C82SAD AggressionC82SAD Aggression

AggressionAggression Aggression is prevalent in everyday lifeAggression is prevalent in everyday life We are regularly exposed to aggressive acts or people, e.g.We are regularly exposed to aggressive acts or people, e.g.

graffitigraffiti vandalismvandalism violent argumentsviolent arguments weapons weapons belligerent dressbelligerent dress

Images of violence and aggression are rife in the media:Images of violence and aggression are rife in the media: rapesrapes muggings muggings child abusechild abuse assaults assaults robberiesrobberies terrorism terrorism warswars gang violence gang violence hooliganismhooliganism crowd violence crowd violence

Children are also exposed to violence at school (Lind & Children are also exposed to violence at school (Lind & Maxwell, 1986)Maxwell, 1986)

Jones et al. (1994) conducted UK-wide research on violence Jones et al. (1994) conducted UK-wide research on violence and aggression and found that 20% of women felt unsafe and aggression and found that 20% of women felt unsafe when walking although only 0.7% reported being attacked.when walking although only 0.7% reported being attacked.

Prevalence of Aggressive ActsPrevalence of Aggressive Acts

BurglaryBurglary AssaultAssaultUSAUSA 3.83.8 USAUSA 3.03.0

FranceFrance 2.42.4 NetherlandsNetherlands 2.02.0

NetherlandsNetherlands 2.42.4 GermanyGermany 1.51.5

BelgiumBelgium 2.32.3 NorwayNorway 1.41.4

UKUK 2.12.1 FranceFrance 1.21.2

SpainSpain 1.71.7 SpainSpain 1.21.2

GermanyGermany 1.31.3 SwitzerlandSwitzerland 0.90.9

SwitzerlandSwitzerland 1.01.0 BelgiumBelgium 0.70.7

NorwayNorway 0.80.8 UKUK 0.60.6Source: Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Norton, & Seldon (1994)Source: Jones, Gray, Kavanagh, Norton, & Seldon (1994)

What is Aggression?What is Aggression? There are numerous definitions which vary from There are numerous definitions which vary from

physical parameters (e.g., pushing, shoving, striking) physical parameters (e.g., pushing, shoving, striking) to features relating to threatening or hostile acts (e.g., to features relating to threatening or hostile acts (e.g., abusive language, facial expressions)abusive language, facial expressions)

““Behaviour that results in personal injury or Behaviour that results in personal injury or destruction of property” (Bandura, 1973)destruction of property” (Bandura, 1973)

““Behaviour intended to harm another of the same Behaviour intended to harm another of the same species” (Scherer et al., 1975)species” (Scherer et al., 1975)

““Behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or Behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” (Baron & Byrne, 2000)such treatment” (Baron & Byrne, 2000)

““Behaviour directed toward another individual carried Behaviour directed toward another individual carried out with the proximate intent to cause harm” out with the proximate intent to cause harm” (Anderson & Huesmann, 2003)(Anderson & Huesmann, 2003)

What is Aggression?What is Aggression? Definitions have some commonality: “Intent to Definitions have some commonality: “Intent to

harm” (Carlson et al., 1989)harm” (Carlson et al., 1989) Measuring aggression is also challenging – Measuring aggression is also challenging –

especially if the definition is vagueespecially if the definition is vague Means used in previous research to measure Means used in previous research to measure

aggression:aggression: Punching a inflatable plastic doll (Bandura et al., 1963)Punching a inflatable plastic doll (Bandura et al., 1963) Pushing a button to ostensibly deliver an electric shock Pushing a button to ostensibly deliver an electric shock

(Buss, 1961)(Buss, 1961) Pencil-and-paper ratings by teachers and classmates of a Pencil-and-paper ratings by teachers and classmates of a

child’s aggressiveness (Eron, 1982)child’s aggressiveness (Eron, 1982) Self-report of prior aggressive behaviour (Leyens et al., Self-report of prior aggressive behaviour (Leyens et al.,

1975)1975) Verbal expression of willingness to use violence (Geen, Verbal expression of willingness to use violence (Geen,

1978)1978) Ethical considerations in level of ‘aggressive acts’ Ethical considerations in level of ‘aggressive acts’

people can be induced to do in experimentspeople can be induced to do in experiments The above measures are an The above measures are an analogueanalogue for for

measuring ‘real’ aggressionmeasuring ‘real’ aggression

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Psychodynamic TheoryPsychodynamic Theory (Freud, (Freud,

1930)1930) Proposed distinction between ‘death instinct’ Proposed distinction between ‘death instinct’

((ThanatosThanatos) and ‘life instinct’ () and ‘life instinct’ (ErosEros)) Thanatos is initially self-directed but as we Thanatos is initially self-directed but as we

develop it can be directed toward othersdevelop it can be directed toward others Unifactorial (1-factor) model – aggression Unifactorial (1-factor) model – aggression

build up due to unconscious, primitive build up due to unconscious, primitive conflicts and must be ‘released’conflicts and must be ‘released’

Neo-Freudians view a more rational but still Neo-Freudians view a more rational but still innate view of aggression – basic to all animal innate view of aggression – basic to all animal species (Hartmann et al., 1949)species (Hartmann et al., 1949)

Largely theoretical with little empirical Largely theoretical with little empirical support – limited but a useful ‘starting point’support – limited but a useful ‘starting point’

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Ethological TheoryEthological Theory (Lorenz, 1966; Ardrey, 1966; (Lorenz, 1966; Ardrey, 1966;

Morris, 1967)Morris, 1967)

EthologyEthology: Branch of biology devoted to the study : Branch of biology devoted to the study of animal behaviour among members of a of animal behaviour among members of a species in their natural physical and social and species in their natural physical and social and environmentenvironment

Focused on an innate component to aggression Focused on an innate component to aggression as well as situational stimuli (‘releasers’)as well as situational stimuli (‘releasers’)

Aggression has a ‘survival value’Aggression has a ‘survival value’ Species are naturally aggressive towards other Species are naturally aggressive towards other

members of its species so as to maintain an members of its species so as to maintain an even distribution of members and resources – even distribution of members and resources – increased likelihood of survivalincreased likelihood of survival

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Ethological TheoryEthological Theory (Lorenz, 1966; Ardrey, 1966; (Lorenz, 1966; Ardrey, 1966;

Morris, 1967)Morris, 1967) No actual violence – aggression is ‘displayed’ No actual violence – aggression is ‘displayed’

ritualisticallyritualistically A 2-factor theoryA 2-factor theory

1.1. Innate propensity to aggressInnate propensity to aggress2.2. Situational cues give rise to aggression (or Situational cues give rise to aggression (or

aggressive displays)aggressive displays) Lorenz (1966) mapped this to people (fighting Lorenz (1966) mapped this to people (fighting

instinct)instinct) But criticism as to the survival value of But criticism as to the survival value of

aggression (e.g., people have no killing aggression (e.g., people have no killing appendages)appendages)

Also people can kill with ease using weapons – Also people can kill with ease using weapons – no ‘instinct’no ‘instinct’

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Evolutionary Social PsychologyEvolutionary Social Psychology (Krebs (Krebs

& Miller, 1985; Cosmides & Tooby, 2005)& Miller, 1985; Cosmides & Tooby, 2005) Evolutionary social psychology:Evolutionary social psychology: Biological Biological

approach claiming that social behaviour approach claiming that social behaviour is adaptive and helps the individual, kin, is adaptive and helps the individual, kin, and species to surviveand species to survive

Aggressive behaviour is adaptive in that Aggressive behaviour is adaptive in that it has evolved to permit the being to it has evolved to permit the being to procreate and pass on genes to the next procreate and pass on genes to the next generationgeneration

In humans, aggressive acts can increase In humans, aggressive acts can increase social and economic advantage – social social and economic advantage – social advantage very important in sexual advantage very important in sexual selection (Darwin’s ‘other’ theory)selection (Darwin’s ‘other’ theory)

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionFrustration-Aggression Hypothesis Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

(Dollard et al., 1939)(Dollard et al., 1939) Aggression the product of an ‘anger response’ Aggression the product of an ‘anger response’

to the frustration of goals and desiresto the frustration of goals and desires Aggression directed to perceived source of Aggression directed to perceived source of

frustrationfrustration e.g. terrorism might be spawned by chronic and e.g. terrorism might be spawned by chronic and

acute frustration over the ineffectiveness of acute frustration over the ineffectiveness of other means (e.g., negotiation) to achieve socio-other means (e.g., negotiation) to achieve socio-economic goalseconomic goals

However, limited because frustrating events However, limited because frustrating events (e.g., job loss, refereeing decisions, traffic jams) (e.g., job loss, refereeing decisions, traffic jams) lead to lots of frustration but seldom aggression lead to lots of frustration but seldom aggression (Berkowitz, 1993)(Berkowitz, 1993)

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Excitation TransferExcitation Transfer (Zillman, 1979, 1988)(Zillman, 1979, 1988)

Excitation transfer model:Excitation transfer model: Considers the Considers the expression of aggression is a function of 3 expression of aggression is a function of 3 factors:factors:• A learned aggressive behaviourA learned aggressive behaviour• Arousal or excitation from another sourceArousal or excitation from another source• The person’s interpretation of the arousal state – such The person’s interpretation of the arousal state – such

that an aggressive response seems appropriatethat an aggressive response seems appropriate Derived from a ‘drive’ model of emotionDerived from a ‘drive’ model of emotion People misinterpret arousal from one situation People misinterpret arousal from one situation

and it is transferred to another if there is further and it is transferred to another if there is further arousal and an aggressive response has been arousal and an aggressive response has been adopted previouslyadopted previously

E.g. a greater tendency to shout or snap at a E.g. a greater tendency to shout or snap at a friend or partner if something else unrelated has friend or partner if something else unrelated has annoyed usannoyed us

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression Excitation TransferExcitation Transfer (Zillman, 1979, 1988)(Zillman, 1979, 1988)

Student worksout at

gymnasium

High level of excitation:• Heart rate• Blood pressure• Muscle tremor

Motorist takeslast parking

space

Aggression

TIME

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionSocial Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977,

1997)1997) Observational learning (imitation and vicarious Observational learning (imitation and vicarious

experience) during childhood may contribute to experience) during childhood may contribute to violent actionsviolent actions

Bobo doll experimentsBobo doll experiments Bandura et al. (1961): Children watched an adult playing Bandura et al. (1961): Children watched an adult playing

with ‘Bobo doll’ (5-foot inflated plastic doll)with ‘Bobo doll’ (5-foot inflated plastic doll) Children exposed to the violent model displayed significantly Children exposed to the violent model displayed significantly

more aggression toward the dollmore aggression toward the doll

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionSocial Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Nu

mb

er o

f ag

gre

ssiv

e ac

ts

Live Videotape Cartoon Control

Condition

Source: Bandura & Walter (1963)

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionSocial Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Observational learning (imitation and vicarious Observational learning (imitation and vicarious

experience) during childhood may contribute to experience) during childhood may contribute to violent actions (Bobo doll experiments)violent actions (Bobo doll experiments)

Explained the social circumstances under which Explained the social circumstances under which violent/aggressive acts might ariseviolent/aggressive acts might arise

Factors include:Factors include: Past experience of aggressive behaviour (personal and Past experience of aggressive behaviour (personal and

observed)observed) Previous ‘success’ with aggressive behaviours in terms of Previous ‘success’ with aggressive behaviours in terms of

fulfilling personal goalsfulfilling personal goals The expected pattern of reinforcement of aggression – The expected pattern of reinforcement of aggression –

rewarded or punished?rewarded or punished? Psychological (e.g., personality), personal (e.g., verbal Psychological (e.g., personality), personal (e.g., verbal

encouragement), and environmental (e.g., presence of encouragement), and environmental (e.g., presence of significant others) factorssignificant others) factors

More comprehensive than frustration-aggression More comprehensive than frustration-aggression because it charts the development and conditions because it charts the development and conditions under which aggression occursunder which aggression occurs

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionType A Personality and ADHDType A Personality and ADHD Type A personality is a behaviour patternType A personality is a behaviour pattern Carver and Glass (1978) found Type A people to Carver and Glass (1978) found Type A people to

act more aggressively toward people perceived to act more aggressively toward people perceived to be competitivebe competitive

Type A people have also been found to experience Type A people have also been found to experience more conflict with peers and subordinates but not more conflict with peers and subordinates but not superiors (Baron, 1989)superiors (Baron, 1989)

ADHD is a syndrome that includes poor attention ADHD is a syndrome that includes poor attention span, hyperactivity and poor attention controlspan, hyperactivity and poor attention control

ADHD is predictive of aggression in children and ADHD is predictive of aggression in children and adults (Hinshaw, 1987)adults (Hinshaw, 1987)

Solutions lie in pharmacological control through Solutions lie in pharmacological control through medicationmedication

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionDirect ProvocationDirect Provocation Research has shown that verbal and physical Research has shown that verbal and physical

provocation results in people behaving provocation results in people behaving aggressively (Geen, 1968) e.g., street fights, aggressively (Geen, 1968) e.g., street fights, brawls in bars or sports groundsbrawls in bars or sports grounds

Reciprocity principleReciprocity principle: tendency to strike back if : tendency to strike back if provoked – mutual aggression (also in ‘attraction’)provoked – mutual aggression (also in ‘attraction’)

Age is a moderating influence on the link between Age is a moderating influence on the link between provocation and aggression (Eagly & Steffenm provocation and aggression (Eagly & Steffenm 1986)1986)

Aggression in retaliation to provocation may be Aggression in retaliation to provocation may be seen as self-defense and therefore adaptiveseen as self-defense and therefore adaptive

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing Aggression

Gender and SocialisationGender and Socialisation Men are more likely to engage in aggressive Men are more likely to engage in aggressive

behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996)behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996) Men are also more likely to display aggressive Men are also more likely to display aggressive

attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) This may be due to:This may be due to:

Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone)Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone) Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of

status and dominancestatus and dominance Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during

developmentdevelopment

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing Aggression

Gender and SocialisationGender and Socialisation Men are more likely to engage in aggressive Men are more likely to engage in aggressive

behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996)behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996) Men are also more likely to display aggressive Men are also more likely to display aggressive

attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) This may be due to:This may be due to:

Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone)Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone) Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of

status and dominancestatus and dominance Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during

developmentdevelopment

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing Aggression

The Cathartic Hypothesis The Cathartic Hypothesis CatharsisCatharsis: The feeling of release after an : The feeling of release after an

emotion-expressing experienceemotion-expressing experience Often thought that aggression assists in this Often thought that aggression assists in this

process helping express ‘pent-up’ frustrationprocess helping express ‘pent-up’ frustration People need to ‘let off steam’ borne by frustrationPeople need to ‘let off steam’ borne by frustration Research in the area is inconclusive – some Research in the area is inconclusive – some

studies has shown catharsis to reduce aggression studies has shown catharsis to reduce aggression while others shown it actually increases (Koneçi & while others shown it actually increases (Koneçi & Ebbesen, 1976)Ebbesen, 1976)

Some have suggested that the cathartic Some have suggested that the cathartic hypothesis is little more than a belief (Wann et al., hypothesis is little more than a belief (Wann et al., 1999) and research has rejected the hypothesis 1999) and research has rejected the hypothesis completely Bushman et al. (1999) completely Bushman et al. (1999)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionThe Cathartic Hypothesis The Cathartic Hypothesis

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

Pu

nch

ing

bag

pre

fere

nce

Anticatharsis article

Control

Procatharsis article

Angered Not Angered

Source: Bushman, Baumeister, and Stack (1999)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionAlcoholAlcohol Disinhibition hypothesis of alcohol – detraction Disinhibition hypothesis of alcohol – detraction

from cortical control and increases activity in more from cortical control and increases activity in more ‘primitive’ areas‘primitive’ areas

Strong link between alcohol consumption and Strong link between alcohol consumption and aggression (Bushman & Cooper, 1990)aggression (Bushman & Cooper, 1990)

Experimental studies also support this such as Experimental studies also support this such as Taylor and Sears’ (1988) electric shock study Taylor and Sears’ (1988) electric shock study using win-loss scenarios in a reaction time taskusing win-loss scenarios in a reaction time task

Taylor and Sears also provided verbal Taylor and Sears also provided verbal encouragement from a confederate and found that encouragement from a confederate and found that this interacted with the level of shocks giventhis interacted with the level of shocks given

Gustafson (1992) provided additional support but Gustafson (1992) provided additional support but used provocation insteadused provocation instead

Implications for real life scenarios e.g. goading Implications for real life scenarios e.g. goading person into acting aggressivelyperson into acting aggressively

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionAlcoholAlcohol

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

1st Block(None)

2nd Block(mild)

3rd Block(strong)

4th Block(none)

Degree of social pressure

Pro

po

rtio

n o

f tr

ials

usi

ng

st

ron

g s

ho

ck

Source: Taylor & Sears (1988)

Alcohol condition

Placebo condition

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionDisinhibitionDisinhibition A breakdown in the learned controls (social forces) A breakdown in the learned controls (social forces)

against behaving impulsively or aggressivelyagainst behaving impulsively or aggressively Numerous ways in which people become Numerous ways in which people become

disinhibited and act aggressivelydisinhibited and act aggressively E.g. Deindividuation is one process that might lead E.g. Deindividuation is one process that might lead

to disinhibition through presence of others and to disinhibition through presence of others and lack of identifiability (c.f. nurse and KKK uniform lack of identifiability (c.f. nurse and KKK uniform study; Johnson & Downing, 1979) study; Johnson & Downing, 1979)

Examples of deindividuation, disinhibition, and Examples of deindividuation, disinhibition, and aggression:aggression:

My Lai incident in Vietnam war (Hersh, 1970My Lai incident in Vietnam war (Hersh, 1970 Mann’s (1981) study of baiting behaviour by crowds in Mann’s (1981) study of baiting behaviour by crowds in

suicides in 1960’s and 1970’s suicides in 1960’s and 1970’s

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing Aggression

• Long wait

• Night time• Large crowd• Distant from victim

• Anonymity• Low concern

for victim

• Irritability• Frustration

Aggression

Deindividuation

BaitingBehaviour

Source: Based on Mann (1981)

Situational FactorsSituational Factors Physical environment: Heat and crowdingPhysical environment: Heat and crowding Research has shown a link between temperature (or Research has shown a link between temperature (or

hotter than normal conditions) andhotter than normal conditions) and Domestic violence (Cohn, 1993)Domestic violence (Cohn, 1993) Violent suicide (Maes et al., 1994Violent suicide (Maes et al., 1994 Collective violence (Carlsmith & Anderson, 1979)Collective violence (Carlsmith & Anderson, 1979) Aggravated assault (Harries & Stadler, 1983)Aggravated assault (Harries & Stadler, 1983) Motorists honking in traffic! (Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986)Motorists honking in traffic! (Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986)

Aggression and temperature show an inverted-U Aggression and temperature show an inverted-U relationship (Cohn & Rotton, 1997)relationship (Cohn & Rotton, 1997)

But not all violence is related to temperature (e.g., But not all violence is related to temperature (e.g., ‘rape’)‘rape’)

Distinction between affective (emotional) and Distinction between affective (emotional) and instrumental (means to an end) aggressioninstrumental (means to an end) aggression

Temperature only affects affective aggression Temperature only affects affective aggression (Anderson et al., 1997)(Anderson et al., 1997)

Situational FactorsSituational Factors

Source: Cohn & Rotton, 1997Cohn & Rotton, 1997

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Temperature (degrees Celcius)

Ass

ual

t in

dex

-15 -4 7 18 29 41

Situational FactorsSituational Factors Disadvantaged groupsDisadvantaged groups: Relative deprivation : Relative deprivation

(Runciman, 1966)(Runciman, 1966) Cultural variationCultural variation: Cultural norms and : Cultural norms and

values – cultural norms of violence and values – cultural norms of violence and aggression varyaggression vary

Subculture of violenceSubculture of violence: High level of : High level of violence is accepted as the norm violence is accepted as the norm (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996) –defining (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996) –defining conditions under which violence is conditions under which violence is disinihibiteddisinihibited

InteractionismInteractionism: Violence and aggression are : Violence and aggression are never a simple act from one specific cause, never a simple act from one specific cause, it is multifactorialit is multifactorial

Think about ‘motivated’ behaviour:Think about ‘motivated’ behaviour:• Eating and drinkingEating and drinking• Displaying aggressionDisplaying aggression• Sexual behaviourSexual behaviour• What common ‘features’ do these What common ‘features’ do these

motivated behaviours have?motivated behaviours have?

What is Motivation?What is Motivation?

What is Motivation?What is Motivation? Motivation covers all types and categories Motivation covers all types and categories

of human behaviourof human behaviour Questions regarding the Questions regarding the originsorigins, , drivesdrives

and and predictorspredictors of motivation and of motivation and behaviour are addressed by many areas behaviour are addressed by many areas of psychology – e.g. biological psychology, of psychology – e.g. biological psychology, social psychology, personality etc.social psychology, personality etc.

Motivation is the ‘driving force’ behind Motivation is the ‘driving force’ behind volitional behaviour and determines the…volitional behaviour and determines the…• StrengthStrength• DirectionDirection• PersistencePersistence

……of behaviour (Geen, 1995)of behaviour (Geen, 1995)

Biological NeedsBiological Needs Biological needs serve the evolutionary purpose of ‘survival’ and Biological needs serve the evolutionary purpose of ‘survival’ and

are powerful influences on motivationare powerful influences on motivation Organisms have regulatory mechanisms to guide behaviourOrganisms have regulatory mechanisms to guide behaviour Features of a regulatory mechanism:Features of a regulatory mechanism:

• System variable (what is regulated)System variable (what is regulated)• Set pointSet point• Detection mechanismDetection mechanism• Correctional/regulatory mechanismCorrectional/regulatory mechanism

Aims to maintain HOMEOSTASIS – ‘drive reduction’ hypothesisAims to maintain HOMEOSTASIS – ‘drive reduction’ hypothesis However, drive-reduction is problematic and seems to have flaws – However, drive-reduction is problematic and seems to have flaws –

what about investigative behaviour?what about investigative behaviour? Optimal arousal theories – ‘preferable’ level of stimulation Optimal arousal theories – ‘preferable’ level of stimulation

necessary to satisfy needs (Yerkes & Dodson, 1928)necessary to satisfy needs (Yerkes & Dodson, 1928)

Psychological NeedsPsychological Needs Not all motivated behaviours are directed by Not all motivated behaviours are directed by

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS Sexual behaviour is motivating, but not related to Sexual behaviour is motivating, but not related to

homeostasishomeostasis Exploratory behaviour – ‘intrinsic motivation’ when Exploratory behaviour – ‘intrinsic motivation’ when

left in new environment is not driven to achieve left in new environment is not driven to achieve homeostasishomeostasis

Rogers (1960), Maslow (1962), and Deci and Ryan Rogers (1960), Maslow (1962), and Deci and Ryan (1985) suggest that humans have psychological (1985) suggest that humans have psychological needs for ‘self-actualization’ or ‘autonomy’ – needs for ‘self-actualization’ or ‘autonomy’ – explains motivated behaviour such as exploratory explains motivated behaviour such as exploratory behaviour and seeking tasksbehaviour and seeking tasks

Reinforcement, Reward, Reinforcement, Reward, and Motivated Behaviourand Motivated Behaviour

Reinforcement can determine motivated Reinforcement can determine motivated behaviourbehaviour

Intermittent reinforcement help Intermittent reinforcement help maintenance of behaviourmaintenance of behaviour

Conditioned reinforcement – motivation is Conditioned reinforcement – motivation is determined by stimuli that are reinforcers determined by stimuli that are reinforcers e.g. extrinsic: money, status or intrinsic: e.g. extrinsic: money, status or intrinsic: satisfaction, confidence, enjoymentsatisfaction, confidence, enjoyment

Deci and Ryan (1985) persistence is only Deci and Ryan (1985) persistence is only likely if the reward system is intrinsiclikely if the reward system is intrinsic

Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness If persistent behaviour results in no change in the If persistent behaviour results in no change in the

environment then negative emotion and reduced environment then negative emotion and reduced motivation resultmotivation result

Overmeier and Seligman (1967) experiments with animalsOvermeier and Seligman (1967) experiments with animals Expectation of success is lowered as the result of Expectation of success is lowered as the result of

continued failure (inability to avoid electric shocks), so continued failure (inability to avoid electric shocks), so persistence decreases– ‘learned helplessness’persistence decreases– ‘learned helplessness’

When the situation is structured so that behaviour and When the situation is structured so that behaviour and outcomes are independent, non-intentionality and outcomes are independent, non-intentionality and maladaptive behaviour are the likely result (Seligman, maladaptive behaviour are the likely result (Seligman, 1975) 1975)

Moderated by personality – some people still try hard, Moderated by personality – some people still try hard, regardless of repeated failureregardless of repeated failure

Lead to research on incompetence and self-efficacy Lead to research on incompetence and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977)(Bandura, 1977)

Deci (1971, 1972)Deci (1971, 1972) College students offered College students offered money for solving problems, while another group money for solving problems, while another group of students just solved the problems without any of students just solved the problems without any external rewardexternal reward unpaid students spent more unpaid students spent more time solving the problems in free timetime solving the problems in free time

Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973)Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) effect of effect of extrinsic rewards on children's’ intrinsic interest extrinsic rewards on children's’ intrinsic interest and motivationand motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Classic Research on Intrinsic Classic Research on Intrinsic

MotivationMotivation

MethodMethod One group of children asked One group of children asked to draw pictures and rewards to draw pictures and rewards promised for the best drawing promised for the best drawing (reward condition)(reward condition) Another group drew Another group drew pictures, without the promise pictures, without the promise of a reward (non - rewarded of a reward (non - rewarded condition)condition) Another group Another group drew picturesdrew pictures and given a surprise reward given a surprise reward (unexpected reward condition)(unexpected reward condition)

0

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10

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20

Expected

Unexpected

None

% t

ime

spen

t d

raw

ing

Cognitive Evaluation Theory:Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Classic Research on Intrinsic Classic Research on Intrinsic

MotivationMotivation

Rewards & Intrinsic Rewards & Intrinsic MotivationMotivation

Results suggest that intrinsic motivation is Results suggest that intrinsic motivation is underminedundermined by extrinsic, tangible rewards like by extrinsic, tangible rewards like money (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, money (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, 1980)1980)

““When a behaviour is controlled by events such as When a behaviour is controlled by events such as rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so long as the controlling events are present” (Deci & long as the controlling events are present” (Deci & Ryan, 1987, p. 1026)Ryan, 1987, p. 1026)

Undermining effect is similar (but not identical) to Undermining effect is similar (but not identical) to the the overjustificationoverjustification effect effect

Overjustification effectOverjustification effect:: rewards make it clear rewards make it clear to the actor that the cause of their behaviour is to the actor that the cause of their behaviour is external to themselves – people do the behaviour external to themselves – people do the behaviour for the reward rather than the behaviour itselffor the reward rather than the behaviour itself

Research on the Research on the ‘Undermining Effect’‘Undermining Effect’

Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999) conducted a research Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999) conducted a research synthesis to examine the effect of rewards in reducing synthesis to examine the effect of rewards in reducing intrinsic motivationintrinsic motivation

Meta-analysis of 128 studies on effects of rewards on Meta-analysis of 128 studies on effects of rewards on intrinsic motivationintrinsic motivation

Average ‘effect size’ (Average ‘effect size’ (dd) of undermining effect for ) of undermining effect for different types of rewards:different types of rewards: Engagement-contingent rewards Engagement-contingent rewards dd = -.40 = -.40 Completion-contingent rewards Completion-contingent rewards dd = -.36 = -.36 Performance-contingent rewards Performance-contingent rewards dd = -.28 = -.28

Undermining effect very strong across studies – no Undermining effect very strong across studies – no effect for task non-contingent rewardseffect for task non-contingent rewards

How the recipient How the recipient perceivesperceives rewards is rewards is critical in determining whether their critical in determining whether their intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or diminisheddiminished

Rewards that are perceived to control a Rewards that are perceived to control a person’s behaviour (i.e., perceived as person’s behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating outside a person) or suggest emanating outside a person) or suggest that the person is not competent decrease that the person is not competent decrease (undermine) intrinsic motivation(undermine) intrinsic motivation

This is because they cause a ‘shift’ in the This is because they cause a ‘shift’ in the person’s perception of the causality from person’s perception of the causality from within the self (internal) to outside the self within the self (internal) to outside the self (external)(external)

Mechanisms in CognitiveMechanisms in CognitiveEvaluation TheoryEvaluation Theory

The reward is said to result in an The reward is said to result in an external external locus of causalitylocus of causality for the for the behaviour undermining intrinsic behaviour undermining intrinsic motivation motivation

Rewards that are perceived as Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the informational aspect emphasising the informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming from inside (i.e., perceived as coming from inside the individual) or provide positive the individual) or provide positive feedback that supports competence feedback that supports competence increase intrinsic motivationincrease intrinsic motivation

In this case the perceived In this case the perceived locus of locus of causalitycausality is within the individual is within the individual

Mechanisms in CognitiveMechanisms in CognitiveEvaluation TheoryEvaluation Theory