,b,c, --) indicate the further level of generality, if any.
This arrangement is based on the principle that each subdivision is placed above the next level of specific detail given by the outline. It may be noted that in a sentence outline if an entry is longer than one line, the second line is indented by one word. That is the line will begin under the second word. of the first line.
3. At least two entries at each level In an outline of all points, there can be I only if there is II, and A only when there is a b, and like that in all cases. Without having at least two parts, no category can be divided.
Where a category has only one subdivision, it is to be either left out or to be expanded to at least two subdivisions by adding more material to it.
For example –
Incorrect A. Working women leaving children alone 1. Going to work place B. Couples getting separated
Correct A. Working women leaving children alone B. Couples getting separated
Correct A. Working women leaving children alone
1. Going to workplace 2. Joining kitty parties
B. Couples getting separated
4. Levels of generality All subdivisions have the same level of generality. A main idea and a supporting detail cannot be placed at the same level of generality.
Incorrect
A. Starting an IT Centre B. Conducting Computer courses
Correct A. Starting an IT Centre B. Opening a health resort
5. No Overlap Under each heading give a fresh point. Do not repeat the same idea. Hence, what is said in 1 should be quite different from what is mentioned in 2.
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Incorrect
A. People moving away from villages 1. Going in search of jobs 2. Going to seek livelihood
Correct
A. People moving away from villages1. Going in search of jobs 2. Changing outlook
6. Parallelism All statements (divisions and sub-divisions) are written in parallel construction (grammatically). For example, if one item begins with the - ing form of verb, other following items will also begin with verb + ing.
Incorrect A. Negotiating peace B. Promote understanding
Correct
A. Negotiating peace B. Promoting understanding
7. Punctuation and capitalization Only the first word or a proper noun is capitalised in each entry. Please note that you should use full stop (.) at the end of each entry only when it is a sentence outline. But no punctuation mark is put at the ends of entries in a topic outline.
Bibliography
There are different systems for a Bibliography. In a report, the bibliography should conform to the style of documentation followed by the concerned company, just as a technical article/paper conforms to the form of bibliography followed by a Journal or Society that wants to publish the material.
Footnotes and Endnotes
Documentation of cross-references may sometimes have to be done in such a way that the references do not disturb the flow of argument and reading. The writer can give reference as the footnote or can describe all references as endnotes in a list of references at the end of the report. In both cases, the reader finds all details about sources mentioned in the report, and he can check the correctness of the statements by consulting the original sources.
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Both footnotes or endnotes may be used in documenting sources. Endnotes are usually preferred, as they are easy to refer to when desired. Also, footnotes create the problem of spacing the material on a page.
It is to be noted that each reference to be cited in the list of references in the endnotes is numbered consecutively as I, 2,3, ... and so on. And they are mentioned in the same number that each reference has in the body of the discussion. The information on the source is documented as shown below.
"The marketing strategist described by Lovatt3 uses a computer to design his concepts of virtual market for products".
The superscript "3" refers to the third endnote mentioned in the list of references as given below –
3 Lovatt, Frederick G. et al. Management is No Mystery, 2nd Edn, ed. Robt B Arpin, Trent, Ariz., Bonus Books in,1975.
Some Guidelines for Bibliography Entries
1. Reference to a book by one author Mention author's name, Book Title (in italics, hence to be underlined), city of publication, publisher's name, date of publication (to be given in the same order).
2. Reference to a particular Chapter in a book written by two authors Authors' names (name of the main author entered with surname first, and those of other authors written with given name or initials, first), "Chapter Title" (in quotes), book title, city of publication, publisher's name, date of publication.
3. Magazine article Author's name, title of article, magazine name, volume and issue numbers, date of issue, relevant page numbers.
4. Report or technical paper Author's name, title of report, report number, name of company or organisation publishing the report, date of report. 5. Correspondence Names of sender and receiver, details of their respective organisation, and date of letter. 6. A second edition of a book by more than two authors Enter only primary author's name and publisher's name. (Note: "et al" means "and others".)
Diagrams in Reports
Report writers use tables and graphics such as bar charts, line charts, pictograms to tellthings briefly and vividly. Diagrams, like all visual modes, communicate information clearly and effectively. For example, consider the effectiveness of written instructions for opening Eye-Drops and putting them into eyes supported with figures that illustrate the process of opening the phial and squeezing drops into our eyes.
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Preparing Tables
We should know some of the techniques of preparing tables in which the content is presented clearly. The most important technique is to label each table in a way that the reader can easily get to the desired table. You may practise some of the techniques given below –
1. Numbering all tables - You should number all tables in your report consecutively by calling them. "Table 1", Table 2", "Table 3" and so on, and while referring to them, simply say given on the next page or the following table. This practice will make your reference brief and simple. Write the number over the table centering it.
2. Labeling each table - Write a complete heading on each title, which clearly describes the contents of table for the reader. As headings, the table titles can be long but they should completely describe the table's presentation. The title can even run into two lines. It may mention sources of data, numbers included in the figures given in the table and the subject of the table, for example, "Segmentation of market (5-20 kg) - on the basis of the usage of bags in the total market size of 3150 crores". For emphasis the title of the table can be written in bold letters.
3. Use the caption head when many columns, such as names of several trains/cities are given. "North East" on each column of data as short heading to indicate the item, for example," City" "Max" Min" Rain".
4. Similarly, indicate the subject of the line (horizontal) columns by identifying its content as, "4033 Janta Mail", "2724 AP Exp". 5. Use footnotes to explain items given in columns, if required. 6. Keep sufficient space between columns so that the data remain well separated.
Graphics Used in Reports
In reports, the following forms of graphics are commonly used-• Bar charts • Line charts • Pie charts • Pictograms • Actual pictures • Maps
These graphics are used also in oral presentation of reports. While using graphic presentation of information, the writer or presenter of report considers how the use of graphic presentation helps in grasping the information conveyed through words. Sometimes, reports use graphics as a source of embellishment by making the presentation colourful.
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How to Use Figures and Diagrams in Reports
We would use figures and diagrams in the text of the report if they are not very large. If they can be accommodated on a page within the running text without breaking the continuity of reading of the text, they should be kept as part of the text. Otherwise, tables charts and other diagrammatic representations should be placed ~ appendix. Each figure should be serially numbered throughout the report continuously. We should first introduce data and give interpretation of the diagram used, and then draw the reader's attention to the diagram by specifying the number of the figure (given in the text/ or number of appendix/annexure).
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Meetings
In any organization, meeting is an important vehicle for human communication. In a meeting, two or more people come together for the purpose of discussing a (usually) predetermined topic, often in a formalized setting. In addition to, coming together physically (in real life, face to face), communication lines and equipment can also be set up to have a discussion between people at different locations, e.g. a conference call, teleconference or an e-meeting. Meetings are so common and pervasive in organization or institution, however, that many take them for granted. It is usually forgotten that, unless properly planned and executed, meetings can be a, terrible waste of precious resources.
Styles of Meetings
Formal Meetings: These are the meetings that are governed by a set of rules or standing orders; which are agreed earlier. These rules determine how the meetings should be conducted. If you have to participate in a formal meeting, you should find out about the set of rules and procedures that you have to follow and act in accordance. These rules which are formulated may vary from one organization to another. To conduct a formal meeting, one requires it a 'chairperson', 'secretary’ and a standard period of notice. The notice of the meeting also contains the 'agenda' of the meeting determining the sequence of items to be discussed. The formal meeting may also require the attendance of a minimum number of members; so that any valid agreements can be reached. This group of members, who attend a meeting, is called as a 'quorum' and the meeting is termed as 'quorate.'
Semi formal meetings: Not all meetings require a formal setting. Nevertheless, even semiformal meeting benefits from well chosen surroundings and a basic structure or protocol. Small semiformal meetings are ideal for problem solving, brainstorming, discussion of local issues, giving feedback and appraisal workshops. They include mealtime meetings, such as breakfast, lunch or dinner meetings. The semi formal meetings are usually held due to time constraints of the participants, if no other time can be found for a meeting.
Informal meetings: Informal meetings are the meetings which mark the immediacy of the problem. These types of meetings are useful for resolving issues or problems quickly and easily. Informal meetings can take a range of difficult forms and can serve a variety of purposes like, i) Impromptu Meetings, such as in the corridor, by the water cooler or in the, canteen. They can be held without any preparation to provide immediate resolution of minor problems. ii) Virtual meetings, are a type of informal meeting which can take place via Video Conferencing, E-mail discussion groups or Chatrooms. A face to face meeting might not be always necessary or possible because of the restraints of time and distance. Thanks to the new media technology, a virtual meeting can go on either in real time for an agreed time period as a digital version of a. face to face meeting. It can also go on over several days or weeks where people can join in at any time to 'chat' to each other about agreed topics. It also allows them to leave messages on a bulletin, board and gather opinion from
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across a range of participants. However, the limitations of this type of meeting are that it depends on restrictions of access., There may be a protocol imposed by the host server, regulating access and agreement of meeting topics in the Chat rooms and Bulletin Boards.
Agenda of a Meeting
The word 'agenda' is derived from Latin, meaning the actions to be taken. Note that it was a plural word. Originally the singular term was 'agendum'. In modern days however, we accept 'agenda' to refer to the list as a whole and the plural is 'agendas'. Every meeting should have an Agenda. It is a document, which provides an advance outline of the business of the meeting, thereby allowing participants to prepare themselves. In other words, agenda refers to a list of points that needs to be discussed at a meeting.
In business meetings of deliberative bodies, the agenda may also be known as the 'orders of the day.' The agenda is usually distributed to the participants of a meeting prior to the meeting, so that they will be aware of the subjects to be discussed, and are able to prepare for the meeting accordingly.
An agenda helps the chairperson to structure the meeting and the secretary / minute taker to keep track of what is being discussed. It needs to include the most important items and be sent out in advance. This allows the participants to research agenda items before the meeting. An agenda can be a list of items to be discussed at the meeting or may include more information advising the members on action related to the topics.
Planning an agenda: Planning and designing an agenda before a meeting is very important. It should give as much information as possible in advance. It should list not only the topics to be discussed during the meeting, but also the proposed goals of the meeting.
The following are guidelines to follow, when preparing an agenda for a formal meeting. 1. Make the agenda specific 2. Keep the number of items within reasonable limits so that enough time is allotted
for discussion.3. Avoid topics best handled by individuals or subgroups. These topics can be
discussed in other informal meetings or discussions.4. Separate the information exchange and problem analysis from problem solving.
The ‘real’ problem solving would need more time or a different atmosphere.5. Specify start and finish time.6. Circulate the agenda to the members, who have to attend the meeting; and supply
any relevant background information before the meeting but keep it brief.7. Consider the approach you will take as a meeting leader, any opening remarks
you will make and how you will introduce each topic on the agenda.8. Gather any materials that will be needed (handouts, visual aids etc.)
Form of agenda Just as you write a business letter, the agenda also has a specific format. It consists a “Heading” and a “Body”.
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a) Heading – The heading of the agenda usually contains the date, time and location of the meeting.
b) Body - The body of the agenda comprises of a series of points outlining the order of the meeting. They are the items that would be discussed in the meeting.
Points on a typical agenda may include
i) welcome/open meetingii) support for absenceiii) approval of the minutes of the previous meeting (reading the minutes of the
previous meeting which gives the link to the matter to be discussed.)iv) matters arising from the previous meeting.
v) a list of specific points to be discussed - This is the crux of the meeting. Usually the bulk of the discussion in the meeting takes place in this section. vi) any other business (AOB) - Here a participant is allowed to raise another point for discussion vii) arrange/announce details of next meeting viii) close meeting
Example of an agenda Agenda
Meeting to be held in the Conference Room .Tuesday, 6th January 2007
2.30 pm - 4.00 pm Chairperson: Mr. Soodip Negi1. Apologies 2. Present (5 min) 3. Confirmation of Minutes previous meeting (5 min) 4. Business arising from Meeting previous meeting (5 min) 5. Agenda Items
a. (2 min) b (2 min)
6. Reports a. (2 min) b. (2 min) c. (3min)
7. Other Business 8. Forward Agenda Items ( items that were not able to be covered in this meeting and will be moved to the next). 9. Next Meeting
Minutes of Meeting
The minutes of a meeting are the official record of the key points of a meeting. They are recorded instantly at the moment of hearing the discussions.
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The minute taker of the team takes responsibility for the writing up of the minutes. The minutes may be first taken down and then typed. The copies of the minutes should be sent/given to all participants of the meeting. Alternatively, the proceedings of the meeting may be audio-recorded, later typed, and then issued to the participants.
Generally, minutes begin with the organization name, place, date, list of people present, and the time that the meeting was called to order. Minutes then record what actually happens at a meeting, in the order that it actually happens, regardless of whether the meeting follows (or ignores) any written agenda.
Since the. primary function of minutes is to record the decisions made, any and all official decisions must be included. If a formal motion is made, seconded, passed, or not, then this action and the vote tally must be included. If a decision is made by calling votes, then all of the individual votes must be recorded by name. If it is made by a unanimous agreement, without a formal vote, then this fact is recorded.
Minutes in businesses and other private organizations are normally submitted by and over the name of an officer of the organization (usually the Secretary, and never the typist, even if the typist actually drafted the document) at a subsequent meeting for review. The traditional closing phrase is "Respectfully submitted," (although that phrase is slowly falling out of use) followed by the officer's signature, his or her typed (or printed) name, and his or her title.
The minutes are approved only if the participants of the meeting agree that the written minutes reflect what happened at the meeting. Their approval is recorded in the minutes of the current meeting. If there are errors or omissions, then the minutes will be re-drafted and submitted again at a later date. If there are minor changes, then they may be made immediately, and the amended minutes may be approved "as amended." in the current meeting. It is not appropriate for you to approve the minutes if you have not attended the meeting or if you have not read the minutes of the meeting that you have attended.
Preparing minutes
Your note taking skills come handy here. Practise note taking exercises well to master the skill. When writing minutes, keep the following key points in mind: • they are key points only • they are a summary except motions, which are verbatim • they must be entirely accurate - what was said, not how you interpreted what was said
or what you would have preferred was said. Your point of view should not be given here, whether you agree/do not with the speaker's statement.
• keep a record of every motion and vote; who said what and who moved and passed motions. • use simple, short words and use simple sentence construction • use consistent grammar and use past tense ego it was concluded, the matter was • if something is important and you are unsure what was said or who said it, don't hesitate to ask for clarification.
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As soon as the meeting has concluded, begin to work on the minutes. The notes taken during the meeting act as a memory prompt and will be more reliable if the meeting is fresh in the secretary / minute taker's mind. The minutes should include the following information:
The minutes that are taken down during the meeting must be transcribed into the style that was previously followed. It is best to keep the minutes in the same style as they were recorded in the previous meetings.
There are three basic styles for minutes.
a. Report - this is a full record of all discussions that includes the names of all speakers, movers and seconders of any motions, written in a narrative style. b. Minutes of Narration - these include some of the discussions that took place and important details. This style of minutes is considered a legal document. c. Minutes of Resolution - these are limited to the recording of the actual words of all resolutions that were passed. Movers and seconders are not recorded. Each resolution that is made commences with the phrase, 'RESOLVED THAT'. This style of minutes is also considered a legal document.
Contents of the minutes: The minutes of any meeting should contain the following items. They may not be ih the order that is given below. i) The name of the unit. E.g.: Finance Committee, Food Committee, Board of Governors. ii) The date, time and place of the meeting. iii) The number of the meeting if it is in a series. E.g.: Second Fortnightly meeting. iv) Name of the chairperson of the meeting. v) Names of members present, of those who could not attend, and those who attended by special invitation. vi) Record of transactions vii) Signature of the secretary and the chairman.
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Example of Minutes of a Meeting
Department of Soil and Water Science, Sikkim Manipal University
Minutes of the Regional Meeting Of the Board Of Directors
held at the University Campus(22, Tiger Circle, Manipal)
at 11. 00 am. on Friday, 9th December, 200611.01: Dr. Sibal welcomed the group to Manipal. 11.03: Ms Nisha Raman, Secretary, confirmed the minutes of the last meeting which was held on OCtober 28, 2006' which were approved by the Board and signed by the Chairman 11.05: Dr. N.K. Bhattacharya, Administrative Advisor, presented an overview of the
Sikkim Manipal database. It has beeneompletely updated and should serve Multi-State Research Projects much better.
Annual reports to Sikkim Manipal have to be sublTlitted within 60 days of the meeting. Our report is due 60 days after our fall meeting.
11.15: General discussion about the sanction of budget for the projects. Current Project, New Business (Web page) John Sanjana will continue to maintain the web page and keep it updated. Each participant agreed to select one site from which a sample would be obtained.
The attached template is to be used to record site and sample information. John Sanjana agreed to provide the template.
Procedures should be distributed by July 1,2007, samples obtained by September 15 and data by September 30,2007, if possible.
11.35: Center Reports were given by: Ahmedabad, Bombay, Calcutta, New Delhi and Mangalore.
Those attending the meeting: Dr. T.J. Sibal, Chairman Dr. N.K. Bhattacharya, Administrative Advisor Mr. Anil Bisht, Soil Survey laboratory Mr.John Sanjana Dr. Suresh Bhat Dr. Salma Taj Ms. N.isha Raman, Secretary
Absent: Mr. Guizar Hussain Mr. Clint D'Cruz
11.45: The Secretary was directed to call the next Meeting of the Board on 25th February 2007 T.J. Sibal Nisha RamanChairman Secretary
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Participating in meetings
It is very important that one attend meetings. There is a mixed feeling about attending meetings among people. Some members are happy to just attend the team meetings. It is as though they are physically present in the meetings without contributing anything constructive. Meetings are only way of passing time for them. Others feel as though their opinions aren't valued. They have a lot to contribute but go unnoticed. There are still others who just can't get a word in. Unequal participation reduces the outcomes of the meeting and can be frustrating for all the participants. Any meeting to be successful needs careful attention of honing of communication skills. The success or failure of a meeting can be attributed to the way it is conducted as well as the way how people have participated in its proceedings. If people make the effort to attend a meeting, it is in everyone's interest to have thoughtful contributions from all. For the success of a meeting, the participants should follow certain regimen. They are • arrive on time • be prepared to discuss the agenda items • keep their contributions relevant to the subject under discussion • present their ideas clearly • listen carefully and with an open mind to points raised by others • encourage good ideas from others • keep their interests in check
Some participants are responsible for the, failure of the meetings. The outcome of the meetings is reduced because of their typical character. They could be compulsive talkers, never contribute, digress or carry on private conversations while the others are busy discussing important issues. Chairing meetings
The success or failure of a meeting depends on the chairperson's ability'to organise and chair the meeting. Once the agenda is sent, and the meeting ensues, it is important that the chairman steps into his role. Following is a list of actions that mark him as an efficient chairperson. • arrives early • calls the meeting to order at the time specified on the notice • declares the meeting open • calls for apologies • leads discussion, item by item • encourages a free exchange of ideas on matters of importance to the team • sees that debates are conducted correctly so that the business of the meeting runs smoothly • rules on disagreements • answers questions put by members • sums up the debate frequently • follows the agenda exactly as set out • ensures that a correct record of decisions is being recorded • announces the date of the next meeting
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• closes the meeting.
The meetings may be effective or ineffective depending upon the control over the communication. If you master your communication skills, you can turn a meeting into effective. At the same time poor communication skills lead to ineffective meeting. So, the key to turn your meetings into a success story is to improve your communication skills.
Assignment
1. The facilitator can give various situations to write letters circulars and notices and e- mails.
2. Students prepare their own CV to be submitted to the industry for summer internship and final placement.
3. Students can prepare a report on :a. Country (Take any country)b. Business Environment Topicc. Indian Business Housed. Book Report
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Chapter 4 : Oral Communication
ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND EFFECTIVENESS PRINCIPLES
What is Oral Communication? Oral Communication, also known as verbal communication, is the interchange of verbal messages between sender and receiver. It is more immediate than written communication. It is also more natural and informal.
In human development, speech precedes writing. We first learn to speak, then much later, develop the ability to read and write. The ability to speak/articulate single words and later on speak groups of words in meaningful sequence comes to us in due course of our growth as a child. We develop this ability from listening to verbal sounds (words). As compared to written communication, therefore, our ability to communicate through the spoken word (speech) is an ability naturally developed in us (provided we are not deaf or dumb).
In human interaction, oral communication is used more (perhaps over used at times) than written communication.
The study of human behavior shows that 70 per cent of our waking life is spent communicating. Out of the total time spent in communicating, normally, 45 per cent relates to listening, 30 per cent to speaking, 16 per cent to reading, and 9 per cent to writing. Thus, 75 per cent of our time, we spend in listening and speaking. It is, therefore, necessary that people in business learn to use this time to their best advantage for creating and sustaining good relationship through their ability to listen and speak effectively.
Need for Learning Oral Communication Skills
In business transactions that involve face-to-face interaction between individuals or groups of individuals, it is not enough to be able to talk, speak, discuss, converse, argue, or negotiate an issue. A manager should be able to converse or discuss persuasively, effectively and convincingly. But to do so he must know the skills of oral communication.
A manager often faces difficulties in attempting to resolve problems of workers and in trying to influence others through dialogue and personal discussions. He needs oral communication skills that include abilities-• To help problem solving • To resolve conflict • To influence people to work together • To persuade others to be involved in organisational goals • To be assertive without being aggressive • To develop listening skills • To be an effective negotiator • To make a proposal
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These skills will develop the necessary tact to work effectively for mutual satisfaction in the above situations.
Broadly speaking, one has to know when to talk, and when not to talk but listen; how to talk, that is the tone, pitch and modulation; to be able to interpret the listener's facial expressions, physical gestures and movements, attitude, together with knowledge of his own body talk, (leakage) which consciously or unconsciously flows out to the listener.
It is said that it does not matter what you say, what matters is how you say it. Your way of saying includes your choice of words, and your confidence and sincerity.
Objectives of Oral Communication in Business
It is known that a manager's maximum time is devoted to oral communication. He is engaged in one of the following tasks: meetings, discussions, negotiations, seminars, presentations, interviews, peer conversation, subordinate instructions and telephonic conversation. All these business activities, except telephoning, involve face-to-face verbal communication. A telephone conversation is a one one-to-one oral communication that requires skillful control of tone, voice, pitch, and precise use of words.
Choice of Form of Communication
A manager's choice between oral and written communication is guided by considering the suitability of oral or written form for the purpose and nature of the subject of communication. Both written and oral forms have advantages and limitations as given below -
Comparative Advantages and Limitations of Oral and Written Communications
Oral communication Written communication• More personal and informal • Better for complex. and difficult subjects,
facts and opinions• Makes immediate impact • Better for keeping records of messages
exchanged• Provides opportunity for interaction and feedback
• Provides opportunity to refer back
• Helps us to correct ourselves (our messages according to the feedback and non-verbal cues received from the listener)
• Can be read at receiver's convenience or pleasure
• Better for conveying feelings and emotions
• Can be revised before transmitting
• Can be circulated Limitations • Demands ability to think coherently as you speak
• Never know if the message is ever read
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• A word once uttered cannot be taken back • Impersonal and remote• Very difficult to be conscious of our body language
• Immediate feedback is not available for correction on the spot
• Hard to control voice pitch and tone, especially under stress, excitement or anger
• Reader is not helped by non-verbal cues that contribute to the total message
• Many people do not like reading especially if it is an official or business message• Time consuming
Principles of Successful Oral Communication
Oral Communication is indispensable in any group or business activity. The purpose of effective talking is to be heard and understood by the listener. Our communication should, first of all, have the rhythm and tone of a living voice. To achieve this quality we should use the language that is free from long winding sentences, cliches, oldfashioned words and phrases. Our language should have the ease of commonly used words, and short and simple sentences. The pitch of our voice should take into consideration the distance between the listener and us. The tone should be marked by the accent of sincerity and confidence. The listener, unlike the reader of a written communication, has the advantage of watching you in the act of verbalising your ideas and feelings, and is able to note the unconscious body language, which may contradict the intent of your spoken words and is constantly affected by your tone of endearment, hostility, superiority, conceit, sincerity or insincerity.
Therefore, a speaker has to be very careful about his words and the manner of speaking them. In oral communication, the manner of speaking is, at many times, more important than the words, which communicate only 7 per cent of the total message. Albert Mehrabiarn's research reveals astonishing facts about how exactly different factors contribute to a speaker's total message-Verbal - 7%
Tone of voice - 38%
Visual - 55%
An effective speaker, therefore, learns to control and use his tone and body language to support the message communicated by words. The tone of voice and visual expressions as contributory factors of a message will be discussed in detail later. Let us first discuss the nature of the spoken word more fully as compared to the printed word.
The nature of the spoken word Unlike the printed word (of the written message), the spoken word (in oral communication) is ephemeral (short-lived). The listener cannot turn back to the spoken word as the reader can, in case he misses its meaning while reading it. This is an inherent limitation of speech. To overcome this limitation, the listener has to listen closely and attentively. And the speaker should converse slowly, with proper
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semantic pauses, to enable the listener receive and register in his mind whatever is heard. There should be a due correlation between the pace of speaking and the rate of listening. Research has established that an individual speaks nearly 125 words a minute, and the brain of the listener processes nearly 4-5 times more rapidly. If the natural gap between the processes of receiving and registering is widened or too narrowly shortened by the speaker's pace of speaking, the act of comprehension will tend to be adversely affected. Hence, an important principle of oral communication is to speak fluently, without long pauses or non-stop rushing through words.
What is fluency? Fluency usually means ease as a condition of speaking. But a fluent speaker is one who is heard with ease. The listener does not have to strain his mind to receive, register, and interpret the message heard. Listening is activated and helped when the speaker delivers his words as if they are moving in an ordered procession. Each word is distinctly heard and easily connected with other words to form the verbal structure of the message.
Characteristics of Effective Oral Communication
According to Francis J Bergin, oral communication is characterised by seven Cs -Candidness, Clarity, Completeness, Conciseness, Concreteness, Correctness, and Courtesy. These act as principles for choosing the form (style) and content (matter) of oral communication. Oral communication should provide a platform for fair and candid exchange of ideas.
In simple terms, the communicator should follow the following: • Consider the objective. • Think about the interest level of the receiver. • Be sincere. • Use simple language, familiar words. • Be brief and precise. • Avoid vagueness and generalities. • Give full facts. • Assume nothing. • Use polite words and tone. • Cut out insulting message. • Say something interesting and pleasing to the recipient. • Allow time to respond.
Barriers to Effective Oral Communication
Managers have to communicate individually with people at different levels - superiors, subordinates, peers, customers and public figures. The oral mode of communication is easy, time saving, and functionally helpful in resolving issues. But oral communication demands great control and communicative competence to be successful. Oral communication shares with written communication all the barriers already discussed in an earlier chapter.
The foremost barrier to oral communication is poor listening.
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Listening Listening is a psychological act affected by several factors, such as - Status Halo effect Complexes Closed and all-knowing mind Poor retention Premature evaluation and hurried conclusions as distortions Abstracting Slant Cognitive dissonance Language barrier
Status In organisations, there are formal and informal status levels that affect the effectiveness of face-to-.face oral communication. A subordinate would generally listen more and speak less while interacting with his/her superior. The exchange of ideas is blocked by diffidence in the subordinate because of superior position of the speaker (boss). The upward oral communication is not very frequent in organisations. The fear of superior status prevents free upward flow of information. It conditions free and fair exchange of ideas.
Halo effect The awe in which a speaker is held by the listener conditions the act of true listening. If the speaker is greatly trusted and held in high esteem as an honest person, his statements are readily taken as true. Oral communication is thus conditioned by the impressions of the listener about the moral eminence of the speaker. The impressions of the listener and not the intrinsic worth of the message determine the validity of communication. Under the halo effect in business, buyers tend to go by the trusted seller's view of a thing, rather than by their own judgement of the product's quality.
Complexes A lack of confidence or a sense of superiority may prevent proper oral interaction between persons differently positioned. Sometimes one suffers from a sense of being inferior and, therefore, fails to take initiative or involve himself/herself in conversation/ dialogue or any other form of oral communication. Similarly, some persons consider themselves too big to condescend to talk with others. Often, these are misplaced notions of self-worth, and they block oral communication.
Closed and all-knowing mind Listening, to a large extent, depends on one's curiosity to know things. Some persons believe that they know everything in a field or a subject. Their minds refuse to receive things from other sources. Besides, some persons in business or other work areas feel too satisfied with their ways of doing things to change or even discuss new ideas. The closed state of mind acts as a barrier to oral communication, which demands a readiness/willingness on the part of listener to enter into a dialogue.
Poor retention In dialogue, or two-way oral communication, the sequence of thought is essential for carrying on communication. To speak coherently one has to remember the sequence of ideas. The speech-sequence is also equally important for listening with
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comprehension. The structure of thought must be received and retained by the listener to understand arguments. The cues that signal the movement of thought from one set of ideas to another must be retained by the listener to be able to grasp the full sense of the message discussed. In case of poor retention, the listener fails to relate what he hears with what he had heard before. Moreover, if the listener fails to remember the previous discussion, the whole thing is likely to be lost in the absence of any written record.
Premature evaluation and hurried conclusions as distortions To listen patiently until the speaker completes his/ her argument is necessary for correct interpretation of an oral message. The listener often distorts the real or intended meaning of communication by either pre-judging the intention of the speaker, or inferring the final purpose and meaning of the message or giving a different twist to the argument according to his/her own assumptions, or just picking out a few shreds of information, perhaps from his/her point of interest. These mental processes, during the act of listening, may at times act as a block, affecting the free and fair exchange of meaning.
Abstracting Abstracting is a mental process of evaluation of thought content in terms of relative importance of ideas in the context of the total message. This is possible only on listening to the whole message, and not during the process of discussion.
Abstracting acts as a barrier when a listener approaches a message from a particular point of view focusing his /her attention on some aspects of the conversation or dialogue. The rest of the communication is missed.
Abstracting is partial and selective listening. Some parts of the discussion are lost or just partially received. This acts as a barrier to a full understanding of whatever is exchanged between two persons.
Slant is usually attributed to the biased presentation of a matter by speaker. Instead of straight talk, one speaks in an oblique manner that could be almost like telling a lie. When a matter is expressed with a particular slant, many other important aspects of the message are suppressed, left out or indirectly hinted. Well informed listeners usually do suspect the cover up / slant. But uninformed listeners do accept the slanted message.
Cognitive dissonance At times the listener fails to accept or respond to assumptions underlying the new information communicated, as he/she is unprepared to change from the old basis of belief and knowledge. In such kinds of discrepancy between the existing assumptions and the actual position communicated, some listeners try to escape from the dissonance by interpreting, restructuring or mentally ignoring the oral interchange. Cognitive dissonance interferes with the acceptance of new information as it happens to be. It may lead to several interpretations of a new message or view. In case of absence of cognitive dissonance, a listener has the skill and ability and flexibility of rational thinking as a promoting factor in effective oral communication. In executives, the skill to move from one mental frame to another is an essential quality for oral exchange of ideas and beliefs and feelings.
Language barrier The language of communication should be the medium shared by both speaker and listener. In business, English is most widely used in almost all parts of
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the world. The facility of conversing in English is essential for executives within a multilingual country like India. English is now the global medium for conducting business and establishing one-to-one contact. The lack of knowledge and practice of spoken English would act as a barrier to oral communication.
Further, the listener should be familiar with the accent of the language in use.
In India most of those who know how to speak English will need special training to work in call centres to be able to understand what American callers say over the phone. Indian outsourced workers tend to overcome their initial language barrier.
The effect of most of these barriers that interfere with the proper response to oral messages can be reduced or even removed through skills of conversation control.
What is Conversation Control?
The art of conversation consists in our ability to listen with concentration and reply well. Conversation control involves skills of listening and talking in a positive and meaningful way at an appropriate time. In includes -• techniques of changing the direction of conversation smoothly. • the ability to allow a discussion to develop along key issues in an uninterrupted way
towards the desired end. Broadly speaking, conversation control helps us carry on and conclude our conversation (dialogue/discussion) effectively on a note of satisfaction as a result of mutual understanding and agreement.
In business, the following situations require application of conversation control skills -• How to sell or buy • How to negotiate • How to interview • How to participate in a meeting • How to disagree without being rude • How to protest without offending • How to compliment/praise • How to respond to personal criticism
How we listen and talk in such situations shows how far we are able to exercise conversation control.
Charles J Margerison in The Art of Effective Communication points out, "Conversation control does not mean that you can control someone's conversation. What it does mean is that with practice you can control your own conversation, and in time be able to influence others, and encourage them to respond in a positive and relevant way."
The following skills will help your oral communication -• Interacting with people in meetings in a convincing way • Handling objections to a proposal made by you • Being able to react to criticism in a confident manner
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• Developing skills in interviewing • Learning how to get correct information quickly
The benefits of conversation control can be felt from observing the results of personal interactions that involve discussions and meetings conducted in an orderly manner.
Ability to notice cues and clues Conversation consists of words as well as non-verbal signs, signals, cues, and clues. Dialogue or discussion is a live act that communicates both stated messages and implied messages. Words communicate the stated message. Cues and clues together with signs and signals point out what is important and what is not. Persons skilled in the art of conversation quickly recognise the cues and clues and know what is of importance to the speaker /listener that could be the direction and basis for furthering the conversation or discussion.
In written messages the writer can draw the reader's attention by highlighting important words, phrases and sentences by underlining, italicising or marking with a coloured highlighter, or by using some qualifiers or modifiers, words such as very, too, essential, and so on, indicative of importance. In oral communication, the listener's attention to the importance or unimportance is drawn by not only the choice of words, but also by the tone of speaker's voice or some other signals such as facial expression, eye contact, body movements and gestures. These signals constitute cues and clues to emphasise ideas.
A cue is a keyword or phrase a person uses when he/ she wants to indicate that something is important to him/her. Similarly, a clue is a word or a set of words that someone else gives to us.
These cues and clues flow out .from speaker to listener consciously or unconsciously. They show the direction of emphasis that the speaker or the listener pay to the content of the message. In our conversation there are always some key words. These key words act as cue to other persons to draw their attention to what we consider important. For instance, if we say, "Let us discuss the teaching-learning function of the case-study method in management studies". The keywords are "teaching-learning function" and "casestudy method." These words direct others to focus their discussion on the case-study method as a tool of teaching and learning.
Thus, cues are what we give to others about our view of things and clues are what others give us about their views of things. Generally, people give most important clues unconsciously, through what is called "leakage", the body talk that involves a whole lot of non-verbal signals, comprising expressions, gestures, and postures.
The success of meetings, discussions, lecturing, or oral presentations depends on our picking up the verbal cues and clues.
However, so often, we find that we do give cues but others do not duly receive them.
An example from real life The Director of a college went to his University Registrar to ask for permission to add one more teaching discipline (course) in his college. The Director spoke at length to highlight the overall achievements of the college in terms of
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infrastructure facilities and growing number of students and consistently excellent results. He said to the Registrar, "I want you to send a team to inspect our college for recommending the opening of the new course applied for by the college." The Registrar replied, "But the university wants all colleges to improve their facilities and results." The Director went on to defend the existing facilities and results of his college. But the meeting failed because the Registrar failed to pick up the cue that the Director was discussing the existing infrastructure and results to support his request to introduce one more course. And the Director received from the Registrar's keywords the clue to his (Registrar's) lack of interest in his (Director's) proposal for the new course. The Registrar did not pay attention to what was important in the Director's conversation. The conversation ended and the Director left the Registrar's office disappointed.
In this example, the key words used by the Director are "to inspect", "recommend", and "a new course". The Registrar did not pay attention to these cue words. The clue words in the Registrar's response are "but", "all colleges", "to improve". These words of the Registrar indicate his priority. What he implied was that the university was not interested in adding further courses and thereby increasing the number of students in any college. But he obliquely communicated this intention and priority. If we analyse the Director's cue words, we realise that his proposal for starting a new course was intended to increase his intake of students. But he did not state the purpose in a straight way.
In real life people usually do not express their thoughts directly and completely. It is for others to look for cues or clues to draw more information. Otherwise, the real thing may remain unstated.
For a fuller understanding of words, we should look for the meaning hidden behind the utterance. For example, in a welfare meeting with workers, a manager was told by a person, "I have been working under lot of tension." And the manager replied, "Yes, we all have to work under tension. Targets have to be met." Maybe the manager missed the clue underlying the word tension. The worker may not be talking about the tension at work. He may be facing some serious family problem, his wife's health or his child's education. The manager should have, therefore, asked the worker "What kind of tension." This would have encouraged the worker to talk further about the nature of his tension. Instead of the skillful controlled conversation, we have here a worker's general statement about his tension met with another general statement made by the manager regarding what is required. There is no attempt to draw out more information from the worker about his problem.
Let us see a case of skillful control of conversation. The octogenarian film actor Dev Anand, the recipient of Dada Saheb Phalke award, had a long TV interview. In one of the questions, the anchor said to Dev Anand, "It is said that as a film director you always insisted on working with new faces." Dev Anand at once shot back, "It is not the question of insisting. You should think deeply. It is a very different pleasure to encourage young talents to develop, to help them express themselves, to get established as celebrities. It is a creative joy. And I have always been creative in my choice of characters and my themes. I have always been experimenting, I have always enjoyed doing that." "You should think deeply." These words of Dev Anand are significant. The message of important words lies hidden behind them.
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In this case, the word "insisted" was an important word. Dev Anand caught the clue. He unfolded the general statement's hidden meaning by bringing out the specifics of his pursuit of creative joy as a film director and actor by moulding young talents into accomplished actors.
Recognising cues and clues As we have seen, cue is what we give out to others to point out what we hold as important part of our conversation. In tum, clues are what we receive from others on matters they regard as important. We can identify clues during our conversation by taking note of the following things. (i) We need to develop skills oflistening carefully especially when the other person uses
the following expressions -• When first person pronouns the words '1', 'me', 'my'. At that time persons are talking
about themselves, the person of greatest importance to them. • Strongly qualifying their statements about themselves with adjectives indicative of
deep emotions or high-level enthusiasm. Watch out for words such as "pressurized", "concerned", "angry", "worried", "annoyed", "unhappy", "disappointed", or enthusiastic, keen, excited, inspired. For example, when a person says he is under pressure to finish the task, he is giving a strong personal clue about action that needs to be taken within the shortest possible time. We should listen carefully when people use words that indicate that they are under pressure to act in a certain way.
(ii) Expressions of the following kind must be heard to carefully. Watch out for strong personal clues when people say-1. "The whole plan went wrong. Things were all confused. 1 think 1 failed in my
responsibility to organise the event." 2. "1 must change my strategy and approach. The whole thing was a disaster." 3. "1 am determined not to let it happen again." (iii) Listen carefully when someone uses words that suggest doubt and concern. "Doubts"
and "concerns" are clues to the speaker's personal problems. You can help the other person if you find out what exactly these issues are by asking him what he proposes to do or whom he was going to consult. This way you can find out different possible ways of helping him.
(iv) Finally, listen and carefully notice the natural pauses that persons use after saying something that is important. It is at this point of time that you show to the speaker that you have understood the key issues raised by him by accurately and sympathetically talking on those issues. You can thus continue the conversation in a controlled way and convince the other person of your understanding of the real issues.
Interpreting signs and signals Conversation is composed of verbal and visual indicators. Verbal indicators involve cues given and clues received. Visual indicators consist of signs given and signals received. While speaking, we all unconsciously keep moving our hands, eyes, head, legs, and other parts of the body or engage in some other non-verbal behaviour, such as the frequent gulping of water during conversation or speaking. All these non-verbal acts reflect the state of our mind These body movements, gestures, and actions communicate in a visible manner what lies concealed in our mind. And people trust the non-verbal message more than the verbal message. The non-verbal message flows through signs and signals.
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Signs consist of visual indicators such as frown, smile, eye movements, and so on that we give to others. Signals are behavioural indicators others give us. For example, drinking of water after every 10 to 15 minutes during a speech is a sign of thirst given by the speaker to the audience. But to the audience it may act as a signal of the speaker's nervousness.
Here, you should be able to identify from your own experience those signals that encourage or discourage you during the course of communication. And also try to know what are those signs which you habitually give to others when you are emphasising those parts of communication which are important or are not important for you.
Parallel conversation We engage in conversation to explore something. It may be to find out facts, or know the issues, or seek out solutions. This aim can be fulfilled when we take interest in what is initially stated by one of the persons. And the other person or persons seek further information on what is originally stated by asking questions and exploring the meaning of the messages indicated by clues and non-verbal signals. But if we do not do so, and just counter the original statement with another statement just parallel to it, we shall not take the conversation to a meeting point. The two parallel statements cannot meet and, therefore, cannot be linked together to resolve the issue or solve the problem or bring in more information on the original statement. In such a situation of a series of parallel statements, we have no dialogue. What we have are statements shot at each other. There is no attempt to get to the meaning behind the words used by the other person.
Consider the following example of a meeting at a garment export company.
X It is necessary that we increase our export. Y I think it is most important for us to reduce our manpower immediately. X By increasing our exports we can build our brand image. Y By reducing the number of workers we can cut down our costs.X I always look for building up our company in a positive way by promoting its
sales abroad. Y Cost reduction is the only way we can manage our company. And that can be
done only by reducing the number of workers. Here X and Yare engaged in parallel conversation proving that one is right and the other is wrong. Neither is interested in exploring the true meaning of what is being said by the other person.
Sequential Conversation When we converse in a skillfully controlled way, we make statements that are in sequence to what is said by the other person. There is a logical link between the statements made by the speaker and listener. The listener receives carefully what is being said and waits for his proper chance to join in to say clearly and forcefully what he has to say. But he carries forward the conversation in a connected and sequential form. In this way, within a short time, ideas and thoughts are developed in a structured pattern.
Sequential conversation between two persons is always fruitful. But this kind of sequential conversation is possible only when the other person attaches some value to what is said by the speaker. The listener can then reflect on what is said and would like to
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know more about the cue/ important idea in the speaker's initial statement or contribute to further exploration of the issue.
Reflection and Empathy
In oral communication, the most important skill is to impress upon the other person that you are genuinely interested in. him/her and his/her statements. To do so, you should be able to pick up the cue words and reflect upon their meaning. For instance, A says to B, "I am not sure if I am required here any longer." If B reflects on this initial statement, he would understand the underlying frustration and sense of rejection in A. And to give a chance to A to express himself further, B could say to A, "You feel your contribution is not being recognised". This would allow A to explore his/her own feeling with greater clarity and understanding.
Reflecting on someone's statement needs to be done most carefully. You must first understand the underlying feeling exactly and accurately. Then speak in such a manner that the other person feels that you have indeed seen the issue from his/her point of view; this needs very skilful dramatisation of the initial statement. It involves the use of body language to support what words say.
First of all, the purpose of reflecting on something is to help the other person see his/her feelings and ideas with greater clarity and precision.
Therefore, you have to repeat the feelings expressed by the other person. You should just play them back objectively, without changing or adding or altering them in any way. To do so, you should not criticise or question or add to what someone says.
Your body language should show your real interest in him/her. Make eye contact. Lean forward. And speak as a person with genuine feeling of concern for the other person.
Sense of time as a skill In oral communication, the speaker should always keep in mind the time taken to communicate. The time limits announced in formal oral activities should be strictly observed. To be able to observe it, plan your time judiciously to reach a properly evolved end. The audience should not feel rushed through any part of your conversation or presentation. Your pace of conversation or presentation should not exceed 110-120 words per minute. You should not speak fast to reach the part that deals with solution. The discussion of problem is equally important. In our discussions, we always tend to skip or rush through the exposition of the problem. Perhaps, we believe that the problem is something everyone knows fully. We, therefore, focus on the solution. This bent of mind affects both the pace and direction of our discussion. The other persons involved in it feel uncomfortable and rushed. They begin to gradually lose interest and concentration. In different business situations, the speaker should remember his/ her purpose of communicating with the listener. The audience/ listener should never be made to feel to be a passive captive listener. Meetings should be conducted through lively interaction and controlled shift from issue to issue. In one-to-one conversations/ discussions, the desire should not be to monopolise conversation. Passive listening generates disinterest and boredom.
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In lectures/ seminars/presentations the skill to break monotony is by introducing humorous anecdotes or illustrative cases.
Summarising as an integral skill of oral communication In oral communication, especially conversation, it is necessary to convey to the other person that you understand his/her point. You may agree or disagree, but the first requirement of skillful communication is that the other person has the assurance that you have understood the facts as presented.
Before you express your opinion or give your response to other's opinion, you should be able to recognise, analyse, and evaluate what the other person has said.
These steps will help you in comprehending facts in terms of their significance and importance for the other person. This understanding, in other words, is a critical summarising of all the ideas expressed by another person.
Summarising is the best form of comprehension of given facts. It is not just repetition of what someone has said. To summarise is to pick out the central thought, the main theme or the essential idea at the core of the whole argument. It is a most difficult exercise to do successfully. It is a skill to be able to summarise well and it needs lot of practice.
In written communication, we have the full text before us. And we summarise by carefully going through the text at least twice or thrice. First, we try to know what it is all about. And then we reread closely to understand the logical relationship between ideas. And then we finally see the central idea to which all other ideas are related as cause, or effect, or illustration. And the summary is the statement of our understanding of the central idea with its relationships with other ideas.
In the case of oral communication, summarising is the act of recognising the leading cues and clues during the course of communication, and making them the basis of your considered response after appreciating and understanding the underlying feelings and ideas. It is a process of mental abstraction of the most central and important idea in the entire argument presented by another person.
Summarising is, thus, of great value and is the skill most needed for negotiating or solving a problem.
We have frequent examples of crises faced by subordinates when they are ordered by the boss to complete the assigned task within too short a period of time. The workers feel that it is impossible to complete the task within a given deadline. They all tell the boss in different ways that the deadline is unrealistic. They argue that nobody thinks about those who actually have to perform the work.
Suppose the boss too remained adamant and just kept telling that in business you have to respect orders and deadlines. The communication between the boss and his subordinates would have ended on a note of frustration. And the boss would have failed to exercise conversation control.
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But, suppose the boss understands the workers' feeling of pressure and seeks to understand the problems and constraints of the workers, he would be able to motivate his subordinates by helping them express themselves, and may, in turn, also get a chance to state why he insists on getting the project completed within such a short time. Maybe he is being pressurized by his superiors to get it completed as a top priority. So by recognising, appreciating, and understanding the concerns of workers, the boss would be successful in resolving the initial problem of the workers and subordinates.
All the skills of oral communication, whether they relate to your ability to speak personally, face-to-face, or at meetings, depend basically on the key skill of conversation control which enables you to receive and understand the true meaning of words spoken by the other person.
Two Sides of Effective Oral Communication - Listening and Presenting
Listening is an important component of conversation control. To be able to understand and appreciate the other person, you . should allow him/her to express freely, without being interrupted, and listen carefully. Therefore, to improve your skills of conversation control, you should know whether you are a poor or a good listener. The characteristics of poor listeners and good listeners are broadly given below for self-analysis. By knowing your own characteristics, you can improve your listening skills as an important element of effective oral communication.
Characteristics of Good Listeners and Poor Listeners
Good listeners Poor listenersDo not interrupt Over-talkative Remain patient InattentiveMake eye contact InterruptShow interest "Yes, but. …” approach Look attentive Poor concentration Concentrate Impatient to talkAsk open questions Look away from the person
Very critical
Poor listeners annoy and disturb the speaker. Therefore, cut out habits such as interrupting, or showing little interest in what is being discussed. If you find that you tend to disturb the other person constantly by putting in 'yes', 'but' and 'ifs'; it is advisable to practise avoiding this behaviour.
Try to encourage the other person by your body language and expression. Indicate that you feel interested and understand what is being discussed.
Be an effective presenter The other side of oral communication is your ability to present your viewpoint. In order to be an effective presenter try to present facts, not your opinions; keep to the point; keep the listener's interest in mind; support your argument with suitable examples; and ask for feedback and answer questions honestly. Make eye contact. Avoid being vague, unfocused, with little eye contact, discouraging questions,
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showing lack of confidence, and not getting to the point. By practising these basic skills of good listening and effective presentation you can gain conversation control and be successful in your role as manager, negotiator, or in any other situation involving conversation or discussion.
Assignments
The students can improve their oral communication skills by practice. The students can participate actively in
1. Role plays2. Short plays3. Just – A- Minute4. Mock Meetings
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Chapter 5 : Non-Verbal Communication
Non- verbal Communication
WHAT IS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION? The word "non-verbal" means not involving words or speech. Thus, non-verbal communication is the wordless message received through the medium of gestures, signs, bodily movements, facial expressions, tone of voice, colour, time, space, style of writing, and choice of words.
Animals communicate their deepest feelings of love, anger, joy, hunger, and desire for mating through gestures, cries, whistling, cooing, bodily movements, and many other signals known to each other. Of course, the exact interpretation of such signs and gestures does vary but they are mutually understood within the group.
It is we human beings alone who have evolved the language of words to convey our thoughts in a structured manner. Still, in our moments of excitement, we tend to convey our feelings and emotions of joy, love, anger, and hatred by smiling, patting, shouting, frowning, or using other wordless clues. Such non-verbal expressions of feelings come spontaneously. However, at times, we deliberately lace our words with expressive tones, gestures, and facial expressions to heighten and modify the meaning of our words.
Some non-verbal message usually accompanies the verbal message. The verbal and the non-verbal together form the total meaning of the message communicated.
There is something heard and something implied along with what is said. For a full understanding of the message, therefore, we should know what has been communicated through words and without them.
Unworded messages are transmitted by non-verbal clues and signs (bodily movements and gestures). They (the unworded messages) exist in the form of meta communications and kinesic communications (body talk). Our response to them influences our interpretation of message received through words.
Metacommunication
A metacommunication is an implied meaning conveyed by the choice of words, tone of voice, fumbling, silence or omission. It is a message communicated not through words, but along with words. Metacommunication can be intentional or unintentional. For example, consider the following statement -"Try to reach the airport, well on time." The remark offers sound advice. But the sentence, without stating it, implies that the person concerned is not punctual or gets habitually late.
Again, when someone wishes the parting person 'best of luck', it conveys feelings of good wishes but it also implies a sense of anxiety or fear that everything may not tum out to be fine. Metacommunication also occurs through the use of paralanguage. Paralanguage includes pitch, loudness of voice, and speech breakers such as 'er', 'ah', 'uh', or hesitations.
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Prolonged gaps, pauses or silence are also forms of paralanguage. When a leader speaks slowly with sounds of 'er', 'uh', the leader is being very careful and circumspect.
Kinesic communication Kinesic communication is a message conveyed through non-verbal acts. Non-verbal acts in the form of body movements, such as gestures, winking, smiling, postures, or style of dressing and grooming, send out a message that supports or contradicts the verbal message.
Kinesic communication is also known as body language or body talk. It includes the entire non-verbal behaviour of the communicator. A non-verbal act is usually unconscious. It transmits the unstated feelings, attitude and hidden intentions of the speaker. The receiver's ability to perceive the non-verbal signs holds clues to the unworded messages. These non-verbal clues help you understand the total meaning of the message. In fact, as seen earlier, non-verbal clues influence our perception and understanding of the verbal message.
Leakage A non-verbal message conveyed through bodily movements is known as 'leakage'. A successful receiver is able to observe and interpret the 'leakage'. Though it is not possible to have an exhaustive account of all leakages and what they signify, a few examples to illustrate the modifying effect of bodily movements" on verbal communication will be given later.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Verbal and non-verbal communications co-exist. Words literally mean what they say. But those who are keen in observing how the words are written or spoken, find something additional in their meanings. A writer's style or a speaker's tone of voice or facial expressions or movements indicate the attitude and feelings in addition to what is being expressed through words.
Non-verbal act Possible unworded IdeaA senior looks at his/her watch while you are talking.
"Your time is over, go away."
An executive is always late for the meeting.
"I am always very busy."
"I don't bother about your time."A person winks after saying a thing. "Do not believe what I just said." A speaker prefers to speak from the floor, not the dais.
"I want to show my sense of equality with (you) audience."
Instrumental body movements When we move our hands to perform some work, such as wash our faces, it is an instrumental movement and not a symbolic clue. All body movements, with the exception of instrumental movements, are meaningful and communicative.
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Communicative movements act as non-verbal clues. For example, wiping one's mouth when confronted by a superior person communicates nervousness. Or the movement of hand to signal goodbye communicates courtesy and friendship.
Conscious or unconscious Non-verbal clues reveal the state of mind, the inner feelings and emotions, which may be real or just affected. Trained actors and orators intentionally use gestures, facial expressions, bodily movements, and postures to create the intended impact on the listeners/audience. Effective writers use stylistic devices to convey hidden feelings and attitude.
But in real-life situations, generally, we betray our inner thoughts and feelings through unconscious signs. The speaker may not realise that he/she is conveying these feelings.
For example, consider this statement on the bilateral talks between two not very friendly countries. "The meeting has made history," means that the event has done something memorable. But, it may also suggest that all talks in the past were unimportant.
The interpretation of non-verbal clues differs from person to person. For example, if the listener keeps on listening to you with continuous eye-contact, you may take it as a sign of perfect attention and full acceptance, but to someone else it could be a sign of the listener's helplessness.
The visible is always more convincing than what is heard as it may support or contradict the verbal message. Non-verbal clues are often taken as indicators of reality. For example, the pale face of a person, when in danger, contradicts his/ her claim of fearlessness.
If the circumstances surrounding non-verbal communication change, the same gestures may be interpreted differently. For example, two colleagues are good friends. And one of them pats the other endearingly. The pat will be taken as a loving gesture.
Now, suppose A is the chairperson of a promotion committee and B a candidate is selected for promotion. To create misunderstanding between A and B someone tells her that A as chairperson opposed her promotion. On meeting her next evening, when A congratulates her and as usual pats her, she recoils.
Body movements and facial expressions often occur spontaneously. They can support or contradict the verbal message. For example, the trembling feet of a speaker indicates nervousness even though the speaker says, "1 feel encouraged and inspired to stand before such a learned audience."
The dress or language used will reveal the communicator's status or education.
Similarly, pleasant words exchanged between two hostile parties would show their intention to put their differences aside.
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CLASSIFICATION OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Exchange of messages without words (feelings and ideas), which take place between two parties fall within the category of non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal forms of communication include the following modes - Paralanguage, Meta-communication, Kinesics, Grooming, Proxemics, Time Language, and Physical Surroundings.
Symbols of body language When you move different parts of your body such as hands, feet, head (nodding), shoulders (shrugging), eyes (blinking), or stand, sit, or walk (postures), you are expressing your feelings and emotions involuntarily along with words. All bodily movements act as symbols (signs), which contribute to the meaning of the message received and interpreted by the listener. The symbolic meaning associated with different body movements, gestures, and expressions is only suggestive and not specific in its import. Let us consider Ekman's classification of communicative movements into five types: • Emblems When the movement of body parts represents ideas as icons or images, the communicative act is emblematic. It pictures the meaning non-verbally through a physical image. For instance, a circle made with the thumb and index finger, and the rest of the fingers stretched out straight acts as an emblem for the American sign for "OK". This OK sign is meaningful for those cultures that use the English alphabet. The circle is an image of the letter 'O'.
But in a different culture, the same circle 'O' can represent a coin, just as it does in Japan.
The emblem does indicate a clear meaning, but this meaning is based on culture. For instance, take an arbitrary gesture of holding up the thumb, which in Japan means "boss", and in India "perfect". Thus, the same gesture has different meanings in different cultures.
• Illustrators Illustrators are movements of hands and arms for representing size, shape, frequency or speed of something. For instance, widely stretched arms show the enormous size, say of a serpent.
According to Ekman, a speaker uses illustrators when he or she is enthusiastic or fully involved in the subject being discussed. In such a state, the speaker involuntarily dramatises ideas by using the movements of arms to focus on an idea or an event.
• Body manipulators These are acts of touching one's own body or an object for no reason. It involves fidgeting with jewellery or touching one's buttons. These are unintentional acts. However, some consider them as clues of nervousness, anxiety or boredom.
• Facial expressions The most expressive part of our body is our face. Our face reflects our thoughts and feelings. Smile, frown, blush, paleness, reveal our positive, and negative feelings. These are emotional expressions of the face. Our most fundamental emotions of
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happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, and fear are involuntarily marked on our face.
• Regulators - Eye movements The eye movements such as squinting, winking, staring are called regulators. Eye contact, a smile or a frown are strong messages of an interest, involvement, acceptance, rejection, or annoyance. They communicate visual messages about our subconscious thoughts. Other people notice them, and form impressions about us and discover the truth in our verbal communication. While communicating remember the popular saying, face reflects the mind; eyes reveal the heart. Facial expressions show our thoughts and the eyes betray our inner feelings and emotions. For example, eye contact shows attentiveness. Partly closed eyes indicate reflectiveness. Rolling eyes are associated with restlessness and looking for something. Staring eyes communicate threat. Wide open eyes show wonder or shock. A wink, following a statement, negates the seriousness of the statement made. Similarly, raised eyebrows or wrinkled forehead symbolizes objection and questioning. Avoiding eye contact shows nervousness.
Facial expressions, specially eyes, draw immediate attention to the unstated part of the message that goes with words to communicate the total meaning of what is being conveyed.
Develop the skill of creating a favourable impact on other people by using eye contact. Your facial expressions and eye movements should be natural. Your smile should not be artificial; rather it should be a natural reflection of the pleasant state of your mind.
Face facts In conversation, a smile shows that the interaction has been pleasant for both parties. Perhaps, it would not be wrong to say that in most face-to-face communications, the most positive impression is made by a smiling face. The situation may be an interview, negotiation, or a one-to-one meeting. Even in telephonic conversation, one is able to feel the impact of a smiling voice.
Unlike smiling, frowning is repulsive. It might suggest to other people that you want to be left alone.
By practising positive body language, one can gradually develop positive feelings. Your body language does induce a state of mind which can act as a shield against negative feelings. Learn to communicate sincerity and concern in your business dealings by using positive body language to support your words of greetings, courtesy, and customer care.
Make conscious efforts to create a positive image by positive body movements and gestures. Avoid negative 'leakage'. Learn to look confident, assertive, and positive. Avoid appearing nervous, aggressive, rude, pompous, indifferent or overbearing, and superior.
We are not often aware of our bodily message given out to others - the body leakage. Therefore, develop awareness about various bodily movements and gestures and their possible message to those who observe us. Practice them to create a favourable and positive attitude and a good relationship for successful exchange of ideas.
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For your guidance, the associated messages of some significant bodily movements and gestures are given below –
Positive gestures When we speak our hands move freely to indicate the meaning of our words. Such gestures are natural. They cannot be avoided. They give strength to our words. But our gestures should be seen by us in terms of their positive or negative message about us. Although gestures are spontaneous, we can learn to monitor and use the positive gestures and minimize, if not avoid negative ones.
Positive gestures are body signals which make you look relaxed, confident, and polite. Positive listening gestures include leaning a little towards the speaker, tilting the head, eye contact, and gently nodding the head as the sign of agreement with what is said. Such gestures encourage the speaker to a great extent.
Good speaking gestures include keeping your hands open. Avoid clutching them or folding them across the chest.
Avoid putting both your hands in your pockets. If you put one hand in your pocket, it shows arrogance. If you put both, it shows nervousness.
However, if you want to thrust your hands in pockets, then keep ,the thumb out, so that you do not fully insert your hands inside the pockets.
• Impressive moving gestures include walking with your head' upright. Hands should swing freely on your sides. Eyes should look straight in front. Steps should be well measured and steady.
• We usually carry books, files and documents clutching them against the chest. The proper way is to carry them on one side.
• We can use our gestures to politely communicate what we want, when we are unable to speak or interrupt someone for example, during a serious formal conversation, if you are offered water or tea, you may politely indicate by your palm to wait or to decline. You do not want to interrupt the conversation. Similarly, suppose you are talking to someone on the phone, and someone comes to see you or to ask you something, you can politely request him/her to wait a minute by showing up one finger or some other symbolic gesture of a moment instead of going on talking and thereby ignoring the visitor.
Again, you can politely ask others not to interrupt you when you are busy speaking to someone else, just by showing up your palm to remain quiet for a while.
Gestures are adequate substitutes for words. We should develop the skills of using them effectively. Equally important is that we recognize our negative gestures and learn to hide them.
Negative Gestures
Negative gestures involve body movements, postures, gestures, or non-verbal activities, such as shaking, tapping, looking at the watch. You should take note of the following clues.
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Signs of Nervousness
• Hands in the pockets • Covering the mouth with your hand while speaking • Scratching • Biting nails • Glancing sideways • Drumming fingers • Clearing your throat too often • Tapping your foot • Wringing hands • Crossing arms or legs • A slumped posture • Sitting on the edge of the chair • Rocking our legs • Looking at the ceiling • Straightening the tie • Setting the hair with hands • Speaking too fast or too haltingly
The loudest gestures of your nervousness are when you are -• Adjusting your glasses up the nose • Blinking a lot • Playing with jewellery, watches or cufflings • Clicking pens • Frequently sipping/ drinking water • Playing with the paper weight • Starting to smoke
Gestures Showing Aggressiveness • Staring • Pointing at someone • Showing a fist • Folding both arms • Bending over someone
Gestures Showing Rudeness
Your behaviour becomes rude if you act in any of the following ways-• Shake hands too hard • Give a limp hand shake • Stand too close • Whisper at a social gathering • Work while someone talks to you • Yawn • Smirk • Look at your watch frequently or during the conversation
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• Puff • Tut-tut • Groom, specially setting your hair when listening or speaking • Start gathering and folding papers before the meeting is over
Gestures Showing Self-Importance
• Eyes closed while talking • Head bent backwards while talking • Looking at the tip of the nose while talking • Pursed mouth • Steeping the fingers • Peering over the top of the glasses • Waving glasses or key ring while talking.
Such acts, which signal our importance, should be carefully avoided in situations that demand solutions and negotiated settlements.
Gestures Showing Lack of Good Sense
• Banging the table instead of laughing at a joke • Chewing pens • Air quoting, when you want to say something or making air T, when you want to say tea • Waving hands around you while talking • Wringing hands • Opening or closing buttons or setting your watch strap as you talk • Wiping hands across face • Touching nose time and again.
Gestures Showing Superiority of Position
Some seniors, without saying anything, make you feel subordinate to them by behaving in the following ways. Creating such feelings of subordination adversely affects good working relationships. Others feel uncomfortable in your presence. Therefore, avoid such power - posturing acts.
• Not responding or acknowledging other's greeting • Staring • Shouting orders • Standing too close, or leaning or sitting on someone's desk • Standing behind someone's seat and watching over his/her shoulder as he/she keeps
writing/working • Smoking in someone's space • Attending meetings with your cell phones on • Any unwanted or unwarranted touch • Continuing to work as others speak to you • Crushing hand shake or keeping the hand held too long under your hand
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• Reclining in the chair with your hands folded behind your head.
Lateral Gestures
Besides the above-mentioned non-verbal gestures that convey wordless messages through body language and facial expressions, there are other wordless signs of power, position, taste, and culture such as decoration and size of the office, dress, grooming, and so on. They are called lateral gestures. and include the following broad categories-
• Physical setting • Dress-clothes and shoes • Personal space
Physical Setting An executive's position of power is generally seen from the size of his office - room, the kind of furnishing of the room, the height of his/her chair, the size of the office table. The number of telephone sets and their quality add to the impression created by the size and setting of the room. The floor carpet tells us the status of the executive we are going to meet.
In an office the executive's table is usually placed a few steps away from the entry door. It is to make a visitor or a subordinate walk up to him/her and feel his/her presence. Space is one of the factors involved in indicating the proximity of relationship.
Dress clothes often proclaim a person. It is one of the first things others notice about you. Your clothes, their texture, colour, design, style, and stitching speak about your taste, and aesthetic sense. Pay attention to your clothes specially when you need to impress people at an interview or presentation.
Look impressive, not gorgeous. Never be over-dressed for the occasion. Do not go for high fashion and trendy designs and styles of suiting. Business executives look elegant in conventional styles. Your clothes should not distract attention from what you talk.
Wear neither too loose nor tight clothes. Select your clothes according to the nature of your job.
It is necessary that you feel comfortable in your clothes, particularly when you are to attend an interview or make a presentation. Never try a new set of clothes for such occasions. You may feel out of form, if you are putting on a brand new suit at the time of interview or making a public appearance. New clothes may not sit comfortably on you, and they may draw away your attention from time to time. So, the first rule of clothes is the principle of comfort. If you are getting your suit stitched, customise it according to your comfort. And try to wear the customised suit on special occasions.
Your shoes should be formal and in keeping with the colour of the suit.
Business bag, or briefcase or portfolio which you carry also indicates your status as a professional. An over-stuffed handbag is not as impressive as a sleek brief case or a smart handbag.
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Personal space Space between two interacting persons indicates the level of formality, informality, intimacy, or distance between them. In business, you should observe the personal territory that each individual wishes to enjoy. If you break into the personal territory of an executive, you are likely to make him/her feel uncomfortable. When placed under such an intrusion of personal territory, an important person is bound to show displeasure and signs of withdrawal from the interaction. You should understand the non-verbal message of displeasure, and correct your space relationship with your superior to have a fruitful interaction.
Demarcation of zones
The .limits of different zones are set as the invisible space between the two parties. The nature of relationship between them determines the conventional distance between them. An important person such as a leader, a public speaker, a commander, or a celebrity would feel crowded without sufficient space around him/her. According to the nature of relationships, there are four distinct zones-• Public zone • Social zone • Friendly zone • Intimate zone
A public zone is the widest territory between the speaker and audience. A public speaker addresses a large gathering of persons. He/ she needs to speak from a raised platform at a distance of 10 to 15 feet from the audience. The distance and elevation of the speaker provide visibility and sense of security and elevation to the speaker. An example of public zone in armed services is the normal practice of army officers to order commands from a distance of 8 to 10 steps from troops.
A social zone is the space maintained between people who are known to each other in a formal way. All business transactions are to be treated as social interactions. And as an executive, you should keep a distance of 4 to 10 feet between you and your audience. This space will ensure the comfort of your listeners, especially if they happen to be yourseniors or your customers or clients. At this distance, you can watch the body language and facial expressions of the other party closely. The social zone will be applicable to new colleagues at work, new acquaintances, and small groups training.
The friendly zone is the distance we observe at business parties, seminars, and other informal business gatherings and get-togethers. We remain close but not close enough to jostle against each other. The gap we keep between us is nearly 1.5 to 4 feet. We are able to comfortably chat, laugh and joke with each other in his/her own individual space.
The intimate zone or the closest zone is the distance or nearness between you and the person you love or your close relatives and family members. In this zone, persons tend to be together even at whispering distance. This nearness signals closeness among persons involved in communication. The gap is nearly of 6 inches to 18 inches. But this close distance is possible only when you are sure of your relationship. Because it is a zone in which you can happen to touch the other person, as well. In all other zones, including
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friendly zone, you should not risk touching the other person. Your touching can be strongly objected to by the other person concerned.
Within the intimate zone, there are, according to the level of our intimacy, further zones/bands of intimacy. They are-• Near Intimate sphere - (upto 6 inches)
Lovers Partners Children Family
• Distant intimate sphere - (6 inches to 18 inches)Close friends Close Colleagues Relatives
Both these spheres are sensitive. Our difficulty is because we, often, do not know how dose is too close.
When our intimate zone is intruded upon by someone, we feel embarrassed and, at times, threatened by the unwanted approach. And our response is that of "fight or flight". If our friendly zone is violated, we hide our discomfort by smiling or raising questions.
There are times when the personal and intimate spaces are violated, such as when travelling in a crowded compartment or entering a packed lift. In such situations, we do not face resentment from others, because our body language indicates our helplessness. Moreover, to avoid discomfort to anyone, we usually avoid eye contact with anyone. We try to stand straight to avoid physical contact with anyone.
ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Knowledge of non-verbal skills strengthens your communicative competence as a professional. But you do not get from these skills power to control others. If you understand the body language of other persons, it does not mean you control their response to you. It only means you understand them and their meaning better. By gaining a fuller understanding of the message, you are better equipped to fulfill your purpose. Therefore, in the first place you should look upon understanding of non-verbal skills of communication as a source of crucial knowledge of other's subconscious or unexpressed feelings and attitude.
Body language is not the science of mind reading. The body language is a sudden flashing revelation from one subconscious mind to another subconscious mind. There is no deliberate attempt to give or receive non-verbal messages. It all happens spontaneously. Your skill is to be aware of such sudden and spontaneous expressions through bodily movements and gestures; develop the ability to support your verbal message with positive body expressions; minimize negative movements, expressions, and gestures; and interpret non-verbal clues received from other persons.
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Ability to Act as a Victim of Power Posturing
In the presence of power posturing superiors or colleagues, you must have felt a strange sense of being subordinated or overdominated, suddenly. Suppose your boss, known for his arrogance and strictness, quietly enters into your room from his side office, .and stands holding your chair behind you. He keeps watching what you are working on for a few minutes. There is silence. You feel deeply nervous and upset. And finally, he says, "50, what's on?" in a heavy voice.
In such a state of nervousness, you should learn to manage your body talk. Do not allow your nervousness to be leaked out. If you exhibit nervousness, that would mean you were doing something wrong. If you blurt out "Nothing, Sir" in a shaky voice, your boss could infer that you were wasting your time. You should reply with confidence by first standing up, then facing him, (if not already met then greeting him for the day) and say exactly what you have to say (what you have been doing).
Power posturing is bound to make its victim feel shattered and completely nervous. It is a deliberate use of body language and behaviour to make you feel inferior. The superior person can hurt you by shouting, bullying, not responding, or pretending not even to notice your presence before him by continuing to dig his eyes in some file. Some interviewers choose to make you feel nervous by using some of these gestures and behaviour. For instance, you ask permission to enter the room, and you hear a yelling "Come!" And you enter, and just stand before him/her completely ignored. After a few minutes, he/she looks at you, asks your name. By this time you feel drained of your confidence.
Reassuring actions and gestures Do not feel hurt. The other person is trying to bully you into such a state of mind. Remember that the rude behaviour is directed at you not as a person but as an individual involved in a particular professional situation. Keep your cheer and cool. Do not begin questioning your worth. Remain calm and fully composed.
Avoid nervous gestures.Do not leak any signs of nervousness by wiping your mouth or biting your nails or looking lost in thoughts. Analyse and admire the technique used by the other person to browbeat you. Do not react to the planned rudeness of the other. Behave in your normal manner. It is difficult but possible to confront power posturing skillfully and allow yourself to act with comfort.
Avoid the Double Cross
You are sitting when invaded by power posturing; do not sit at the edge of the seat. Sitting like that will make you look nervous and ready to run away. You may for comfort sake cross your legs but do not fold your arms at. the same time. That will make you look very defensive.
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Use Comfort Gestures Skillfully
There are comforting body gestures such as touching earlobes or back of the neck or stroking hair. These acts restore confidence. But do them so passingly that others do not take them as leakage of your nervousness or anxiety.
Reassuring Standing Postures
If you are invaded by power posturing when you are standing, try to keep nervousness away by standing up in an easy form, with your arms down by your sides, and your feet apart by 9 to 10 inches. This posture will give you firm balanced footing.
Be assertive We tend to respond to an adverse situation by either fighting or fleeing. Learn to develop an alternative way of responding to unpleasant behaviour or negative situations by being assertive.
Assertiveness should not be taken to mean imposing your own will on others. It means that you try to understand the point of view of others; and put your own viewpoint objectively. And then say what you think is right without permitting yourself to be influenced by emotional considerations.
In both responses of fight or flight, we get affected by emotions. In the case of assertiveness, we express facts as they are and say what should be said. The ultimate goal is to convince the other person with the rightness of what is being asserted.
Assertion is a positive way of saying what we want to say. It is a response and not a reaction to a situation. To be assertive, we have to learn the skills of discussing and negotiating. But negotiation is a time-consuming process. We have to have patience for resolving the problem through the assertive method of discussion and negotiation. Our impatience makes us react aggressively and fight or just run away (flight). Both these forms of reaction - aggression and passivity - have negative effects. Aggression negatively affects the other persons by hurting their feelings and provoking them to react with similar behaviour (anger), leaving them unconvinced even when they do, what they are forced to do. Passivity, on the other hand, is frustrating. You feel that you have lost what you had wanted. Others may take you for granted. You blame yourself.
Hence, the proper way to respond is to say what you want to say. And say it with firm conviction of being right.
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS Watch and Read the Non-verbal Clues
Interpret non-verbal clues in relation to the situation and culture accurately. Be careful about false non-verbal clues deliberately given to deceive you. Consider the non-verbal message, along with what the speaker's words say, to
know the total message. Respond, but do not react to non-verbal signals with self - control.
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Know Your Body Language In Action • Develop self-awareness by visualising yourself as others see you by interpreting your
body movements and gestures. • Try to develop positive gestures and expressions to present yourself as you wish to be
seen by others - confident, pleasing, and a well meaning team worker. • Do not give conflicting non-verbal cues. • Convey sincerity through your tone of voice and facial expression. • Use symbols, non-verbal cues (gestures, posture, and so on), intonation (for example,
volume, pace of delivery, and enunciation), expressions and so on to reinforce and clarify the meaning of message.
• Maintain eye contact with your audience. • Smile genuinely to reflect your feelings of delight. • Avoid power posturing signals. • Remember that the first impression is the last impression. If not the last, it is certainly a
lasting impression. Hence, present yourself well to make a lasting good impression.
Body language across cultures Though body language is a universal phenomenon, its meaning differs culturally. Culture, like language, lays down rules for accepted social behaviour of people sharing a set of knowledge, beliefs, practices, and ideas. In present day multicultural workplaces, communicating between persons of different nations requires knowledge of the meaning of non-verbal acts such as eye contact, touch, and time sense in respective cultures. People attach great significance to what they get to know by noticing non-verbal clues apart from what they hear through words. Non-verbal clues are taken as true indicators of the speaker's subconscious mind. They are, therefore, considered more reliable than words. Be careful not to use non-verbal clues that violate cultural norms of other countries. For persons who move and work abroad or work in multicultural environments, it is necessary that they realise that they should not use some of the gestures, or touch parts of the body for communicating as they did in their own country. There may be no continuity in the meaning of those non-verbal acts. Perhaps, some of those bodily acts might even be unwelcome or offensive. To help you out from such embarrassing situations, the meanings of a few non-verbal clues are given in relation to specific cultures.
Touching and Its Context
Touching has a limited communicative symbolism. It primarily conveys intimacy and closeness and also love. But the act of touching has its meaning in relation to its context. For instance, in cricket some players pat the bottom of their team mates to convey admiration. But they cannot do it with anyone of their teammates out in the club. That would give wrong clues to their sexual drive.
It is the context in which touching is done which determines its implied sense. Take for instance, the case of a doctor. The doctor can touch his female patient's any part of the body. But the patient does not object to his touching. The patient's thoughts are influenced by her ailment. And the doctor's attention IS directed by the investigations to be made or the surgery to be performed. In this context, his body movements, touching, and so on are instrumental acts, performing certain tasks. They are not communicative body movements reflecting the doctor's state of mind, emotions or attitude. The context
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characterises the nature of a body movement and determines it communicative or instrumental message.
Touch is the mode of communicating intimacy. But which part of the body can be touched by whom and when depends upon the culture of the people of a country or a particular region. As a broad gesture of patronising, a superior in position or age or status can touch by patting the back of a worker, both male or female, in western countries, but in Asian countries, like India, patting a lady on the back is not socially liked.
Among lovers, parents, family members, and very close friends, touching is a normal gesture, and goes unnoticed, but between strangers it is at once marked and may also be objected to. But even among those who share the zone of intimacy, only some parts of the body can be touched while communicating.
Different parts of the body are viewed as centres of intimate relationship, bordering sensuality. The forearm of a woman can be touched by a man while communicating, without offending the concerned lady, but not the upper part of the arm. The two parts represent two different zones of sensibility. Touching the upper part of woman's arm is indicative of sensuality.
In the West, men and women can, in public, walk freely holding each other's hand. But in India, Pakistan, and other Asian countries men and women generally do not do so in public view.
Again, in Asian countries such as Nepal, Pakistan, and India, it is normal for two males to move around holding each other's hand, whereas in America, such males might be considered gay.
To identify himself as an individual while speaking to someone an American places one of his hands on his chest, whereas a Japanese places one of his fingers on his nose. But some western psychologists consider nose touching to be a Freudian symbol of sexuality.
Like all other emblematic body movements, eye contact is also decoded culturally, in different ways. Eye contact is an important due of attentive listening. In most western countries, it is considered polite to speak one to one by maintaining eye contact. But in Japan and India subordinates do not make eye contact, when speaking and listening to their superiors. It is possible that an American may consider a Japanese to be impolite if he/ she keeps the eyes lowered during their conversation. In India, this speaks of humility, not shame. A newly wed Indian bride with her eyes turned downwards, while talking, moving or sitting with others, acts as an emblem of humility and respect.
Similarly, silence is communicative, but it may say different things to people of different cultures. For instance, during discussions between an American and a Japanese, the Japanese may prefer to remain silent if he/ she thinks he/ she does not know much about the matter. An Indian in that situation may keep silent, if he/ she agrees with what is being said. But an American would take silence both of the Japanese and the Indian as a sign of withdrawal and non-participation. An American looks for involvement and participation through raising questions or doubts.
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For people in the East, silence is a sign of wisdom. But for westerners, it is indicative of lack of understanding.
No one can make an exhaustive study of all possible cultural variations to interpret body movements. However, an attempt has been to make you understand the influence of context of cultures on interpretation of body movements and gestures.
Communication Breakdown
In life and business dealings many a time communication breaks down. It happens when we are too keen to talk about our own point of view. We go on, and do not consider whether the other person is understanding what is said. Sometimes, our discussions become heated and we reach no satisfactory end of our meeting. Sometimes, in a meeting you may feel bored because the same point is being repeated by the speaker without involving other members in the discussion. Such communication break downs do happen.
No one wants the discussion to fail. But, often, we fail to realise that it is going to fail. Communication often fails because of two reasons-1. We do not keep our own natural pace of speaking 2. We do not consider the other person's body language
Both reasons can be avoided through the knowledge of skills of oral communication.
Lack of Rapport
The purpose of all communication is to be useful and harmonious. Harmony is the key word in personal and business communication. Harmony between ideas of speaker and listener is the final aim of communication. The first step is the rapport between the non-verbal languages of the speaker and listener: the pacing. For fruitful discussion or dialogue, both speaker and listener should be on the same wavelength. What does this wavelength mean in our communication? It means that the two persons (speaker and the other person) should use similar body language, specially speed, tone of voice, pitch, words, gestures, eye contact, and time. The non-verbal language used by the speaker should reflect the body language of the other person. You may notice that the word listener is being avoided in this context of rapport. It is being replaced by the phrase 'the other person'. It is a significant substitution. Communication usually fails because the speaker treats the other person as a listener. Therefore, he/she keeps on using most of the time for speaking. The other person is forced to just listen and have little opportunity to speak. A proper time sharing between speaking and listening should be -
Speaking - 30% Listening - 70%
When we devote 70 per cent of conversation time to listening, during the moments of silence we can study the body language of the other person and observe his/her state of mind, feelings, and the true response to what we are saying, our point of view. And to make him/her know his/her response as perceived by us, our body language should hold a
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mirror to his non-verbal language. It does not mean our body language should be imitative. It means that our behaviour, verbal and non-verbal, should reflect the ideas and feelings of the other person. The two behaviours should be in unison.
Suppose two of us speak at different speeds, pitch, and volume, neither of us would be able to keep pace with the other. Conflicts arise, when expressions of our ideas and feelings differ.
Consider the following example -Sonali, a senior HR executive, sat sunk in her chair, disappointed. She had come to office very happy. She had prepared a long document on how to reduce cost to the company without cutting down the present number of employees, working in core departments of the organisation. She had gone to the General Manager to discuss with him her proposed plan, before formally submitting it for the management's consideration.
Sonali entered the General Manager's office and from the door asked him, "Can I discuss something with you? I have a very exciting plan to show you. Hope you will like it. We can reduce cost without cutting down number of employees."
The General Manager did not look towards her. Instead, he kept on writing. After a few minutes of silence, without turning his gaze from the paper, he said, "I have to finish this report first. Maybe, later."
Communication in this case definitely breaks down. There is no rapport between Sonali and the General Manager. Sonali is frustrated.
Now, suppose the General Manager responds to Sonali as follows-
The General Manager stops writing. Turns towards Sonali. Makes eye contact and exultingly says "Wonderful ! Let me first finish this report. We can meet in an hour. I will ring you as soon as I am free. Will that be fine?" Sonali would feel very happy.
The GM responds her enthusiasm with matching enthusiasm. This exchange satisfies both the parties. The GM gets time to complete his report, undisturbed, and Sonali's enthusiasm is kept up. What is significant in this communication is that the GM appreciates Sonali's enthusiasm and her keenness to discuss her plan with him. He therefore uses the word 'wonderful', to communicate his own excitement to know about Sonali's new plan. He fixes a time to discuss it. He also lets Sonali know that the plan should be discussed without any disturbance, when both are free.
This exchange is based on rapport between Sonali and the GM. There has been a pacing between the non-verbal languages of both Sonali and the GM.
The communication in the latter instance is fruitful, because the GM is able to make Sonali feel that he values her ideas and through his non-verbal language validates her worth as a colleague.
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A simple non-verbal act in everyday life may make you feel unhappy. For instance, you may ring up your boss on his mobile twice. Both the times, he does not respond. You feel cut down. You feel small and unwanted. Because he knows your mobile number, but does not respond to your call. The lack of rapport frustrates you until he speaks to you next.
Some Steps to Establish Rapport • Develop the habit of talking less and listening and observing others more. . • Do not dominate the discussion.• Keep your natural pace of conversation. • Recognise the pace of others. • Let your pace and the other's be nearly the same. • Try to establish rapport between you and the other person during the first few minutes
of your conversation. • Do not introduce any controversial issue before you have been able to create rapport
through pacing. • A void harsh criticism. Try to see reason for difference of opinion. • Be tolerant of differences. • Focus on similarities of ideas.
The above steps will gradually overcome differences. Conflicting opinions will find resolution in common understanding gained by both, you and the other person.
In life, as in business, it is necessary that you focus on those aspects of your communication, verbal and non-verbal that you share with others.
Assignment
Non-verbal communication can be practiced by actively participating in class-room activities under the guidance of the Professor.
List of activities : Group Discussions Role Plays Presentations Mock Interview
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Part 3 : Communicating Effectively {30 hours}
Introduction:
This unit introduces students to the nuances of face-to-face communication with practice in making presentations, providing descriptions, participating in conversations and discussions and appearing for an interview. It also deals with etiquettes in different situations.
Learning Objectives:At the end of his unit, you will be able to:
Make an effective presentation Actively participate in Group Discussions Prepare for and perform well at an interview Use business etiquette effectively
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Chapter 6 : Presentation Skills
PRESENTATIONS
Presentations are a powerful way to communicate your message to a group. They are opportunities to gather an audience together in one place to tell your story and gather feedback. You can use presentations to persuade the audience to take a particular course of action, to convey information, to gain commitment; or to provide a forum for discussion of controversial or challenging ideas.
Presentations: The Greek Way
In learning how to make a great presentation, take a cue from the people who did it first and did it well-the ancient Greeks. The Athenian Greeks developed a number of presentation techniques as they began their experiment with democratic government. They quickly realized that in the absence of a king, the people needed a legal system to restrain their fellow citizens. The art of public speaking emerged from the Greek experiment with democracy and the legal system that followed in its wake.
Indeed, the five-part Greek outline for a persuasive speech- introduction, narrative, argument, refutation, and conclusion-has never been significantly improved. Some twenty-five hundred years later, you can use the Greeks' insights to strengthen your own presentations.
The Introduction
Today, the convention wisdom is this: Tell your audience what you are going to say, then say it, and then tell them what you just said. The Greeks did not subscribe to this approach. They found it predictable and boring-and countless audiences have agreed. Audiences quickly figure out what you're up to, and once they do, they listen to one of the three parts of the presentation and ignore the rest. You're left talking to glazed eyes during the other two parts.
The Greeks used the introduction to prepare the audience to hear the speech favorably. Here are a few of their strategies.
Talk about the audience You can never go wrong complimenting the audience. It is a pleasure to be with a group that has demonstrated, once again, what sales excellence stands for.
Talk about the previous speaker If your talk is one of a series, refer to a previoUs speaker who made a deep impression on the audience. Jane moved us all with her eloquent appeal to the core values of this company. Now, I'd like to talk to you about a subject I feel as strongly about as Jane feels about company values: cost accounting.
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Talk about the event Draw the participants' attention to something that is special or unique about the event. Doing so heightens their interest and gives them a happy sense that the occasion is an important one. They'll listen more closely as a result. This morning you will have the distinct privilege if meeting three of the most important innovators in our industry.
Talk about a moment in history If you can put the time and date of the presentation into a historical context, the audience will derive a greater sense of purpose and gravity than it otherwise would. Three years ago this week, I stood at this same podium and described to you the desperate financial condition if our company. What a difference three years have made.
Talk about the place The hall, the town, the state, or even the country where the presentation takes place is grist for the introductory mill. This little town, a town that two hundred years ago witnessed the first American stirrings toward freedom and the establishment if a new, democratic country, is today the proud site if the new Greater Lexington Patriot Shopping Mall.
Talk about the point of the speech It is your privilege as the speaker to frame the topic, to create the context for the conversation. Use this to subdy steer the audience away from topics you don't want to discuss, or to refocus the audience on topics with which you are comfortable. We're here today to talk about our company's profit profile over the past six months. Frankly, it's not very good. But what really lies at the heart if the profit issue is customer satisfaction, and I'd like to spend a little time addressing that.
The Narrative
The essence of the narrative is a story. Here you must get to the heart of the matter, whether it involves something you want your listeners to do, something you wish to convince them of, or something about which you want to tell them. If you don't frod yourself phrasing what you have to say in terms of a story, rethink the material. Put the essence of your communication into a story of your devising, one that relates the facts in the way you wish your audience to understand them.
The Argument
In the argument of your presentation, you present the proofS, or supporting logic, for your point. This section is probably the most important part of the presentation for bringing your audience around to your point of view. Remember that audiences recall very little of what they hear. For this reason, keep your factual evidence to the necessary minimum and your main arguments to three or four at the most. More than that will actually weaken your case, because your audience will become exasperated with you and begin to believe that you are trying to bolster a weak argument with every point you can think of.
It is helpful to provide transitional comments throughout this section to help guide your audience through your arguments.
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There are three reasons why expansion if the dty's nine-hole golf course would be fiscally unsound. First, the course's reported earnings are substantially overstated-perhaps by 50 percent. This is a consequence if amateurish profit-and-Ioss accounting by the Park Department. Second, there is no adequate water supply. The dty is already struggling to meet the water needs if its residents and businesses. And third, the opening if two new golf courses in this county within the past few years has dissipated demand. Revenues from an expanded course will be disappointing.
The Refutation In the fourth section of the Greek speech model, you anticipate objections to your argument. This section is particularly important when the subject is controversial. You must give a real hearing to opposing points of view, even if you subsequently demolish them with brilliant rhetoric. Failure to do so will cause your audience to complain that you never even considered the opposition. The more explosive the topic, the more important it is to state your opponents' points of view and to do so early in the refutation.
You can handle the refutation in three ways: 1. Answer anticipated rebuttals to your own arguments. 2. Take the opportunity to rehearse and reject your opponents' arguments. Again, this
tactic is essential for highly controversial topics. 3. Mix the two approaches.
The Conclusion
The conclusion should not summarize your arguments; rather, it should appeal to the audience for its understanding, its action, and its approval-whatever it is you want the audience to do or think. The Greeks were very clear that a summary was not wanted here. So don't fall into the trap of telling your audience what you said. Doing so will leave them bored and vaguely irritated. Since audiences tend to remember the last thing they've heard, summing up is a surefire way to kill any enthusiasm your presentation may have generated. So forget about a summary; instead, tell your audience what it should think or do. As you leave here today, do so with the confidence that the products you represent are the best on the market, have the strongest service backing, and are priced to provide the greatest value to customers.
Four Rhetorical Devices The ancient Greeks didn't simply develop a five-part structure for making a presentation. They also developed rhetorical devices for connecting with audiences-devices that remain highly effective today. These include parallel structure, triads, antithesis, and rhetorical questions.
Parallel Structure
Parallel structure uses sentence elements that are alike in both function and construction. Parallel structure is especially useful in presentations because the repetition of language structure helps audiences hear and remember what we have to say. Consider Churchill's speech on Dunkirk to the House of Commons, 4 June 1940:
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We shall not flag or jail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas and oceans. We shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets. We shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.
You can use similar language structure to good effect in business situations: "We will work hard. We will work smart. We will create a better future for the company and for ourselves."
Triads The Greek noticed early on that people are attracted to lists of three items. Call it the Rule of Threes or simply a triad. A group of three seems to our minds complete and satisfying. No one is quite sure why. The end of Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech illustrates the use of triads. He liked them so much that he gave his audience adouble dose:
When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!
You can use triads to good effect in any number of business presentations:
Our new reflective window film will reduce your air-conditioning costs, eliminate annoying glare, and protect your furnishings from sun damage.
The new strategy will work if we do our job as managers. That means articulating our goals, making sure that every employee understands how his or her job fits with the strategy, and aligning rewards with the right behavior at every level.
Antithesis
In rhetoric, antithesis is the placing of a sentence or one of its parts in opposition to another to capture the listener's attention or to evoke a strong response. Consider, for example, the motto of the state of New Hampshire: Live Free or Die.
Antithesis is rarely used today, even though it is an elegant form of expression and one that people remember vividly. Consider the ending of President Kennedy's inaugural address in January 1961. The entire speech was laced with antithesis, but the ending had particular potency because it talked directly to the audience:
And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.
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Because of its dramatic effect, antithesis is less available to the business speaker. Still you may find opportunities:
The choice is ours. We can live with the defender's dilemma, or grasp the innovator's advantage .
Rhetorical Questions
Rhetorical questions are questions asked for the sole purpose of producing an effect on the audience. The speaker does not expect his or her questions to be answered-least of all by the audience.
Rhetorical questions draw listeners into the topic because they call for answers, even if they are not uttered out loud. Consider Patrick Henry's famous speech of March 1775, on the eve of the American revolution: Gentlemen may cry, "Peace! Peace!" but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?
Having posed his rhetorical questions, Henry answered them in the strongest terms:
Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!
Note the antithesis in Patrick Henry's last sentence.
As a businessperson, you have ample opportunities for posing rhetorical questions and then stating your reply to them. Consider this example: If we keep on following the same ineffective strategy, this company can expect shrinking market share and declining profitability. Do you want to work for a company like that? Are you comfortable with mediocrity? I think not. That's why I have offered this plan, and why I'm here today to ask for your support.
Three Learning Styles
Another point to remember as you develop and present your ideas is that different audience members are likely to have different primary styles of learning. You may be familiar with the three learning styles, typically referred to as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Most people are strong in one of these styles and weaker in the others.
• Visual learners: These learners respond best to pictures, graphs, and other visual stimuli. Research shows that 30 to 40 percent of people are visual learners. • Auditory leamers: As you may have guessed, these people are more responsive to words and other sounds. An estimated 20 to 30 percent of the population are auditory learners.
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• Kinesthetic learners: This type of person is most engaged by physical activities: handling a prototype, working at a laboratory bench, or watching a presenter who moves around, mingles with the audience, or uses props. Some 30 to 50 percent of people are kinesthetic learners.
If you want to get the attention of these different types of learners, and get them to respond to what you have to say, then your presentation must be couched in their learning modes. Otherwise you'll lose your audience. This adaptation to learning style is easier said than done, since we can never be certain as to the preferred style of a particular audience. Moreover, any audience is bound to contain a mixture of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners. The best way to deal with these issues is to provide something for everyone-some blend of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic styles.
To appreciate how this different style might be employed, consider this fairly typical business presentation. One of your colleagues is reporting the last quarter's results. She stands in front of the group, turns on the overhead projector or her computer, and cues up the first slide. A sea of words and numbers greets your weary eyes. She then launches into reading every word on the screen. You shift in your chair, trying to get comfortable. As slide after slide winks by and your colleague continues to drone on in a flat voice, you gradually sink into a semistupor. At the end, you shake yourself awake and exit the meeting room wondering, "What was that about?"
Now, here's how the three learning styles could be applied to this doleful scene.
Add a dose of visual learning. Like most presenters, your colleague thinks she has appealed to the visual learners by using slides. But most business slides are covered border to border with words, when what visual learners need is pictures-preferably, simple pictures. So, connect your key concepts visually to angles, circles, squares, and the like. Don't get fancy. It's simply not necessary, and it doesn't promote learning. In addition to pictures, you can use tables and other graphic illustrations for variety-but keep in mind that simpler is usually better.
Cue up your auditory learners. You reach auditory learners through talk-but certain kinds of talk work better than others. Storytelling is one. Parables and anecdotes appeal to auditory learners and are often memorable. In addition, you can employ discussion groups, debates, question-and-answer sessions, and the like-anything that will get you talking in ways more connected to a story than the usual discursive style of business presentation.
Add liveliness through kinesthetic learning. Kinesthetic learners may be the most often neglected people at business presentations. Much of what goes on in the business world appeals to the head, not the body, and presentations are rarely exceptions to this dismal rule. The key here is to get your listeners to do something. Get them involved early and often through role-playing, games, working with models, even creating charts and physical representations of what you want them to learn. For example, you can increase your listeners' energy enormously at the opening of a speech simply by having them stand up and shout something appropriate or fun. It's corny, but it works. That's because you have appealed to the kinesthetics in the audience.
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Use all three of these learning modes in a presentation, and your audience will pay great attention and remember more.
Aim for the Head and the Heart
One more technique to engaging the audience deserves mention here: doing something to engage the emotions. Though not always appropriate to the situation, an emotional approach, when the situation warrants it, can be a powerful tool for getting people on the side of your ideas.
Our business culture has a decided slant toward the analytical and cerebral. So it's not surprising that many presenters-and business writers-concentrate on the logic of their arguments and quantitative supporting evidence. An emotional component isn't there or, if it is, is not recognized. In making a case for the development of a new product, for example, presenters inevitably roll out lots of products specs, pro forma financial statements, and other numerical fireworks. All this information aims for the head.
Many business issues, however, have unstated personal and emotional components. Though they are not discussed, these components may exert substantial power over listeners. Consider a new product-line concept as an example. On the surface, it's all about potential revenues, cost estimates, marketing issues, and good fit with company strategy. Beneath the surface, however, the new product line may affect individual listeners in important ways, including the following:
As a threat: If that new product line performs as predicted, the importance of my product line will be overshadowed.
As an opportunity to benefit personally: If this thing works, our annual bonuses will triple. I could help my kids pay off their college loans, or I could retire earlier than planned.
As a change in the workplace: If it worked as planned, that new product line would make a big difference around here. J# wouldn't always be worried about layoffs and budget cuts. People would enjoy coming to work for a change.
A good presentation recognizes these types of emotion-laden concerns. The presenter speaks to the head and the heart. In doing so, he or she engages listeners at a deeper level. Consequently, once you've presented the intellectual side of your story, shift to its deeper personal meaning for the audience. And use personal pronouns to signal your shift from cold-blooded objectivity:
That concludes our presentation of the revenue and cost estimates for the proposed product line. We have confidence in those estimates and the long-term profits they point to. WE believe, too, that this product line has the power to change our company in fundamental ways-and much for the better. if you're tired of apologizing for our outdated designs and technology, these new products will restore your pride in what we stand for.
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If you're tired of being a market follower, these products will make us the market innovator and the company that our customers look to for technical leadership.
Did you notice all the personal pronouns in that ending: we, you, you're, our? Don't lay it on too thick, but speak to the hearts of your listeners if it's appropriate to the situation and if you want to make a real impression.
In some cases, speaking to the heart means telling listeners what's in it for them. If you do this, frame the material you're presenting from the audience's point of view. Why should they care about the topic at hand? Give them a compelling reason and you'll have their attention.
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PREPARING YOUR PRESENTATION
Step 1: Define Your Objective
The objective of your presentation is the outcome you seek shared information, discussion, buy-in, feedback, or a sale, for example. It drives the development of your presentation. Ask yourself, "Why am I making this presentation, and what do I want my audience to do as a result?"
Do you want to inform, persuade, or sell? Do you want the audience to understand, learn, or take action? Do you want commitment from the audience? Note the difference between presenting a budget so that your audience understands it and presenting a budget so that your audience will vote in favor of it. The objective of the first is to inform; the second is' to persuade. Once you are clear about the objective, you will have a better idea about the following issues: • Whether to give the presentation at all • Whether to give it to this particular audience under these particular circumstances • What to say and how to say it • What the follow-up needs to be • Possible objections
Step 2: Understand the Audience
A presentation creates a connection between you and your audience. The better you understand that audience, the more you can customize your presentation, making it more appealing and effective in its impact. Everything we said about understanding the audience in the chapters on writing applies here: • Who are your audience members, and what is their relationship to the topic? • How well informed are they about the subject? What do they need to know about it? • What do they expect from the presentation?
You should also determine if the audience is accustomed to a certain type of presentation. For example, all the sales personnel in a stock brokerage office were accustomed to a twenty-minutes sales briefing every Monday morning. They expected to receive practical ideas about timely investments or news about new stock and bond issues that would be available in the coming week. They were annoyed by speakers who went beyond twenty minutes or who failed to convey commission-producing ideas or information.
In addition to establishing what your audience knows about the subject, you should determine what the audience knows about you and what more they need to know. If you understand your audience's level of knowledge, then you'll know how much of your presentation must be devoted to your own introduction and your standing on the subject. You should also determine how the audience feels about you and your subject. Are they likely to be enthusiastic? Polite? Apathetic? Hostile? A hostile or apathetic audience must be handled with care. A securities analyst whose recent stock recommendations had been lousy
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considered his audience of stockbrokers carefully before he returned to face them. Many were upset, since his advice had encouraged them to promote a number of losing stocks to their clients. The analyst used humor to diffuse those bad feelings. "As I stand before you this morning," he began, "I feel like the Olympic javelin thrower who has just won the coin toss and elected to receive." That statement got plenty of laughs and helped diffuse the anger of many brokers.
Step 3: Decide What to Say
Many of us have experienced the paralysis of knowing what we want to accomplish, but having trouble putting down the actual words and ideas. One approach is to break the task into three parts.
1. Define your key message, that is, what you want people to remember and what action you want them to take. This message flows directly from your objective. You can have a number of supporting arguments, ideas, and facts, but only one key message.
2. Next, identify the arguments that best support your message. Avoid excessive detail, but be sure to talk about more than just the facts. It is important to identify and address the emotional underpinnings of your message. Why should the audience care about it?
3. Finally, identify at which point you need audience participation, agreement, or buy-in.
After you have generated your initial set of ideas on what to say, you are ready to review and refine them.
Step 4: Get Organized
Once you have the raw material for your presentation, you need to organize it. A well-organized presentation will make the audience's listening job easier, boosting the likelihood that you will accomplish your objective.
During the opening, use a "hook"-a comment, a question, a relevant story, a statement, or an example--to get your audience's interest and attention. Additionally, use the opening to do the following:
Define the purpose of the presentation. Establish your credibility. Ask yourself, "Which of my credentials will impress
this particular audience?" and emphasize those. Or, if appropriate, have another person with authority or credibility introduce your presentation.
Describe the importance of the topic for the audience. Explain what's in it for them.
Preview very briefly the main points to be covered.
The second part of your presentation is the need or problem statement. Here you should accomplish several tasks:
Make it clear to the audience members why they should care about your message. Develop a clear need or problem that you and the audience will solve together.
Incorporate relevant arguments, examples, and a variety of supporting material to sustain interest without distracting from the point.
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Involve the audience by asking for their suggestions and addressing their needsand issues.
Test acceptance by periodically asking for feedback.
The solution, the third part of your presentation, explains to the audience how you think the problem should be solved or the need satisfied. Here you will help the audience visualize the benefits of the solution. As you do so, phrase your solution in terms of the audience's needs, and make sure that your solution matches those needs.
In the fourth and final step of your presentation, you wrap up with a strong call to action. This call requires you to take several steps:
Reiterate the presentation's key message. Integrate your opening points into your closing comments. Recommend action. Suggest agreement. Obtain commitment or buy-in. Provide closure.
To keep your audience's interest level high, incorporate some of the following visual, verbal, and physical techniques:
Variety in pitch, time, speed, and body language Personal stories Analogies Humor Examples Quotes lllustrations Expert testimony Statistics Charts and graphs Audience involvement Personal energy and eye contact
Whatever you do, don't use the action step to summarize what you've already said. That's boring and will rob you of an opportunity to advance your agenda. Instead, use the ending to thrust your point home. Give the audience something to do with information you've now imparted. As John E Kennedy told listeners at the conclusion of his inaugural address, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." Few of us get the chance to ask our audiences to do something that exciting, but we do owe them our best efforts toward real action, because audiences tend to remember what comes last in a presentation.
Step 5: Develop Effective Visuals
Most people respond better to visuals than to the spoken word alone. Research has shown that 75 percent of what people know is acquired visually. In addition, a picture is three times more effective in conveying information than words alone. Words and pictures together are six times more effective than words alone.
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You can use visual aids to help your audience maintain attention, remember facts, and understand ideas or physical layouts. Visuals can also be used to signal your listeners that you are moving on to a new topic. For example, if your presentation involves three related' points--sales, service, and follow-up-you can arrange these around the points of a triangle. Then when you move from one to the other, the point you're discussing could be highlighted in the next slide. The technical capabilities of presentation' software allow for even more eyecatching formatting. Remember, however, that when the audience is looking at a visual, it is not looking at you so keep visuals to a minimum. Moreover, do not use a lot of word slides as a speaker's outline; instead, know your speech thoroughly.
You have many choices for 'your visuals, including overheads, slides, PC-based slides, flip charts, and handouts. When selecting from among these media, consider their pros and cons
The Pros and Cons of Different Media
Medium Pros ConsOverheads Flexible
Easy to create Can allow light in the room for continued eye contact Good for both formal andinformal situations
Can be awkward putting up and switching between overheads
Slides Easy to createGood for formal presentations
Take time to produceRequire a darkened room and allow for minimal eye contact
PC-Based Slides Easy to create, to update, andto transport
Do not always project clearly Technology can break down, necessitating a backup set of overhead slides
Flip Charts Encourage interactionEasy to create Flexible
Not effective for large groups Difficult to transport
Handouts Can contain supplementalbackground informationUseful for informal, shortpresentationsProvide a place for note and a take-away for laterreference
Can become the audience's focal point, distracting them from listening to you(Avoid handing out reading material during the presentation. It detracts from your presentation.)
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Effective visuals share two virtues: simplicity and clarity. Nothing is less helpful than a slide crammed border to border with either text or complex graphics. For this reason, use key words instead of full sentences and paragraphs, as in the following example, and limit the number of ideas you present on anyone visual.
Our Value Proposition to customers
• Quality materials and workmanship • Reasonable price . • Unmatched service When you use graphic images, reduce them to their essentials. A good graphic is practically self-explanatory. If you find that you must go to great lengths to explain a graphic verbally, then it is not serving your purpose. The graphic should be eliminated or simplified to the point that it clarifies what you have told your audience.
Finally, exercise simplicity and clarity in your use of color, highlighting, and the many other design features included in today's presentation software. Inexperienced presenters often go to excesses in their attempts to develop professional-looking slides and overheads. A real pro, on the other hand, knows that the message comes first. The professional uses fancy design features only to the extent that they serve the message.
Step 6: Rehearse When would you like to learn about the holes, the dull spots, and the excessive details in your presentation-before or after it's delivered? Naturally, you'd like to find and repair these problems beforehand. Identifying weaknesses and honing your delivery are the two purposes of rehearsing.
Consider approaching your presentation as a stage actor would: 1. Learn your lines, fine-tuning them as needed. Pay particular attention to the opening
and the closing. These should be particularly solid. 2. Practice delivering your lines- perhaps into a tape recorder. 3. Go back over the rough spots until they're up to par. 4. Wrap it up with a dress rehearsal.
This last point, a dress rehearsal, is especially important if yours is a high-stakes presentation. If you conduct a dress rehearsal, try to do it in the same meeting room or hall where your presentation is scheduled. This will give you a sense of the room, your entryway and exit, and how loud you'll have to be to reach the back row of the audience. If you're lucky, you'll also be able to experiment with the room's sound system and the visual display technology you plan to use.
To make the most of a dress rehearsal, bring along a few objective colleagues. Place some in front, some in the middle, and others in the back row of seats. Then ask them to critique your performance and the effectiveness of the visual aids. Use their comments to bring any weak parts of the presentation up to standard.
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MAKING AN EFFECTIVE DELIVERY
Once you are actually in the room with your audience-and you've prepared your messageand your materials-you must focus on delivering the most engaging presentation possible. Is this "engaging" part really necessary? You may ask. Isn't content more important than delivery? Not according to Quintilian, an expert on public oration from classical times. As he argued centuries ago, "a mediocre speech supported by all the power of delivery will be more impressive t4an the best spee.ch unaccompanied by such power."
Speaking Effectively
Some basic suggestions for a good speaking demeanor: • Do not talk from a script. Talk from your notes only if you have to. • Avoid jargon and terms unfamiliar to listeners. • Face your audience, and address different sections in turn. • Avoid standing behind a podium if you can.
• Walk around your audience, or use movement when you want control, more involvement, or to become one of the group.
• Gesture in a relaxed, natura! way-you're not a game-show • Do not jingle keys or coins in your pockets. • Take a deep breath during pauses. It will help you relax and will reduce filler language
such as "um" and "er."
In addition to the preceding suggestions, you should use your voice to its best advantage. Enunciate words clearly, keeping your tone natural and conversational, and raising and lowering your voice to make your point. Speak loudly enough for everyone to hear. This is easier to do if you speak to the people in the back rows of the room. Some people find that speaking loudly gives them greater confidence and control. Use a microphone for large groups or a large space, and practice beforehand to find a comfortable speaking volume.
If you're new to public speaking, or if it makes you uncomfortable, take some comfort in knowing that you'll get better at it with repeated experience. Consequently, use every opportunity to get up and present yourself-it's good practice. If you aim to advance to leadership positions throughout your career, effective public speaking is a necessary skill.
Projecting a Positive Image
Image is a factor in effective speaking. In assessing your message, the people in your audience won't rely solely on your words. They will also consider your demeanor and body language. If these do not inspire confidence and commitment, the audience will discount your words. So, to optimize your effectiveness do the following: • Dress appropriately. You cannot go wrong if dressed as formally or more formally than
your audience. • Make sure your facial expressions convey interest in the audience. • Rise up to your full posture. This will increase your confidence and give your voice
greater volume.
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• Make and maintain eye contact with audience members. If you are too nervous to look at the entire audience, focus on individuals instead.
• Avoid "defensive" body language such as folding your arms in front of you.
Keeping the Audience Engaged
Most speakers confront one or several difficult audience members: the tuned out, the overloaded, or people so busy that they are forever thinking about other pressing issues. Neither group will hear what you have to say unless you take measures to break through, grab their attention, and hold onto it.
But how can you tell which members of the audience are attentive and which are not? Psychologists say that people send nonverbal signals about their attentiveness. Those who are following what you say are busy watching you or your visuals, or they are taking notes. Inattentive audience members cross their legs, fidget in their seats, or look around the room more than normal. Your challenge is to attract those wandering minds back to the presentation. Here are some proven techniques for doing so:
• Change what you're doing. A sudden pause or change in vocal tone can have the same effect on a preoccupied mind that turning off a television set has on a sleeping viewer: Both these circumstances awaken. Of course, to use this technique successfully, the speaker must follow the pause with something particularly insightful. Otherwise, the inattentive will drift off again. • Ask a question. When you suspect an audience member of taking a mental break, ask a piercing question related to one of your points. "So what does that last point mean for your business?" Suddenly, audience members sense that the ball is in their court. People who weren't listening will probably perk up .
One award-winning university professor turns the next point in his outline into a question when he senses that his audience is drifting off. To prime them, he'll say, "So now I'm going to ask you a question." He finds that this perks them up . • Ask for a show of hands. Passivity ensures that some minds will wander. You can eliminate passivity by engaging people in your argument, as in these examples: ''Just out of curiosity, how many of you believe that your customers are satisfied with our current returns policy? Let's see a show of hands.'''' I've just suggested two allocation alternatives for this client's portfolio. Can anyone suggest a third? Emma, do you have one in mind?" • Put your audience in the hot seat. Remember how some of your teachers randomly picked students to go to the board and work out math problems?You had to pay attention because you might be the next one picked. A similar technique can be used in maintaining audience attention: "I'm going to spend the next few minutes describing our client's problem and how we're currently approaching it. Then I'd like some thoughts from you on alternative approaches." • Add humor. Many writers, especially playwrights, use humor to good effect. They inject it strategically into long pieces of serious drama to create contrast and to provide relief for the audience--hence the term comic relief. You can achieve the same effect in a serious business presentation.
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Humor is most effective when used with large audiences and when used sparingly. It is less useful in small settings because speakers command attention by the power of their presence, a power that diminishes as the audience grows larger and more' physically detached from the speaker. • Use visuals to good effect Visuals can augment your verbal delivery and keep your audience alert and engaged. A bold visual has a magnetic effect on an audience.
Visuals have the opposite effect, however, when speakers rely on them to tell the whole story-particularly when they simply read what the audience is capable of reading for itself. Have you ever heard a presenter say, "OK, what this slide is saying is ... "? That phrase will be repeated to deadening effect throughout the talk, indicating that the speaker hasn't thought about the connections between the slides and the main thrust of the presentation. Don't make this mistake.
Handling Questions Questions taken from the audience can both engage the listeners and provide you with opportunities to furnish greater detail in areas that matter to listeners. The best time for "Q&A" is at the very end; this allows you to complete your delivery as planned. It's also a good idea to let the audience know at the very beginning that you'll provide time for questions at the end. Doing so has two benefits: It prevents unwanted interruptions, and it ensures that listeners will have heard your entire presentation before they ask questions. Taking questions during the presentation keeps people engaged and gives you feedback about how well they understand your message. But this approach may cause you to lose control of your talk.
Anticipate Likely Questions
Q&A entails risk for the presenter. If he or she must repeatedly say, "I don't know," "I'm not sure:' or ''I'll have to get back to you on that," the credibility of the presentation will suffer. That risk can be reduced if the speaker anticipates and develops answers for likely questions as part of the presentation preparation.
You can anticipate likely questions if you take the trouble to understand your audience. Who will come to the presentation? Why are they coming? What are their concerns? How is the presentation likely to strike them? For example, if your presentation concerns the adoption of a new employee dental insurance plan, you'll want to have answers to specific and predictable questions at the ready- unless you cover them in the body of the presentation:
How much will employees have to contribute to the plan each month? Is there an annual deductible that employees must pay before the plan benefits kick in? Does the plan cover orthodontia? Are all family members automatically covered by the plan?If not, what is the cost of additional coverage?
It's impossible to anticipate and prepare for every question that may come your way. For this reason, you must be prepared to think on your feet and know how to redirect
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questions. In this respect, you have four tools: feedback, paraphrasing, clarification, and empathy.
Give Feedback
Feedback is a form of two-way communication. A person says something, and you respond, giving your reaction to what was said, as in the accompanying example.
On the surface, in this example, you've responded to each of the points raised by the questioner. And yet, your response may do little to cure the questioner's negative attitude--an attitude that others may share. You could have done more, as demonstrated next. Paraphrase the Question
Paraphrasing the question is a technique for mirroring the questioner's points. It indicates that you are listening and interested in what that person has to say. Let's look at how this tool works in the same example.
So what you're saying is that I'm just giving the party line when what you really need is more help and less red tape, is that right?
The questioner's likely response is yes. Now the hostile questioner is agreeing with you. You can then go on to give your feedback, in the words used in the case study example, but to a more receptive listener. But there are even better ways to respond.
Clarify the Issues
In clarifying the issues, you work a little harder with the questioner's words to identify his or her real concerns. Let's see how that would happen here.
So, what I hear you saying is that you see two key problems: too few people and too much red tape. The first is probably the most important. Is that right?
Again, you've established a level of agreement with the questioner. By clarifying, however, you've gone a step further. You've shown the audience that you can think on your feet and that you're genuinely interested in trying to sort out the vital issues. In this way, you keep better control of the Q&A session.
Demonstrate Empathy
Empathy is the ability to identify with or vicariously experience the thoughts or feelings of others. Anything you can do during a presentation to demonstrate genuine empathy will improve your standing with the audience and help neutralize any subliminal hostility. As President Bill Clinton was so fond of stating, "I feel your pain." Members of the audience who sense genuine empathy will think, "She understands our problems," or "She's really one of us. We can trust her."
The Q&A session is one of the obvious places where you can demonstrate empathy with your audience, as in our software project example.
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I recognize the hardship that long hours and too few helping hands have caused people on your team. One person told me just last week about how she had to miss her daughter's first soccer game. I have young kids, too, so I know how she must feel. That's why we're sending HR people to every software job fair and pulling out all the stops in finding qualified people to lighten your load.
Making Group Presentations
In some cases, you will want other people to contribute to your presentation. For example, you may be presenting the results of a group effort, or you may want your collaborators to help you achieve your communication objective. Group presentations should divide up the speakers either by credibility with the audience, their presentation skills, or their known expertise in particular areas. For example, a team making a case for a new product line might select its most credible and articulate member to handle the opening and closing--where persuasiveness matters the most. Once the presentation shifts to marketing issues, a person with widely acknowledged marketing skills should lead that part.
A typical group presentation flows as follows: The first speaker introduces the other speakers briefly and introduces the topic. Each subsequent speaker provides a transition to the next one with a sentence: "Now,]une will cover ... "The final speaker provides the closing.
Visuals pose challenges for a group presentation. Unmanaged, each speaker could end up with a different medium and no continuity with the rest of the speaking team. This lack of coordination could create a hodgepodge appearance and lots of unprofessional fumbling around with equipment. Extra planning and coordination can prevent this. One approach is to assign the organization of visuals to one team member. He or she would make sure that all slides or overheads adopt the same format, that they use the same projection equipment, and so forth.
The Q&A session is another area of concern for group presenters. You want to avoid a situation in which someone asks a question and three people start to answer at the same time--or worse, everyone is closed-mouthed and looking back and forth as if to say, "Should I take this, or will you?" Plan in advance how the group will handle questions, and you'll avoid this type of fumbling. Generally, each speaker should be prepared to answer questions in his or her particular area and to follow up if other team members need help. By all means, do not have every speaker comment about every question.
Dealing with Stage Fright
Do your anxiety levels go up whenever your turn at the speaker's podium draws near? Does nervousness cause you to fumble as you begin to speak? If you said yes to either of these questions, you're in good company. Even professional speakers and stage actors get the jitters. Acclaimed actor Ian Holm had such a case of stage fright early in his career that he switched to movie acting and didn't return to live audiences for decades.
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Fortunately, you can be a successful presenter even if you never get rid of the jitters entirely. The key is learning to handle your fear. Handling your fear begins early on, when you're developing the presentation. Pack your presentation with ideas and facts about which you are enthusiastic and fully confident, and you'll be less nervous. If anything seems dubious-making you swallow hard before saying it-then take it out. Enthusiasm and confidence in your material will help calm your nerves.
Then, once your presentation is solid, rehearse it until you can deliver it with minimal notes. And since many people are most unnerved and wobbly when they first being talking, put extra work into the opening. A smooth, confident opening will put you into a winning frame of mind for the rest of your speech.
Here are a few more suggestions for handling fear:
• Anticipate questions and objections, and develop solid responses.
• Understand your audience. Speaking before an assembly of people whom you understand is always less nerve-wracking than addressing a group of strangers. You may even want to meet audience members individually by telephone before the presentation, or in person as they come into the room.
• Use breathing techniques and tension-relieving exercises to reduce stress.
• Stop thinking about yourself and how you appear to the audience. Switch your thoughts to the audience and how your presentation can help them.
• Accept nervousness as natural, and do not try to counteract it with food, caffeine, drugs, or alcohol prior to the presentation.
• If all else fails and you start getting the shakes, pick out a friendly face in the audience and talk to that person.
Evaluating Your Presentation
Like other activities, a speech or presentation is the result of a process that converts inputs (your ideas, information, and arguments) to outputs (what your audience sees and hears). And like other processes, it can be improved.
Process improvement-whether it has to do with making automobiles or presentations to the board of directors-is the foundation of quality. The quality movement that swept through manufacturing in the 1980s and through services in succeeding years has taught us that if we want a higher level of output quality, we should look first to the output itself. Is it up to standard, or are there measurable defects? When defects are found, we must trace them back to the process that produced them. In most cases, this will pinpoint the root cause of the defect. Once the root cause is known, we can take corrective action.
Follow this same approach after every presentation. A presentation is not an automobile or another manufactured good. But if you take the time to objectively evaluate a
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presentation after the fact (or after a rehearsal), you will be able to pinpoint the root causes of poor performance. For example, you may find cluttered overheads, weak opening remarks, inept attempts at humor, or something else. Once you've identified the problems, do something about them as you prepare for your next presentation.
One of the best ways to evaluate your performance and to pinpoint areas for improvement is to videotape each presentation (or rehearsal) for later review. If this is not possible, ask one or more helpful colleagues to take note of what went well and what went poorly. An after-action review of the tape or the colleagues' notes will put you in touch with the best and worst of your presentation skills. If you work on continuous improvement, your presentations will become more and more effective--and your standing in the organization will rise.
Assignment :
The students can be allotted various topics to be presented in the class.
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Chapter 7 : Group Discussion
GROUP DISCUSSION (GD)
Meaning and Purpose:
Group Discussion is a forum where people sit together; discuss a topic with the common objective of finding a solution for a problem. The members are expected to arrive at a common' consensus. While discussing, it is important that the intention of the members is to facilitate the exchange of views.
You should be aware that in a GD, all the members of the group will participate and you have to listen to the views of the other members of the group. It is a discussion and the speaker will be "interrupted" by the other members of, the group while speaking. At this point, the speaker should modify what he says, based on the points that other members of the group make while the discussion is in progress. He has to continually keep evaluating the situation. Also, each participant tries to "grab" the chance to speak or to focus the attention of the group on himself/herself.
You might wonder, "Why should I participate in a GD? What is the purpose .of GD?" Well, Group discussions are arranged in order to measure certain traits of the participants, which are otherwise difficult to identify and time consuming to assess. It is common that a number of people who can communicate their ideas well and discuss effectively with others in a one-to-one situation become tongue-tied in a group situation. They will just not be able to present their ideas or discuss their ideas with the other members of the group. A group discussion will identity people who have such skills and people who do not. It is very necessary for potential candidates to have such group communication skills. The course work at most premier institutes requires group projects to be undertaken. A candidate without the ability to communicate the ideas effectively in a group situation will be a misfit in such an environment.
Further, when you are appointed at any level in an organisation, you do not work in isolation of others. Decision making is done after discussing the relevant issues with others - be it superiors, peers, or subordinates. In a number of such cases, you will need to interact with more than one person at the same time -very akin to GD type of situation. Unless you are equipped with some of the skills, you will not be able to do justice to your role in the, organisatipn.
Hence, it is important to know the nuances of a GD.
How Is GD conducted?
A group of people are made to sit together in a room. There will be a person (sometimes two or three) co-ordinating the GD. After the topic ,is given the candidates start discussing the topic amongst themselves. They stop the discussion when the moderator
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asks them to stop. In some cases you may be asked to write the summary of the GD. Hence, while taking chance to speak, you should, at the same time concentrate on what the others are saying, so that it is easy to write others' point of views. Don't be in a wrong impression that writing a summary means it is mandatory that you have to come to a conclusion by the end of the allotted time for GD. This is not so! Even if you are asked to come to a conclusion; it is not always possible. In such cases, the moderator will look for your approach to the problems and not your prescription in the form of consensus.Seating arrangement: The group of candidates are made to sit in a circular/ semi-circular fashion or in a u shape or in a rectangular "boardroom" seating arrangement. In most cases the group size ranges from 8 to 15 students per group. However, it may also vary to a bigger number of participants depending upon the institute/ company, which is conducting the GD. In most cases, the moderator decides the seating arrangement. The participants are allotted a specific seat in the GD. It is very rare that the participants are allowed to select their preferred place. If the seating arrangement is circular, then there is no difference between any two positions. However, if it is a rectangular arrangement, then the best positions are the middle of the shorter sides. This gives the advantage of the better noticeability by the other members of the group. The next best position is the centre of the longer side. Physical prominence makes it a little easier to get one's way into the discussion. The position at the two ends of the longer sides is probably the least desirable. But if you don't have any choice, you should make the best of the' situation. Concentrate on your participation rather than on the position of your seat. To make yourself visible to others, you may lean a little forward while speaking. If you are getting physically excluded from the group, push your chair a little forward. Alternatively, request your neighbours to poll their chair a little back.
Time: Normally 15 to 20 minutes is the, time given to each group for discussing the topic. There may also be variations. It may be terminated much earlier or it can be extended to 30 minutes or more. Moderator: The person who co-ordinates the GD is called the 'moderator.' He is a neutral person, either from the company/institute conducting the GD or a professional. The moderators are normally experienced persons who have the ability to judge the performance of every member of the group - even if it is a large one. His primary role is to evaluate the performance of every participant. He is the one who announces the topic and time of the GD. He also keeps track of the time and the way the GD progresses. Generally, he does not interfere during the GD. However, he may intervene at two situations, i) when the group discusses the points that are not relevant to the given topic. ii) when there is chaos and noise in the discussion.
In the first case, the moderator may interfere to bring the discussion back to the track and in the second case, he may stop the GD temporarily till order settles in. The moderator also has the right to ask a participant to stop talking, when any member dominates the GD. In other words, the moderator is only a facilitator or an observer, who is present to help the smooth flowing of the GD and evaluate the participants during the process.
Introduction
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In some GDs name plates are kept in front of the participants on the table identifying each participant. This may not be a common practice. If you are asked to introduce yourself, be prepared. Tell the group your name, where you are from, the name of your college / company / department. Keep your introduction very brief. Do not take more than 15 to 20 seconds to introduce yourself
Skills of the Participant
There are certain specific parameters on which the moderator evaluates you in a GD. They are: 1. Content 2. Communication 3. Group Behaviour 4. Leadership skills
1. Content: You are tested for your knowledge of the content. It pertains to "what to say" aspect of the GD. The moderator would test how well versed you are with the knowledge relevant to the topic. It shows how well-read you are. All your man-management skills, etc. will be of no use in an organisation unless you are sound on subject and knowledge. So content becomes an important aspect of the evaluation process. It is very important for you to clearly display your understanding of all the issues pertaining to the topic. The more valid points you make, the more marks you score.
When you contribute your knowledge during a GD, you are expected to add to the overall knowledge level of the group as a whole. The group should gain from its interaction with you because of what you have to contribute. Do not miss any opportunity whatsoever to exhibit your knowledge of the topic in a GD. Nevertheless, limit your knowledge to the topic under discussion. Do not GD overboard just to show that you are well read.
2. Communication: It pertains to "how to say" aspect of the GD. It has three characteristics. They are,
i) correctly convey what you want to say- A number of times, we find that the listener "understands" what we were saying, very differently from what we intended to convey. This only suggests that we have not succeeded to put across our ideas properly and correctly. Normally, there is a lot of scope for misunderstandings while communicating. It is your responsibility to ensure that there are no such gaps during communication. It is your duty to convey your message clearly, so that it is understood as you wanted. This aspect of the communication also includes your thought process- how you put your ideas together.
ii) listening - It is as important in a GD as speaking is. GD. does not mean that you have to master the skills of speaking alone; they are as much about listening to others ideas in the group as about telling them your ideas. You have to make sure that you focus your attention on what other group members are saying instead of concentrating only on speaking.
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iii) language- This is the area, where a number of students end up making a mess of things. Unfortunately, it is the case if you are not fluent in English as much as if you are fluent in English. The students not fluent in English feel inhibited while speaking and hold themselves back in GD. At the same time, students who are fluent, tend to use flowery language to show their English speaking skills. In the process of trying to show off their vocabulary, they end up using words in the wrong context. You should realise that language has a small role in GD, what matters is the idea. As long as you are able to convey your ideas in reasonably correct English, your fluency doesn't matter. Remember that you should use simple English. GD should not be a forum to show your language skills or vocabulary skills. Avoid complex-long winded sentences. Break them up into simpler and short sentences.
Your communication should be effective - it should convey what ,you intend to convey. Your communication should be efficient - you should make your point in as few words as possible. If it takes a longer time for you to get to your point, someone else would have started speaking before you can make your point. 3. Group Behaviour: This is the third parameter on which you are evaluated in a Group Discussion. Unlike in a debate or elocution, in a GD, you are tree to speak at all times. Hence, how each participant interacts with the other members of the group becomes very important.
Even in a real life situation in an organisation, all interaction is between superiors/peers/ subordinates. It is imperative that every individual is able to interact with everybody' else in a mature manner. In a GD, you are tested for this aspect of your personality. What you need to exhibit is a rational approach, an adult-to-adult interaction with the other group members. You should listen to and understand the views expressed by the other group members, integrate them with your ideas, present a cogent picture of the group's view and help arrive at a consensus in the discussion. This means that actions such as shouting to gain attention and making snide remarks about others' contributions will not help you at all. They will only mark you as rude, ill-mannered and intemperate, hardly the qualities expected by the selector.
4. Leadership Skills: Participants with leadership skills will be easily noticed. Remember that leadership does not mean speaking the loudest or the most in the group. It means showing direction to the group. A leader is not the person who speaks the most, but the person who is spoken to the most.
It is not possible for all participants to display leadership skills. If you get an opportunity to lead the group, do so by all means. However, do not GD out of your way to establish yourself as a leader. It is quite adequate if you are able to display your knowledge, communicate effectively and behave maturely with your group members. The moderator will look for a person with balanced thinking . Don't get emotional about any topic at anypart of the GD. Even if you have a strong opinion regarding any topic, hold back your views, what is required of you is an objective and balanced approach. You have to always keep in mind that you are not participating in the GD to make any policy decisions for the Government, nor are you there to convince all your fellow group members that your point of view is the only one that
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they should follow. You have gone there only to contribute to the group in a manner that convinces the moderator that you are his apt choice.
Types of GD
Based on the topics that are given for the GDs, they may be divided into two broad categories: A. Topic-based GD B. Case-based GD
A. Topic-based GD - In this type of GD, the moderator may give a topic to the candidates or they may be allowed 3-4 minutes time to select their own topic for discussion. The topics for GD may be in the form of a statement. By the end of the discussion, the group should attempt to arrive at a conclusion on the issue that is covered by the topic.
The topics that are chosen for a GD are of two types - Knowledge based and Abstract topics.
i) Knowledge based - For these topics you require to have some knowledge about the topic. E.g.: "USA is more interested in the petroleum of the Middle East than in real peace there." Unless you know about the troops sent by US during the Gulf War, and the outcome of the war, the views about other neighbouring countries, including India, you will not be able to speak effectively on the topic. Knowledge based topics cover current economic issues as well as non-economic issues. Though the past issues are also given as GD topics, usually the focus is on the current relevance. Some of the important categories of knowledge based topics are-
Economic topics: Economics, either pertaining to India or international in dimension, accounts as the most significant portion of the topics given for GDs. In this type of topics, you should be very strong in content. In order to exhibit good content knowledge, the facts and figures about the national and international economy should be at your finger tips. You should be familiar with critical economic indicators such as GDP, the plan outlay, sectoral allocations from the budget, trade and fiscal balances, export and import items and values, banking concepts and interest rates, stock indices etc. While statistics of vital economic activities are very useful, you need not usually memorise them, instead, pay more attention to the trends and the impact of the movement of various economic indicators.
Social Topics: The second largest section in GDs is taken by the social topics. Topics like, "Prostitution should be legalised,' "Religion is the opium of masses" are examples of social topics. While social topics generally have a greater national content base, some amount of content will be region-specific. Therefore, when you are discussing social topics, you should be clear about both the 'generic' nature of the topic and the 'specific' manifestations of the social issue.
Political Topics: Discussing politics is a favourite pastime for many. Nevertheless, discussing the same subject for selections to management institutes or organisations, is a
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totally different activity altogether. If you are not very careful, these topics can easily drag you into a trap of emotional expressions. You should not restrict your discussion to the problem that is mentioned in the topic, but also to the connected topics. Therefore, while preparing on political issues, you should also prepare with the other allied areas like, What if the communists come to power? Plans to attract foreign investments, etc. Such interdependent aspects will have to be studied and noted down so that they come handy in a GD.
Sports/Film related topics: These are also common in a number of GDs. Concentrate on the recently concluded tournaments, world cups, Olympic Games, etc. The topics may be direct and encompass the discipline in general like, "Should companies announce holidays during International Games?" or they could. be specific to a particular game or sports person like, "Sachin Tendulkar's cricket days are over ... " Some participants feel that since they have no interest in sports, they are handicapped and therefore cannot discus$ topics concerning sports. However, this should not be the case. Irrespective of whether you play the game or don't, you should be aware of popular sporting events and allied fields. Similar is the case with films. You need not be a film buff, but you cannot claim to be unaware of the national reaction to films like 'Water' or to the alleged links of Mr. Bharath Shah with the underworld, or Sanjay Dutt's trial for Bombay blast. Cinema and sports are an integral part of Indian society and you need to know enough to participate in a GD on these topics.
IT based: IT being the call of the day, it is natural that topics based on Information Technology feature prominently amongst the list of topics for discussion. It is important to know that while IT indicates technology, a discussion on IT based topic does not mean that you should be thorough with the knowledge of programming or computer hardware. Again, it does not mean that if you have done a course on Computer education, you have a hold on the content and the quality of your content would be superior to that of others in your group. Ideas like e-govemance and networking are all potential topics and hence will have to be read and understood.
ii) Abstract topics: These are such topics that you do not really need any knowledge about the topic to speak on it. Your worldly knowledge and common sense will help you in speaking on the topic. Topics like, "Black is black and white is white" and “A thing6f beauty is a joy for ever" are examples of abstract topics. You might feel that these topics are vague and you cannot decide on your stand. On the other hand, at times the topic looks very difficult but the discussion proceeds smoothly. By nature, abstract topics lend themselves to varied and widespread discussion. However, if you set clear-cut boundaries as to what needs to be discussed, you can handle the discussion the way you want it to proceed. Abstract topics can be best discussed using appropriate exemplification. The topics like "Black is black and White is white" can be discussed using examples that give a meaning to the abstract thought. In this case, black can be defined as 'negroes' or economically Poor people and 'white' as 'the white people of south Africa' or the economically rich class.
B. Case-Based GD - The approach to discussing a case study requires a specific framework. They are more structured and the direction of the discussion is almost
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predetermined by the identified problem. Unlike the Topic based GDs, these essentially move towards a solution. They require less regulation of the discussion from the participants' point of view, in the sense that the scope for deviation and exemplification in case-based GDs is not as wide and varied as is the case with the topic-based GDs.
While doing the case based GDs, you will be required to don the role of the person in the case who needs to take a decision. The problems associated with the decision maker will have to be considered and to that extent there are limitations. In a topic-based GD, we present our views and opinions as reflective of your own self and you need not assume the role of anybody else.
What is a case? A case is a narration of a situation or an event. It usually has a situation wherein a decision has to be taken. Your approach to taking the decision and your interaction with the other members of the group while in the process of taking a decision will be evaluated by the moderator. At times the moderator might ask you to write a summary of the case discussion at the end.
Usually the case will be less than a page long. Normally, once the case is distributed, you are given five to ten minutes to read the case and analyse it for yourself before it is taken up for discussion. During this period, you should make your own notes, on the case-sheet itself about the points that you want to cover.
To understand cases better, they can be divided into two categories:i) Business Vs General: this is based on the content ii) Individual Vs Group: This is based on the decision maker.
Business Vs General cases: Cases can pertain to business situations or to non-'business situations. While business situations are more common than non-business situations, you need not be unduly worried if you are a fresher and you do not have the required exposure to business situations. While the experienced candidates have a little bit of an edge over their inexperienced counterparts, they are also to some extent conditioned by their own experience which limits the breadth of their problem solution frame. Non-business situations also are equally difficult or equally easy to discuss. General case depict social or economic-related situations.
Decision by an individual Vs Decision by a group: Cases may have the key decision maker as an individual or in the form of a group of individuals (committee). In the case of an individual you will have to analyse the role of this single individual; whereas in the case of a group, you will have to figure out the profile of each individual as well as the interplay of emotions and feelings across the decision making group.
Assignment
Practice GDs under the guidance of your Professor.
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Chapter 8 : Personal Interviews
JOB INTERVIEW
An interview is a meeting for a special purpose: A job interview is essentially a conversation, though with specific features: • It has a specific purpose • it follows a fairly structured pattern-time, place, length, participants and subject matter are established well in advance
• one group or participant controls the proceedings and contributes mainly questions - the other contributes mainly answers.
By its nature, the interview sets up an artificial and often intimidating environment. There will be a cautious relationship between people. If you take part in an interview - whether as an interviewer or interviewee - you will not feel completely at ease in. what is after all an unnatural setting. But with practice and by adopting various strategies, you should be able to cope or even shine in the interview room.
Interviews In the workplace: The Interviews are normally conducted in the organisations for various reasons.
• Selection of staff: Job interviews are conducted by the bosses or personnel managers to select staff for various posts. This may also be conducted in-house at the time of promotion
• Monitoring employees' progress: Appraisal interviews are conducted by the departmental heads with the monitoring of HR Department to assess the work of an employee.
• Dealing with. problems: Disciplinary interviews are conducted in case of problems confronted in the office premises. After this interview by the departmental heads the help of HR department, necessary action will be taken to solve the problem.
Different strategies that can be developed to face an interview
The Interviewee
Most of us face the interview process one time or the other. It is the time when we are stressed out. Try to put all that to positive use. This means, first of all, adopting a positive attitude. The underlying strategy for success is to believe in yourself. You should remember that you are not a victim, who is under the scrutiny of a panel of interviewers. But you may be the best candidate for the job. However, there is no guarantee that you will be offered the post without any efforts from your side. Experience and qualifications are important, but you may also have to sell yourself as the best person for the post. This requires you to know as much about the position as possible. Given below are the strategies that would help you groom to face interviews. • Make your best impression on the interviewers: Present yourself in a positive way. Consider what the interviewers' likely prejudices and dislikes may be, and take these into account when answering questions and unveiling your personality. Work on your
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personal quality that might be required for the post you are being interviewed. If the company wants an aggressive go-getter salesman, for instance, you had better not project a timid and overcautious self-image in the interview room. • Research the company: It is better to know the background of the company that you are applying for. Investigate their products, read about them in trade magazines, newspapers, company brochures and reports. Find out their priorities. If they emphasise on turnover and quick profit, you should stress the revenue you generated in your' last job, rather than the research project you supervised for five years. But if your prospective employers are deeply committed to a programme of research and development, you should play up your academic or supervisory skills. • Aside from the practical skills required, consider the less tangible qualities the employer might be searching for. Do you have potential in certain areas which could be realized if given the chance? How do you rate yourself in terms of creative thinking, leadership qualities, and the ability to work under pressure? During interview, highlight these incidents in which you have displayed these characteristics. • Know your weakness. Good interviewers are practised at finding the weaknesses in a candidate, so don't imagine that you are certain to get away with anything. But what you cannot hide you can always explain provided you are well-prepared. You should learn to turn these explanations to your advantage. Prepare yourself to give positive answers to queries about these weak areas.
Dress Code: Before you speak you will be seen. The style of dress you choose depends on the company and the position you are applying for. An interview is a formal affair and you are expected to attend the same in formal wear. Casual wear like jeans, sneakers, etc. are ruled out. If you are a male, tuck your shirt in, use a tie and wear formal shoes. Shave on the morning of the interview. If you are a female, you can wear, you can wear either an Indian formal dress (sari or churidar) or western formal (skirt and shirt). If you have long hair, neatly plait it or tend to it in a manner that it does not look unkempt.
Make sure that your outfit is comfortable to wear, and that it suits you. Tailored, neutral cloths are a good choice because they do not demand attention. You want to make a good impression, but you do not want to distract the interviewer with an overpowering costume.
Finally, take care not to walk into the interview room laden with all your belongings. Ask the receptionist where you can leave your coat, shopping bags, and other necessary paraphernalia. When you go into the interview room, take only a file or folder, or a briefcase to hold any papers you may have to refer to.
Behaviour
First impressions are of paramount importance. The following points can help you to impress the interviewer favourably from the outset.
1. The greeting. When your turn comes, whether the door is open or closed, knock gently on the door. At the door, clearly and loudly, say, "May I come in, sir/madam" and walk in (usually you need not wait for a reply after you ask). However, sometimes, the
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interviewer may ask you to wait outside for a little while - in such a case, just say, "Sure sir," Walk out with a confident and comfortable pace and wait till you are called in.
Once you reach the interviewer's table, wish the panel members (Good morning sir / madam). Your handshake should be firm. Stand with GDod posture, smile, and meet the interviewer's eyes. It has been said that more jobs are lost from lack of eye contact than from lack of experience or qualifications.
2. Body language: The interviewer has probably decided in advance where you should sit. But if you have a choice, don't sit in a low soft armchair. It invites a submissive, slouching position in which you cannot easily control your body language. If the chair has arms, avoid putting your elbows on them. You risk forcing yourself into a tense, unattractive posture. You will create a better impression by sitting upright, with your back firmly supported by the chair.
Be aware of your body language. An 'open' posture, with your back straight, and arms and legs uncrossed, is better than a 'closed' posture - back hunched, arms and legs tightly crossed. Avoid small repetitive movements: however calm your facial expression, you will give away your nervousness and distract the interviewer if you keep waggling your foot, smoothing your hair, or nibbling your fingernails. Make sure your body language is sufficiently respective.
3. Establishing rapport: Interviewing is based on taking turns. You should make use of all the listening skills that you have learnt. Show the interviewer by means of nods and gestures, that you are listening carefully, and pause when answering to note his or her responses. If the interviewer is speaking, wait for him to finish what he has to say, before you reply. Also, do not answer to questions that are not asked. While answering, let your sentences not be too short, because they would sound curt. At the same time, your answers should also not be lengthy. Respond with energy, speak clearly, and use facial expressions as a visual aid to emphasise your meaning.
Questions in an Interview
There are different areas that are covered in interviews and different types of questions asked in these areas. While every interview will not have all the varieties of questions, you should be aware of various types of questions that are asked in interviews and prepare yourself to tackle these questions.
Common questions: Although you cannot predict the interviewer's precise questions, you can at least draw up a list of likely questions:
Why did you apply for this job? What makes you want to work for this company/ organization? What do you think has been your greatest achievement in your career so far? Give me an assessment of your strengths What did you like best/least about your last job? How do you envisage your future? Where would you like to be in ten year's time? Would you have any problems relocating if you were offered this job? What was your last boss like?
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Describe your ideal boss . Why do you think you would be good at this particular job?
Difficult Questions: However much you prepare your ideas, you are bound to find yourself facing some difficult questions - those that take you by surprise, or that you hoped would never be asked. Whatever you do, don't panic. Pause, think, arid take your time in answering. The interviewer is not looking for glib answers to difficult questions.
If the question is subtle or complicated, don't be ashamed to ask the interviewer to repeat it. Think about what you have been asked, and try to order your thoughts before you answer. Don't allow yourself to be overwhelmed. If you really are stuck and cannot answer a question, say so. Don't simply invent an answer to fill the silence. Be confident in admitting your ignorance on the question asked, rather that trying to give an answer that is wrong.
Dos When Answering Questions
Keep your sentences short and to the point. Once you have completed' your answer, indicate to the interviewer that you have finished what you wanted to say. One way to do this is to drop the pitch of your voice on the last syllable of your final sentence.
Ask the interviewer to repeat a question if you did not fully understand it. Or try paraphrasing it. It is an indirect method of confirming whether you have understood the question correctly.
End your answers with positive points whenever you can. For example, if you offer some criticisms of the company that last employed you, your comments should end with a couple of positive remarks about that company. This shows your attitude; that you are not biased and you are capable of making an even-handed assessment of your previous company.
Be careful while using jargon to impress the interviewer. Technical or specialized language is fine if you are absolutely sure of its use. But if you misuse it, you will look foolish. When in doubt use simple English.
Don'ts When Answering Questions
Don't start answering as soon as the questions are posed, without taking time to assemble your thoughts.
Don't assume that you have to go on talking until you are interrupted. If you think that you have answered the question, stop talking. If the interviewer keeps interrupting, it means that you are not answering concisely enough.
Don't play for time. Don't make comments such as, "That's an interesting question!', while you are aware that you do not have any answer for a particular question. If you cannot answer the question, say so.
Don't talk in the abstract. This may give the impression that you cannot or will not commit yourself to a firm opinion. Don't use general terms such as 'one' or 'people'. Be personal, and use specific examples: 'In my experience .. .', 'When I was at .... .', 'I think that .... .'. and so on.
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Don't undersell yourself by being apologetic. For example, don't say, 'I've had only five months' experience in this kind of work. 'You are inviting the interviewer to see you as under qualified. If you are not sure of your ground, say so. But avoid long, apologetic introductions such as, 'Of course it's just my opinion, .and I may be wrong, but I think perhaps .... .'
Don't try to draw the attention of the interviewer on your failures or bad luck. If you are forced to confront something unpleasant in the past, point out the positive side of what at first glance seems negative.
Don't exaggerate your current salary in the hope that this inflated figure will be matched or bettered by your prospective employer. An experienced interviewer will probably be able to estimate your income fairly accurately, and will know when you are misleading him.
Concluding the InterviewWhen the interview has come to an end, the interviewers will make a clear statement like, "Thank you, .... Wish you all the best." This indicates the conclusion of the interview. Sometimes, they may invite you to ask any questions of your own. In such cases, you certainly can ask questions. However, ask questions that are relevant. Avoid questions like, "How did I perform in my interview?" or "How did I do in my written test?" or "Will I get selected?"
You can ask them a couple of questions about their organisation, whatever you ask, keep the form of your questions positive and constructive - for example: 'Does the company plan to expand in the near future?' 'Will there be opportunities for training?' 'What is the scope for promotion?'
If you have done your research well, you can make the most of this chance to display your knowledge and enthusiasm. You can impress the interviewer by showing that you have thought creatively about issues which have not been raised: 'Has the company considered developing X area of marketing/research?' "I picked up such and such a detail in my reading of the company reports. Does it mean that.. ..... ?' And so on.
But don't overdo this. Try to keep your questions short, genuine and relevant. Let it not be the questions asked for the sake of asking or making small talk. You should not try to show off your knowledge. Alternatively, there is always the option of not asking any question at all and just say, "Thank you, sirs. I do not have any questions to ask."
What should .you do at the end of the interview? Stand up, push your chair back a little, smile, shake hands firmly, thank the interviewer for the time he or she has given you, wish the interviewers by making statements like, "Thank you, sirs" or "Good day to you all, sirs," and take your leave. To do this, turn back and walk gracefully out of the room. If the door is closed when you are going out, you may again close the door behind you after you go out.
Assignment
Practice mock interviews under the guidance of your Professor.
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Chapter 9 : Business Etiquettes
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
WHAT IS ETIQUETTE?
The word etiquette means conventional rules of social behaviour, or professional conduct. These rules are unwritten rules, which act as norms to be observed by all professionals who work as a team in a particular company or department. They help you realise when your behaviour is appropriate or inappropriate. In business, as in life, etiquette is a self-rewarding trait of appropriate conduct. Successful professionals know how to conduct themselves at company meetings, parties, and dinners. They are aware of their company's culture and etiquette. Further, the rules of business etiquette mean more than the rules of just being nice. They mean the fundamental rules that get business done. If we ignore these norms of group attitude and behaviour, we run the risk of being singled out as 'loners' or 'headstrong' persons. Our behaviour may disrupt the smooth working of the team by causing misunderstanding and tension among fellow workers.
Suppose, we choose to turn up late for meetings habitually, or ignore deadlines, or indulge in character assassination at coffee breaks, or demand (as a right), not request (as a favour), help in a situation, we are ignoring, knowingly or unknowingly, the rules of good professional conduct, behaviour, and etiquette.
Basic Rules of Etiquette
Every workplace evolves its own set of norms of behaviour and attitude. For example, you can survey banks or hospitals during lunch time. In some, you may find that everyone resumes working without even a minute's delay, after lunch time, while in some others, taking an extra 10 to 15 minutes for lunch may be a general practice. In such cases, the sense of punctuality is governed by no rules written in the work manual. Some business etiquette rules discussed here relate to the following -• Introductions • Telephone calls • Business dining • Interaction with foreign clients • Inter-personal business etiquette
Here we describe the behaviour and customs that would be considered appropriate and acceptable in most business organisations/ offices/workplaces across the modern "educated" world (open to western culture).
This approach to business etiquette assumes that each business setting has its business protocols which an employee learns by working in that environment and by observing others. But there are general rules of business etiquette, based on the fundamental
principles of organisational behaviour. In an organisation, our basic concern is to create a smooth work environment where each person helps others to carryon their jobs with ease. This is made possible by our ability to empathise with other workers' job
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concerns and priorities. This identification with others is the best form of business etiquette and culture.
Learning the rules of business etiquette will help you, as a professional, to act with ease in any business setting. Let us, therefore, consider some common situations in business and findout how to act appropriately. INTRODUCTION
Introducing Yourself
A confident self-introduction always makes a positive first impression. But many people fail to do so. Either they think it to be a bold act, or they feel too shy to do it. But if you are going to meet a person for the first time, the other person is bound to feel comfortable to know who you are and why you are there. Or, if you are meeting the same person the second or third time after a gap of some weeks/months, there is no harm in simply re-introducing - "Good morning, Smita Sharma". Suppose, two applicants are waiting for an interview with the General Manager, Marketing of a company. They are sitting in the waiting lounge across the corridor leading to the General Manager's office room. A smart looking middle-aged executive walks into the corridor moving towards the General Manager's office. The candidates are not sure whether he is the concerned executive for whom they have been waiting. Now, suppose one of them stands up, moves up to him and says "Good Morning, I am Reena Seth. I am here for my interview with Mr. S K Nair." Hopefully, the person would respond - "Good Morning! I am Nair. Pleased to meet you. We shall shortly have the interview," Ms Reena Seth's bold self-introduction to Mr. Nair gives her an edge over the other candidate who remained silent. Most likely, Mr. Nair should have positive and favourable impression of Reena as a confident, assertive, and enterprising young girl. .
If there is an advantage in introducing yourself at the first opportunity, why do people shy away from doing so?
Some cultures, 'specially British' have a sense of reserve. Americans are more outgoing in general. In Asia, Indians are shy and they would consider it impolite to go up to someone and say "Hi, I am Amit Misra."
Many people treat introductions as a protocol to be observed as a ritual, when two or more persons meet formally.
Introducing yourself in a clear manner, pronouncing your first name and surname when required is necessary to help the other person know who you are.
Names, specially foreign ones, generally remain partially received, unless spoken out distinctly. For instance, the name "Kanwal Jeet Singh Sidhu" has to be uttered slowly, in parts, so that the other person follows it fully.
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How to Introduce Yourself Correctly
As a norm of business etiquette and the first step towards cordial business transactions, people greet each other by stating their full names and positions (in office) at the very outset.
Notice that first name and surname are stated like "Prafulla Misra, CEO, Sterling Gold Informatics." Not just "Misra" or "Prafu1la". Americans prefer to introduce themselves by their surnames only. Like "Lewis" or "Dickenson". But Britishers introduce by using first name and surname: "W B Yeats" or "Tony Blair".
Repeat Your Name when Necessary
During a conversation, the other party may forget your name. Or may have missed hearing it. At such moments you should help the host/the other party immediately by politely repeating your name "1 am Irfan Mohammad, I am sorry, I should have told you."
Business etiquette norms seek to make all concerned parties act comfortably. This is why it is polite to show that you missed telling the host/the other party your name (who you are). If you simply say, "I am Irfan Mohammad," it may suggest that the other person faulted in forgetting your name. Therefore, re-state your name tactfully by saying, "I should have told you, I am Meenakshi Tiwari."
Some Rules for Making Introductions Correctly 1. In the case of a prior fixed business meeting, if you are an expected visitor, first you
should introduce yourself by telling your name and purpose: "I am R K Bose and I have come here to meet Ms Divya Lahari in the Marketing Department." Only after introducing yourself, should you ask for the name and position of the other party. This is the normal practice followed by business executives.
2. Do not use honorific words, such as Sri, Smt, Mrs, Mr, Ms, or any other titles before your name, while introducing or referring to yourself. Other persons can call you as Mr Chandra. But you should refer to yourself just "Rajan Chandra or Chandra or Rajan."
If it is a degree earned by you, such as Ph.d, you may use Dr before your name and refer to yourself as "Dr N K Sharma, or Dr Sharma".
But if you are a doctor by profession, people regard and know you as Dr Rishi Gupta, or Dr Manoj Mehta or Dr Roopa Salwan. But surgeons and physicians usually do not add the salutation before their names while referring to their names. For example, consider the self-introduction given by a doctor, "I am Roopa Salwan, Cardiologist from Escorts Heart Institute, New Delhi, India, and I have come here to attend the International Summit of Cardiologists as an Indian delegate." This may be a universally appropriate self-announcement at the reception counter for registration. The point to be understood is that others may call us by adding titles or professional
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words or degrees or other salutations, but we ourselves should not use them with our names.
3. Speak your name slowly and clearly. As mentioned, personal names sound unfamiliar. Therefore, they should be articulated as distinctly as possible. If required, help others by spelling your name.
Handshake Today most business meetings begin and end with a handshake. A handshake is immediately done after introduction by extending your right hand and firmly holding the other person's right hand very briefly. In modern business a handshake is a non-verbal clue of friendly dealings.
As a visitor, you can first offer your hand for a handshake with your host. In fact, the handshake is so spontaneous that both the parties almost simultaneously put forward their right hands towards each other. Nowadays, in business as in society, there is no gender distinction. Hence, handshaking with young ladies is normal. Only it is to be done by holding the right hand gently and very briefly. Sometimes, while parting, people shake hands by holding both the hands together or putting their left arm on the back or the shoulder of the other person to communicate the warmth that has developed between them after meeting each other.
As a winning form of non-verbal communication, handshakes must be accompanied by eye contact and a gentle smile.
In some situations, you may express your feelings by saying "Pleased to meet you". And the other generally responds - "My pleasure" or "So, am I". But these words are just pleasantries. They do not mean much as verbal communication.
Other non-verbal greetings - As already indicated while discussing non-verbal forms of communication, there are, besides handshakes, other communications that are culture-specific. like even in business, the Arabs shake hands, embrace, and also kiss to communicate their warmth and respect for the other person. Or Asians in general bow to one another. In some professional settings, such as anchoring, hosting an event, film awards, or a serials such as "Carry on Shekhar", it is customary to hug and "air kiss" the guest. Air kissing is done by bringing right cheeks together and mimicking a kiss. Air kiss is done only between men and women, never between men and men. In fact, an air kiss is an intense form of non-verbal communication of good feelings of love between two individuals.
But, if you are not sure of the cultural and personal sensitivities of your visitor or host, the best thing is to shake hands, which is the general norm of business greetings across the world.
However, in some culture-specific countries, such as India, many advanced and senior business heads, executives, and officers still prefer to receive or bid adieu to highly placed guests in the traditional form - folded hands, slightly bowed head, and eye contact. As a visitor, you should greet the host accordingly.
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On Failing to Recall Someone's Name
In business, we may have been visiting a person so often. But it is possible that on meeting her or him at a meeting/seminar / conference or some other place, we recognise her/him, but fail to recall the exact name. Before the other person detects your failure, you should ask for his/her card. You can say, "Could I have your latest business card for your telephone number/and address?" or you can just say, "Could I know your full name? I have your initials."
To be tactful in such situations is also good business etiquette. If you let the other person know that you have forgotten his/her name it may make the person feel that he/she is not important enough to be remembered (by name). So, we should act as if we know the name, but we wish to have more details about the person.
How to Introduce other Persons
One of the difficult things you have to do is perhaps to introduce other persons at a business meeting. We should know each other in terms of their names and professional status before we conduct the meeting or discuss the transaction. The status communicates the role the person plays in the business transaction. Therefore, a clear and complete introduction of each person, members of visiting party, and host party, makes every one feel relaxed and creates a congenial atmosphere for the meeting. The Protocol (Rule) for Introducing others
Normally, the senior most person among the visitors, or the host team, introduces the other members of his /her group present there.
The practice is that first visitors are introduced to the host. Then, members of the host group are introduced.
The rule is that we do not introduce a senior to a junior. Instead, we always introduce the lowest ranked person to the highest ranked person.
Accordingly, you should "never" say, "Mr Chopra (Chairman of CMC) may I introduce you to Payal Muttoo". Payal is our this year's university First position holder and a Gold Medalist, working in our placement department.
Always say "Mr Chopra (Chairman CMC), may I introduce Payal Muttoo to you? Payal is our this year's university topper and Gold Medalist, working in our placement department."
Notice two things here –
One, the polite form "May I introduce ... " is appropriate and formal, when you are speaking to'a superior. But to others you can just say, "This is Neelam Gulati. Neelam is a senior lecturer in finance."
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Two, we repeat the name so that it is duly received and remembered by the other person. But to repeat the name naturally, we create a context by mentioning the most significant detail about the person concerned.
Suppose there are just two persons to be introduced to each other. As a rule, you should first introduce the junior to the senior, as stated above. After introducing the junior to the senior, you introduce the senior person to the junior person. And, you should just say, "Payali as you know, he is President G P Chopra. President Chopra will discuss with you our placement status and strategies".
Here, it may be important to point out that in India, and perhaps' in other Asian countries, it is a usual practice to say President or Chairman so and so. Like President G P Chopra or Chairman Chopra ji, or even Chairman Mr Chopra. To Americans and other Westerners, this may sound a little odd. Americans prefer to refer to one another just by using "first name, last name," even in the case of very senior persons. (For example, "John Wright"). However, in Asian countries, people observe social courtesies of respect for age and position, even in the context of business, while greeting, introducing, or referring to very senior persons.
Telephone Etiquette
Handling business calls, requires awareness of our unconscious actions which often amount to bad manners or lack of appropriate skills of effective invisible interpersonal communication. In telephonic conversation, the way we receive, respond, speak or hang up is often as important as what is communicated.
Making a call - Be brief and concise• Prepare before calling
Before initiating a call, be clear about the why (your purpose) and what (the exact content) of your call. For business calls, you must know who exactly you are to speak to and choose the most convenient time to speak to the person. You should also know whether you are calling as a follow-up action of some other earlier communication, or it is the first step in your transaction (of information and dealings).
To be brief and concise, jot down the points you want to discuss. Always keep before you the points in the order in which you want to discuss.
Keep a (writing) pad and pen ready to note down any information worth recording.
Consider whether the call is important from your point of view or from the receiver’s point view of view. In the latter case, you should structure your information from the receiver’s point of interest. Begin first with what is important for your receiver. Talk about your interests later.
Keep the duration of the conversation as short as possible. The other person may not be free to spare much time for your call.
How to Begin or Receive a Call
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The first few words spoken by you as a caller or receiver are important for establishing your identity and purpose. They create the context for further conversation.
As a caller, you may not be personally known to the receiver. The receiver may be familiar with your purpose and your company, but may not exactly know you, unless you both have personally met or spoken to each other earlier. Therefore, begin with self introduction - your name, company, and purpose.
In organisations, your call will be generally routed through a receptionist. The usual practice at the switch board is to attend to you within five rings; if you have been kept waiting longer than that, the receptionist should greet you with an apology. If your call is not answered even up to ten rings, it is advisable to cut off. Try to call later, or try some other number, if there is any.
Greet the receptionist with a "Good Morning"; tell her your name and your organisation's name, "This is Pallavi Mehta of Ferns' n Petals," and then mention whom you want to speak to "Could I speak to Mr Sudesh Chaturvedi, GM, HR, please?" When speaking with the Personal Secretary of the desired person, you should repeat the same form of introduction and polite request. Tell her (Secretary) your purpose also. She will be able to connect you to the desired person (her boss), only after checking whether her boss is free to talk to you at that moment or you could call again after some time. Remember to be patient and pleasant while dealing with the secretary who is an important link between you (as a caller) and her boss (the person you would like to contact).
Speaking with the desired person If the receiver does not know you, you should first introduce yourself, "Good Morning Mr. Chaturvedi, I am Pallavi Mehta, Marketing Manager, of Ferns' n Petals. I want to know the details about your company’s order for floral decoration……..”. As a caller, you should use the opportunity of your conversation with the receiver to make him (receiver) feel that the information you want could be acquired only from him and that it is required immediately. In other words, you should involve the receiver in a dialogue, instead of questions which can be answered just by saying ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Suppose you say, “Can I have the details of ……”. The receiver can respond by saying, “No, not now,” and may hang up. Hence, you should use your conversational skills to establish a good relationship with the other person so that the call ends on a positive note.
If the call is Cut off
Many times, the telephone line suddenly gets disconnected. In such situations, courtesy demands that the person who originally initiated the call should redial immediately and say, "Sorry, the call got disconnected."
In case, the receiver has to suspend your call for attending to some other more important call, it is the duty of the receiver to resume the call and use some pleasant explanation to see that you do not feel slighted.
Common Telephone Courtesies
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Make your business calls polite by using words, such as 'Please' and 'Thank you', when you make a request or get something done or completed.
• Always use interrogative form for making a request. "Could I ..... " or "May I ..... ". Use of direct categorical statement amounts to order. "I want to talk to ..... " is not a polite request. Instead "May I talk to .... " is a more polite form of request.
Even, the statement, "I request you to connect me to so and so number/or person" is not quite appropriate for requesting an unknown person to do something for you even if it is his/her duty. Instead, say, "May I request you to ..... ".
Telephone Etiquette to be Observed as a Secretary
In business, telephone calls are mostly received and passed on to the boss by the personal secretary. You have to be courteous with her/him. In return, she/he has to not only be courteous but tactful too.
Sometimes, the secretary has to act very fast to find out whether the boss is free to talk to you or not available, before responding to you. So, she/he first would tell you, "Please, just hold on." Meanwhile she/he knows what theboss wants. If the boss is present, but does not want to speak to you for some reason, the secretary will choose anyone of the following polite things to say to you –
"Sorry, he is busy in a meeting. May I have your number and he will call you later?"
"He is busy with a foreign delegation. May I ask him to call you back as soon as he is free?"
These statements may not necessarily be true. However, they are intended to keep you satisfied even when the call is not successful. 'The secretary should never try to overhear the conversation between the two - the caller and the receiver (the boss). After putting through the call to the boss, she should go off the line. Telephone Precaution
As a caller you do not know whether the person receiving your, call is alone. Therefore, the first rule of telephone conversation is that confidential matters should never be discussed over the phone. They can be overheard/tapped in transmission.
However, if you have to discuss something personal or something you won't like others to know, you should check with the person you are calling in a polite manner. For example, you may say, "Can we talk about the tender for the Golden Highway project?" or just ask, "Are you free? Can we talk about the tender?"
This would save you from causing any embarrassment to receiver, or risk of leakage.
Communication over the phone requires the use of non-verbal skills, such as pleasant tone, sweet voice, proper intonation, and clear articulation of words. We should be able to
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convey larger part of the message through our way of speaking rather than the meaning of words alone. Telephone etiquette involves good manners to create good business relations between two persons.
BUSINESS DINING
Business meals can be with, colleagues or clients. Colleagues meet before or after the office hours. They also have formal occasions to be together at lunch or dinner parties. Sometimes, they meet at social functions and festivals, religious ceremonies, weddings, or birthday parties. At such occasions, we should follow the cultural norms which set the unwritten protocol (rules) of behaviour as members of a company, group, or organisation. They are not rules of discipline. They define the norms and forms of appropriate behaviour as executives or the educated and cultured members of a group. It is common practice to negotiate business at, lunch or dinner. We should keep in mind that such business occasions are, in fact, business activities; act, therefore, with a sense of responsibility. Do not consider it merely as an occasion for free drinking and smoking.
These business occasions of meals with colleagues, clients, or consultants have their. own protocol (code of behaviour) and they must be followed for cracking business deals. You can observe the following established norms regarding business meals.
As a Host
As a host, invite the guest personally, may be over telephone. However, confirm the date, time, and place in writing. If the venue is new for the guest, help him/her by giving directions to the venue. Apprise the invitee of your guest list. In the letter you should mention this fact and give their names and positions. For instance, "My colleague, Abhishek who is looking after management trainees will also be with us". It is a good practice to confirm once again the scheduled meeting a day prior to the event. As a host, you should reach the hotel or restaurant a little ahead of the given time and personally check the seating arrangements made by the hotel/ restaurant manager. Receive the guest personally outside the dining hall. Move in together to the table. It is courteous to ask the guest to order his/her choice of dishes/food and soft drinks. And it is only proper that you, as host, make the payment of the bill. Similarly, you should arrange to pay for the taxi to take back the guest to his/ her place of work or stay.
Business talk is conducted in an informal manner. After some initial pleasantries, the host opens the subject of the meeting in a general form to provide a context for the specific matter to be discussed. The meeting is held in a free and relaxed manner. If necessary, some points or conclusions are sometimes noted down.
Business meals provide opportunities for easy give-and-take negotiations. They democratise business by bringing' two complementary parties, such as employers and prospective employees, companies and clients, interviewer and interviewee, as equals at a social occasion.
Food Preferences
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As a guest you should stick to your own dietary preferences. If you do not or cannot, as laid down by caste, creed, or religion or personal choice, take something, you should feel free to refuse. If you are served, say beef or pork and you do not eat it, say so politely.
The same must be your attitude to drinks. If you are a teetotaller, decline the offer to drink politely. Do not be eloquent on the harms of drinking. Just say, "Thanks, I would like to have some lime cordial or fresh lime soda (or whatever be your choice)."
Although, it is considered best to avoid drinking at business dinners, and, if however, you, accept the drink, avoid drinking too much. You can excuse yourself by saying "I have an early morning ffight", or "I have to drive back", or "In fact, I never drink".
If you receive your dinner plate with too much food, do not worry. Just eat whatever you want and indicate that you have finished by placing your knife and fork together in either "the four O' Clock" or "Six O' Clock" position on your plate.
Table Manners
Business dinners are formal occasions in the manner of using forks, knives, and spoons is an indicator of your culture. But Indians, prefer to eat food with their hands. The only cutlery used by them could be a spoon. Eating with the hand is just fine. But, if you are using knife and fork, then you should know how to use them for different things. Some general rules of correct use of cutlery are given here.
Cutlery Set for a Formal European Style Serving
Placed from left to right away from you: • A blunt butter knife placed on bread and butter plate • Dessert spoon together .with dessert fork • Water glass, red-wine glass, white-wine glass • Coffee cup and saucer
Placed from right to left near you • Cocktail fork • Soupspoon • Teaspoon • Dinner knife
• Dinner plate • Dinner fork • Salad fork • Dinner napkin
How to Use Knife and Fork
The rule for using a knife and a fork is quite simple - the knife cuts the food, the fork places it into the mouth.
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The knife is only for cutting food into small pieces be it vegetables, meat, or any other food. It should never be placed into the mouth. The knife is always held in the right hand.
The fork is first held in the left hand with knife in the right hand, to cut food into small pieces. Then the knife is kept on the plate and in its place the fork is held in the right hand to place the food in the mouth. When not in use, both knife and fork rest on a side plate, never on the table.
Sometimes, in the European style of eating, people hold the knife in the right hand to cut food into small pieces and fork in the left to eat. Butter knife is a blunt edged knife used to cut small portion of butter from a common dish, which is then kept on a side plate.
The basic difference between Asian and European styles of eating is that in Asia, specially India and Pakistan, people often pick up a large piece of food and directly bite from it. This is never done by an American or a European. The food is cut into small pieces. Generally westerners eat with their mouths closed. Whereas most Asians bite morsels and chew them. Their mouths remain partially open. These differences in styles of eating are only cultural. They are based on convenience and habits.
The best rule for anyone to follow is to eat the way you are accustomed to. Use whatever cutlery you have been regularly using, with elegance at formal business meals. If you are comfortable eating with hands, use your hand. If you need a spoon, ask-for it. .
How to Get your Server's Attention
Usually, waiters are watchful. A little signal from you catches their attention immediately. However, if you find that you have to call the waiter, the best way is try and establish eye contact and if necessary turn a little towards him/her. And still if you feel you have to draw his/her attention, the best thing to do is to say, "Excuse me!" This is bound to work.
Belching
Belching after a good meal shows you have eaten well. But in a formal group, it should be done in a subdued manner. As for farting, or passing gas, avoid and suppress it if you can. Or else excuse yourself and go out for a while.
Interact Courteously with Foreign Clients
Respect foreign client's religious belief and cultural needs In business, foreign visitors should not be allowed to feel like a strangers in other countries. We generally believe that when we visit abroad we should behave according to the business norms and etiquette of the place. Accordingly, we assume that foreign business visitors would observe our business norms such as trade practices, working hours, office culture, and so on. But, there may be some aspects of social and religious beliefs of our foreign visitors which we should try to respect in our business environment. As a host, it is our primary duty to make our guest feel fully comfortable in every way.
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Respecting cultural needs, religious beliefs, and the attitude of the foreign visitors, will go a long way in developing good business relations.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
1. Nothing pleases foreigners more than speaking to them in their own language. English is today a global link language. Yet Arabs, Japanese, Germans, French, and Russians prefer to conduct business in their own language. A foreign visitor may not know English as well as we do. Therefore, use an interpreter, if necessary, for important business occasions.
2. Prepare documents in both languages, English and the foreign visitor's language. 3. Try to learn and use some words of greetings in the visitor's language.
BUSINESS MANNERS OF PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
To be successful in business transactions we should know the chief differences in business manners of people of different countries. When we are in a foreign country, or are hosts to a foreigner in our country, bear in mind the following business etiquette (norms)-
Business meetings and personal style of Americans-
Shaking hands during introductions is normal for men, but not so common among women.
Business cards are exchanged only when there is a need to do so. For instance, to meet later.
Punctuality is most important as a form of courtesy and business manners. Americans prefer breakfast meetings to develop close business relations. They
also have meetings over lunch. Americans prefer to call you by your first name. It is a common business practice.
So, you should not feel that he/she is taking undue personal liberty by using your first name.
Giving gifts as a memento is a personal act to be done only after considering the rules of the respective laws with regard to the value of the gift given. Therefore, to avoid causing embarrassment, it is better to entertain an American lavishly.
British British businessmen share most of their culture and business manners with other Europeans. They are formal in meetings and personal style.
French French businessmen usually choose to speak in French with businessmen from other countries. They are very cordial, and greet you both while meeting and parting by shaking hands. Businessman and businesswoman embrace and kiss each other on meeting and parting. Business is a serious and formal occasion for them. Germans German business meetings are highly formal and scheduled much in advance. Punctuality is of utmost importance among business norms and etiquette. Germans take pains in making themselves intelligible in English too, if required. People are addressed by their surnames. To show respect to senior businessmen they are sometimes called as
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"Herr Doktor". Similarly, businesswomen are always addressed as "Frau" (a married or widowed German speaking woman, often used as a title).
Italian and Spanish Both Italians and Spanish take business occasions as part of social life. They are less formal than other Europeans. They are not fussy about punctuality at meetings. Personal welfare and family matters may precede the business discussion. During the business meeting, there can be an excited exchange of words which leaves no trace on anyone's feelings as soon as the meeting is over. They freely accept hospitality and gifts without linking them with their business deals.
Dutch Dutch businessmen speak English fluently. Most of them are polyglots (speaking or writing several languages). They can, therefore, do business in several languages. They are relaxed in their approach to business meetings and personal relations.
As a host, it is your duty to see that guests from different countries are made to feel comfortable in a foreign environment. Their personal needs of smoking or drinking must be fulfilled and need special attention by you as a host.
Japanese Japanese businessmen generally greet the US or UK businessmen by shaking
hands, and not with a bow. You should also do the same. You should offer and accept the business card with both hands. The Japanese always like to maintain a personal space. Hence, never back slap or
hold their elbow while chatting. Address the Japanese visitor by using Mr/Ms before the name, never by the first
name. Do not embarrass a Japanese businessmen by insisting on a point to the extent that
he has to say no to your point/ offer. In Japan, saying 'no' is considered impolite. Japanese consider giving gifts as an important part of the business. A gift has to
be in keeping with the status of the person. Gifts in pairs are considered lucky like pen and pencil set, cufflinks. But not in fours - the word for death.
Do not send red greeting cards to Japanese business acquaintances. Red cards in Japan are funeral notices.
Arabs Arab businessmen are known for their warm-hearted meeting and parting. They stick to their traditional way of greeting both as hosts and visitors by saying "salaamalayakum" (Peace be upon you), accompanied by a firm handshake. To show greater warmth and closeness an Arab visitor/host may embrace you while placing the right hand on the heart and the other hand on your right shoulder and kiss you on both cheeks. Do not reciprocate his act, unless you are also an Arab.
Arab business people never seem to be under pressure of time. They do not mind if you are late for the meeting.
Meetings for business are preceded by social pleasantries. Enquires about welfare of an individual or about health of members of their families are never made on this occasion. And with businessmen from foreign countries discussion on religious and political matters are strictly avoided.
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Business meetings are conducted in a leisurely style. Therefore, the business session may get extended much beyond your expectation. But you should remain patient. Arabs extend lavish hospitality as hosts. As visitors, they expect similar hospitality in other countries.
To an Arab businessman, giving gifts is a part of hospitality. Therefore at dinners, small gifts are offered as a token of good relationship. As tokens of gratitude for favours received, expensive gifts are presented, which are received with great pleasure as part of business culture. It is not looked upon as bribe. It is an accepted form of thanks giving. But never give handkerchiefs as gift, as they symbolise tears and parting. Arabs, like most Asians, eat their meals with their right hand. Do not serve alcohol.
Indians As Indian business goes global, businessmen in India are realising the need to prepare themselves for the duties of international hosts and also to groom themselves as global visitors by a judicious mix of modernity and tradition.
Indian business culture is eclectic. Shaking hands at a meeting or parting is a common practice. Indians have always been known for their hospitality. Visitors are always treated with utmost attention and respect.
Business meetings are punctual, well planned, and formally conducted and protocol of seniority is observed. In matters of business discussion, juniors always give precedence to their seniors. And many times juniors wait for a signal from their senior to contribute to the discussion.
Business cards are exchanged while parting generally to indicate further contacts. Presentation of small gifts at the end of the meeting as memento is considered a goodwill gesture. Very important persons are received, at the threshold of the business-meeting venue, by senior persons and are usually presented with bouquets. They are also normally accompanied back to their vehicles and duly seen off.
BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
Individuals represent companies. The norms for interpersonal behaviour apply also to company-to-company behaviour. Each individual is the company's image builder. The individual should know how to conduct himself/ or herself as a representative of the company.
Good business behaviour includes the following –
Be Loyal to Your Organisation Do not criticise your organisation before your colleagues from other companies. Defend your colleague's action without offending the complainant. Promise
corrective action on your colleague's/ company's behalf. Always speak well of your company. You are a part of your company's activities. Feel proud of your organisation's achievements. Keep yourself fully informed of
the new developments and better prospects for the company. No company can be
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free from problems and setbacks. But highlight the positive gains and not the losses.
Confidential Matters
Keep confidential material in as few hands as possible. It can be used against the interest of your company.
Secure records and use code names if the information involves protecting the concerned persons.
Help others develop trust in you. Confidentiality is a mutual act of trust. Do not leak other's secrets to protect your own secrets from getting leaked.
MANAGING CUSTOMER CARE
A company's business sense and good manners are best seen in how employees deal with their buyers or suppliers. To maintain your customers and clients observe the following -
Handle the poorest of customers well. You cannot afford to ignore the rich customer who is always the proverbial 'king'. But your company's reputation is built on how you treat your ordinary customers and clients.
Be prompt in your service/supply to the customer. Observe the following for gaining competitive advantage -
Number of complaints received and responded to. Number of clients revisiting your company. Number of step-ins every day.
Commitment of your suppliers to help you in situations of emergency.
When you take a decision that will affect the interests of many people, look for mutual benefits for both parties and all stakeholders .
Respect Hierarchies
Treat all colleagues with respect. And recognise the fact that just as you have your position in your company, others as well have positions above you. Similarly, while dealing with persons from other companies, inform them of your position through your business card, also know in a similar way the host's position in his/her company. And extend due respect to the person you are visiting.
Good manners breed good understanding and mutual respect necessary for good business relations.
Finally, if the purpose of business communication is the fulfillment of a certain business objective, knowledge of business etiquette for expressing and manipulating individual personality is of paramount importance.
Assignment
Through various role plays practice business etiquettes in class.
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Reference
Mastering Communication - Nicky Stanton Communication in Organizations - Dalmar Fisher Communication for Business – Shirley Taylor Technical Communication - Meenakshi Raman & Sangeeta Sharma Technical Writing & Professional Communication for Non-Native Speakers Of
English – Thomas N. Huckin & Leslie A. Olsen Business Communication – P.D. Chaturvedi & Mukesh Chaturvedi Business Communication – Harvard Business Essentials SMU Handbook http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrase http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notetaking http://www.letterwritingguide.com http://ezinearticles.com/?Business-Invitation-Letter---Quick-Guide-and-Effective http://esl.about.com/library/writing/blwrite_respond_enquire.htm http://www.englishclub.com/business-english/correspondence-invitation.htm http://englishplus.com/grammar http://www.whitesmoke.com http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/workbooks/samplememo.html http://www.writingcenter.pdx.edu/resources_buspro.php
