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IT 16 031
Examensarbete 30 hpJuni 2016
Can a diary, rats and a magical walkie-talkie help teach children about source criticism?
Jessica Brewster
Institutionen för informationsteknologiDepartment of Information Technology
Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet UTH-enheten Besöksadress: Ångströmlaboratoriet Lägerhyddsvägen 1 Hus 4, Plan 0 Postadress: Box 536 751 21 Uppsala Telefon: 018 – 471 30 03 Telefax: 018 – 471 30 00 Hemsida: http://www.teknat.uu.se/student
Abstract
Can a diary, rats and a magical walkie-talkie help teachchildren about source criticism?
Jessica Brewster
This thesis explores the potential that surrounds educational gaming in teachingsource criticism to primary school students. It investigates if the introduction of aconstructivist guide increases the level of skills in this field and whether historicalsource criticism can be taught through a computer game. Designed as an addition toan existing game created by the Education Technology Group (ETG) were twoversions; one of which contained the addition of constructivist teaching methods.Testing was conducted with two classes of students, who played the game andcompleted pre and post testing, evaluating their knowledge of source criticism.According to the data collected, no significant difference in knowledge existed afterthe game had been played, however several ideas about how source criticism couldbe utilised within educational games can still be suggested.
Keywords: source criticism, educational games, history, experiment, pre and post-testdesign, constructivism
Tryckt av: Reprocentralen ITCIT 16 031Examinator: Anders JanssonÄmnesgranskare: Mats LindHandledare: Agneta Gulz
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Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks for their invaluable help with this project must go, equally,
to two groups of people. The first to the ETG and my supervisors, Agneta &
Annika, who somehow allowed me to join their project and conduct
experiments on it, meaning I could combine history and HCI in one thesis. Also
for their subsequent advice on, not only their game, but on essentially
everything to do with testing classrooms of children and how they might best
enjoy the experience. Further thanks also to the rest of the ETG, particularly
Magnus, Erik, Carolina and Irene for your input, work and guidance.
My second group to thank are those from Uppsala University, including my
colleague Ivar, whose unique Swedishness meant we could test on more
students and whose translations skills made this project far easier (and far
more fun). And lastly, thank you to Mats Lind, our reviewer, whose invaluable
spontaneous lectures and data analysis skills formed much of our thesis and
meant far more than cookies could ever repay him for!
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... 2
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4 1.1. Parallel Study ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1. Method collaboration ............................................................................................................. 5 1.1.2. Written ................................................................................................................................... 5
2. Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 6 2.1. Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 6
2.2. Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Scope ................................................................................................................................. 7
3. Background ........................................................................................................................... 9 3.1. Educational games ............................................................................................................. 9
3.2. History Games .................................................................................................................. 10
3.3. Designing Educational Games ........................................................................................... 11
3.4. Pedagogy ......................................................................................................................... 12
3.4.1. Teaching History .................................................................................................................. 12 3.4.2. Teaching source criticism .................................................................................................... 13
3.5 Constructivist teaching theory ........................................................................................... 14
3.5.1. Scaffolding during discovery ............................................................................................... 15 3.5.2. Effective Questioning .......................................................................................................... 15 3.5.3. Reflection on Content .......................................................................................................... 15
3.6. Elaborative Rehearsal ....................................................................................................... 16
3.7. Historiens Väktare ............................................................................................................ 16
3.7.1. Game Structure .................................................................................................................... 16
4. Method ................................................................................................................................ 18 4.1 Adaptations to Historiens Väktare ..................................................................................... 18
4.1.1. Finding a Historical Event ................................................................................................... 18 4.1.2 Mind map of chosen historical event .................................................................................... 18 4.1.3. Brainstorming how to include SC in a game ....................................................................... 19 4.1.4. Workshop ............................................................................................................................. 19 4.1.5. Grouping of aspects from the Mind Map ............................................................................. 20 4.1.6. Sketching of scenes based on chosen sources and characters .............................................. 20 4.1.7. Dialogue scripting in parallel with creation of Pre and Post-test questions to match scene content. ........................................................................................................................................... 20 4.1.8. Feedback and revision until final version ............................................................................ 20 4.1.9. Difference of the two game versions ................................................................................... 20 4.1.10. Implementation of graphics and coding ............................................................................. 21
4.2. Evaluation of HV .............................................................................................................. 21
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4.2.1 Participants............................................................................................................................ 21 4.2.2 Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 21 4.2.3. Testing setup ........................................................................................................................ 22
5. Results ................................................................................................................................. 24 5.1 Adaptations to Historiens Väktare ..................................................................................... 24
5.1.1. Finding a Historical Event ................................................................................................... 24 5.1.2 Mind map of Great Plague of London .................................................................................. 25 5.1.3. Brainstorming how to include SC in a game ....................................................................... 26 5.1.4. Workshop ............................................................................................................................. 26 5.1.5. Grouping of aspects from the Mind Map ............................................................................. 28 5.1.6. Sketching of scenes based on chosen sources and characters .............................................. 28 5.1.7. Dialogue scripting in parallel with creation of Pre and Post-test questions to match scene content. ........................................................................................................................................... 29 5.1.8. Feedback and revision until final version ............................................................................ 29 5.1.9. Difference of the two game versions ................................................................................... 29 5.1.10. Implementation of graphics and coding ............................................................................. 30 5.1.11. Final Design ....................................................................................................................... 30
5.2. Evaluation of HV .............................................................................................................. 41
5.2.1. Pre and post-testing .............................................................................................................. 41 5.2.2. Observations ........................................................................................................................ 43
6. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 45
Reference L ist ......................................................................................................................... 48
Appendix A : Pre and Post-test Questions: Source C riticism ............................................. 51
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1. Introduction Within the field of history, source criticism is amongst the most important
skills to learn. This thesis aimed to discover if it was feasible to teach source
criticism skills within a game setting. A secondary question was also posed to
explore if a guide utilising constructivist teaching methods would be a positive
aid in this process.
The introduction of computer games into education has been expected and, in
the case of the students themselves, greatly looked forward too. Whilst games
about maths and computer science are widespread, games within the
humanities are far more limited, with fewer resources or studies being utilised
for their development.
Students, particularly primary-‐aged ones (who are the focus in this study), are
generally adaptable when it comes to games. They are both comfortable with
the technologies and intuitive in figuring them out, making games a familiar
medium for them to use. Games therefore have the potential to engage
teaching methods. In the field of history, it also offers the opportunity to
present an unfamiliar world and an immersive environment for children to
learn about the past. Travelling through time has definitely become far easier!
This project utilised an existing history game designed by the Educational
Technology Group (ETG). The ETG is made up of academics from Lund and
Linköping Universities and is headed by Agneta Gulz, the supervisor of this
thesis, along with Annika Silvervarg. The history game, called Historiens
väktare (HV), is designed for Swedish students aged 10-‐12 and teaches them
about Discoveries and Inventions from 1400-‐1780, in accordance with the
Swedish syllabus. The ETG wanted to include a mission in their game that
could teach children about source criticism (SC), the catalyst for the project to
begin. Part of this study involved testing a newly designed game on a group of
40 students based at two schools in Helsingborg.
Note: Whenever there is a quote or example from the tests or the games in
English, this is not what was given to the students during testing. All content was
5
created in English and then translated to Swedish before being incorporated into
the game.
1.1. Parallel Study
The study was partly completed with another Masters student, Ivar Särner.
Whilst two Masters theses have been produced as a result of this study, they
each focus on different theories and aspects of history teaching. Much of the
practical work, as well as some of this report, was completed conjointly.
1.1.1. Method collaboration
Within the study, a significant proportion of the physical work was conducted
in collaboration with Särner. This included the methodology outlined below,
predominately concerning the design and creation of the game and the
experiment.
1.1.2. Written
As this thesis was conducted alongside , the documentation of
some of the work was done together. A more detailed breakdown of this can
be seen below. Any section not included below was written uniquely for the
purpose of this thesis. Any sections not mentioned can be presumed to be
written individually, for the purpose of this thesis.
Extent of collaboration Sections
Identical, written conjointly 4.1, 5.1, 5.2.2.
Similar foci, written independently 1.1, 3.3, 3.6, 3.7, 4.2.
6
2. Purpose The aim of this present study was to create a mission within an educational
computer game that focused on teaching students source criticism. This was
mainly concentrated on the source criticism skills of identification and an
analysis of sources. Aspects of constructivist theory were implemented in an
attempt to further improve a student s understandings of these concepts. At a
more basic level though, the study aimed to see if learning source criticism
within a game was possible.
2.1. Research Questions
- Can the use of a historical computer game teach primary school students
about source criticism?
- Does the introduction of a constructivist element increase a primary
student s aptitude for source criticism?
To answer these questions, a study of existing literature about a number of
topics was conducted. These included historical pedagogy with a focus on
source criticism, educational games and their design, and eventually,
constructivist teaching methods.
After an in-‐depth exploration of the background research available, the
decision was made to design the game around a specific historical event, the
Great Plague of London in 1665. Consequently a significant amount of time
was also dedicated to researching the plague and its sources. As the study
needed to answer the questions posed by two theses, both factual data and
source criticism skills were included within the game. The knowledge gained
during the background research phase was utilised during the design process
to ensure the game would be appropriate for the age group and meet
curriculum requirements.
To analyse any potential increase in knowledge, an experimental test was
conducted with two classes of primary school aged 10-‐12. Ultimately
40 students completed pre and post-‐testing and played the newly designed
missions in between, half of the students playing one version of the game and
the other half playing an experimental version, which tested aspects of a
learning theory. This was designed to include aspects of elaborative rehearsal
7
and
guide them into a reflection of the content, thereby enhancing knowledge
construction. The pre and post-‐
about source criticism and about facts concerning the plague.
2.2. Limitations
As this thesis was completed within an existing project, there are a few
limitations that have been taken into consideration.
The game and tests were designed for Swedish students and were
consequently presented to the students in Swedish. As an English language
speaker who does not speak much Swedish, this was a limiting factor during
this study. However, all designs were initially completed in English before
being translated into Swedish, with both the English and Swedish versions
being checked by the ETG. Whilst testing, I was observing the children and
making notes based on my translations of their comments. These were later
checked by Ivar Särner, who was also present during testing and thus could
correct the translations if needed.
The design of the game was somewhat limited due to the need for the new
missions to maintain the look and interaction of the existing versions of the
game.
The Swedish syllabus needed to be consulted so that the skills and level of
education involved were at the correct level. This required us to stay within
the boundaries set by the syllabus, and consequently by the ETG.
The level of language needed to be appropriate for all students in the study.
The test was only performed on two classes of students.
The only educational game that was tested during this study was Historiens
Väktare.
2.3. Scope
The design and testing of this game was all conducted within the scope of this
thesis. However, the graphic design work was completed by Carolina Ekström
and the programming and implementation for the game by Erik Anderberg.
Their work was completed after a number of discussions regarding the scenes
and the interactions that would be required. Both individuals work regularly
with the ETG and were involved in the HV project previously. Also, within the
8
Background research for this project, not all aspects of educational gaming or
education were investigated. This was due to the extensive amount of studies
that exist for a range of subjects. An in-‐depth look into all of them would have
been unnecessary for the purposes of this study.
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3. Background It is probably safe to say that children today are quite comfortable playing
computer games. With hundreds of games being released daily, there has
never been more of an opportunity for children to play games. Research into
these games is extensive to say the least. Entire journals are now dedicated to
their study, such as the International Journal of Computer Game Research,
Games and Culture and Entertainment Computing, etc. To limit the research
scope, and to ensure that the most relevant information was gathered for this
study, papers involving primary school aged children (particularly from 10-‐13
years of age) were prioritised. However, as most studies involve secondary or
tertiary school students, this was not always possible. An attempt was also
made to focus purely on source criticism related games. However, as this
study is amongst the first attempting this, it was not exactly feasible.
Note: In the sections below, games should be assumed to refer to computer
games.
3.1. Educational games
The popularity of educational games has increased dramatically and is no
longer restricted to maths and computer science. Research has been spread
across numerous academic fields, exploring how educational games should be
designed, tested and utilised in the classroom. One can find research on
everything from studies on maths (Husain, 2015) and programming
(Mathrani, 2016) to geography (Tüzün, 2009). Whether these educational
games have been proven as pedagogically effective is a factor that is still under
discussion, though this is exactly what recent studies indicate (Girard 2012, p.
207). For instance, a study completed by researchers from Massey University
explored the potential of a game teaching programming constructs to students
who were either beginning to learn or had just completed a module on
programming. Overall they found that the game was effective in teaching
programming constructs and in assisting those who already had some
knowledge in improving their knowledge of the work (Mathrani 2016, p. 15).
Another study reviewed over 300 articles about gaming and education
performance, finding that there was an improvement for students playing
some games, but these improvements were more commonly found in games
10
about languages or physical education. Educational game studies about maths
and science were found to be less successful, even though there were often
increases in student interest or motivation (Young 2012, p. 72). This could,
however, just be an indication that the methods used have not yet been
perfected. Games have also been proven to improve cognitive ability and
enhance the reasoning skills of students (Blumberg & Fisch 2013, p. 3).
3.2. History Games
When focusing on history in particular, games are being used more and more
in the classroom. As a subject, History is one that has the potential to be quite
subjective. Many historical events have a range of sources from all
perspectives, meaning that there is the potential to argue any side of a debate,
potential to engage anyone curious enough to truly explore it. This is why
some teachers have begun using popular games such as Minecraft or
Civilisation in history teaching (McCall 2012, p. 14). These games allow
students to interact, explore or create historical scenes or civilisations (Squire
2005, p. 4). This makes sense for anyone who has studied history. The
difficulty with the subject is often in trying to contextualise certain events,
being a world away from what we are used to today. What these simulation
they are
immersed in the environment they can see the changes that occur due to their
actions and perhaps assist them in creating links to their own lives. A common
theme among these games however, is that they are regular computer games,
not designed specifically for the classroom. Whilst some teachers have
ant to mention that most of
those available are still works of historical fiction and are utilised as such
(McMichael 2007, p. 217). It should also be mentioned that in regards to
source criticism, few games have been designed specifically for this purpose.
a Danish game designed for students in
grade 4-‐6. This game aims to teach students about certain historical events
from the given by
different characters (Østergaard-‐Andersen, 2011).
11
3.3. Designing Educational Games
In conjunction with the rise in educational games, the desire to design them
effectively is, of course, an important area of study. Whilst there are now even
university courses you can take in creating educational games, the most
effective way to design them is still part of an ongoing debate in academics.
Perhaps this is due to the range of theories that can be implemented, or,
because the range of subjects available is so broad, they simply
taught in the same way. It could also be because of a misunderstanding about
whether games should be fun or educational, rather than both.
Explaining all of the current ideas about designing educational games would
take more than a few papers to achieve, and even longer to analyse which is
most effective. Therefore, this section will focus on three main categories
suggested in Malone (1980). His heuristics, though suggested for instructional
computer games (but adapted easily to education), attempt to answer the
highlighting three
essential
Creating a game that is challenging, especially one for children, could be seen
as quite simple. In regards to education, this design suggestion is quite logical
as it makes sense to set goals and give children something to aim for. It can
also allow educators to track the knowledge progression of their students by
seeing which goals they have reached. Challenging games also involve
different levels of difficulty, features which could further encourage a player to
continue, providing them with the motivation to get to the next level (Malone
1980, p. 163).
Fantasy, as a genre in itself, is an important one within educational gaming.
Within history especially, fantasy will always be a feature, mainly as we can
never be entirely sure of the accuracy of any historical representation. Fantasy
is important as it allows the player to be immersed in another environment.
Some studies have indicated that total immersion assists in making the player
feel more comfortable and they are consequently more motivated to achieve
whatever goals have been set (Annetta 2010, p. 107). Immersion (and fantasy)
include aspects like narrative and character development. Incorporating
engaging characters can encourage a player as they might require sympathy,
12
or a helping hand to get through a task, providing further motivation to the
student. Many primary students view fantasy
et al 2011, p. 287). Without a bit of imagination, the game can just reflect what
they may be doing in a textbook.
enhances motivation
even further, as the player needs to be interested enough in the goals and their
surroundings to explore it. By including elements of surprise: an unexpected
animation or character, a hint towards a hidden element or perhaps just by
receiving feedback, the player will be inspired to continue their exploration of
the environment (Malone 1980, pp. 165-‐166).
There are obviously many aspects that one needs to consider when designing
a game, notwithstanding the essentials like programming and graphics.
Ultimately though, they should be able to produce the same thing, a fun game.
3.4. Pedagogy
The following sections outline the basics regarding the teaching of history and
source criticism; particularly in regards to changes in history didactics and
how the Swedish curriculum integrates source work for students aged 10-‐12.
3.4.1. Teaching History
For some students, History has the unfortunate moniker of being dull. It was
textbooks have encouraged an apathy surrounding the history that is taught in
schools. This though, is a remnant of a time when historical teaching was
based on rote learning historical facts and figures. Learning the dates of
battles and the names of Kings was the basis for passing a history subject as
the emphasis relied on historical knowledge. Now, however, teachers have
(Barton 2005, p. 746). This coincides with the understanding that there is not
just one correct way to teach historical events. How could there be, when so
many different people have views, records and sources about it? History is not
encourages
debate, assuming there is evidence to support the argument. Students are now
encouraged to see the links between topics; how one event impacted another.
13
For instance, how the end of World War 1 impacted on the outbreak of World
War 2. Or they learn about social history, an attempt to empathise with people
of the past and draw links to Teaching
historical thinking develops critical thinking skills, as students need to analyse
the reasons why something happened, rather than just being informed of the
events that took place (McCall 2011, p. 9). Teaching history requires sources
to be read and integrated, whether they are primary or secondary sources.
The following section investigates how this area is taught for students aged
10-‐12 in Sweden.
3.4.2. Teaching source criticism
Within history teaching, source criticism has altered drastically in the past few
decades, largely due to the change in the historical mindset mentioned above.
With the new emphasis on interpretation and historical thinking, the
importance of teaching source criticism has increased. Whilst this approach is
being widely adopted, it is important that sources be utilised in the right way.
Within the Swedish History Curriculum, there are only a few syllabus points
that specifically address source criticism and related skills for grades 4-‐6.
These are:
What historical sources, such as letters and other documents, can tell us
about similarities and differences in the living conditions of children, women
and men compared with today.
How historical persons and events, such as Queen Kristina, Karl XII and the
trials of witches, have been presented in different ways through different
interpretations and different time periods.
What the following concepts mean change, similarities and differences,
chronology, cause and consequence, sources and interpretation, and how
they are used in historical contexts (Skolverket 2011, p. 166-‐167)
In addition to this, the curriculum notes that the most basic level of knowledge
required to pass on to the next stage (years 7-‐9) is Grade E. In relation to
y simple reasoning to the usefulness
14
t sources and
in this stage (4-‐6) is not particularly high in relation to source criticism,
though the wording used is quite broad. This could be due to the
understanding that sources need to be used throughout History classes,
perhaps complementing more traditional techniques. For example, if a student
were tasked with learning about World War 1, it would be useful to have both
background knowledge and read some first hand accounts. For the student to
read all accounts from this time is impractical, so a combination of primary
sources with secondary sources, e.g. textbooks, is a sensible option (Barton
2005, p. 749).
It has also been noted that the use of primary sources can encourage a more
immersive experience for the student, especially when they need to learn
about social or living conditions. Particularly if the source is a letter or diary,
the personal touch can be easier to relate to than an old law document (Barton
2005, p. 752). This, once again, speaks for the importance of including sources
within historical teaching.
3.5 Constructivist teaching theory
When considered in an educational framework, constructivism is a learning
theory that encourages learning to be based upon personal experience and
social discovery (Oulasvirta 2005, p. 196). It often links exploration with
reflection, and encourages students to discuss their findings with classmates,
the teacher serving as a guide to this discovery. Facilitation is often a key word
education of the students. As the teachers are the facilitators in this
transaction, it is the students who are responsible for acquiring the
knowledge. As they will possess it, the internal associations the children form
are more in-‐depth and longer lasting (Pressley 1992, p. 3). Jean Piaget, who
conducted several studies regarding child psychology, developed most
theories about constructivism in education and how children learn. His
findings represent the constructivist beliefs that children learn best if they can
experience something and make their own associations with it, whether it be a
15
toy, or a concept in a history game (Piaget 1930, p. 253). There are a few
elements of constructivism in particular which are often applied successfully
in constructivist classrooms: scaffolding, effective questioning and reflection.
3.5.1. Scaffolding during discovery
Scaffolding in constructivism is essential as it allows a teacher to gently guide
a student through the learning process. A student blindly trying to learn about
a topic without any guidance is probably eventually going to get side-‐tracked
or lost, especially in a free-‐range environment like the Internet (Pressley
1992, p. 19). Scaffolding allows the teacher to set certain guidelines or
signposts that the student can reach, yet still maintain the need for the them to
actively search for and understand the information.
3.5.2. Effective Questioning
Providing effective questioning within a constructivist framework
complements scaffolding and is one of the main techniques used by teachers.
It requires the educator to ask the students what they are thinking and the
reasons for it, rather than just asking what they know and an
right or wrong. In a traditional classroom setting, teachers ask if a student
knows an answer to a question. They are either wrong or right in their
response and the dialogue is ended. Effective questioning asks more of the
student. It encourages them to explain why they believe something is correct
and extend their knowledge, linking new information to existing frameworks.
It is the responsibility of the teachers to ask questions that cause the student
to reflect on ther scaffolding their knowledge (Chin
2004, p. 818).
3.5.3. Reflection on Content
Another aspect of constructivism that is necessary to utilise, alongside the two
concepts mentioned above, is the encouragement of reflection. Students must
be encouraged to reflect on the knowledge learnt, but more importantly their
imperative for them to think about where they went wrong, and highlight any
ese themselves, the chance they will
is far higher than if the teacher was to tell them directly (Pressley 1992, p. 20).
16
Reflection on a learning activity after its completion also helps to
and what it could be used for (De Freitas 2006, p. 18).
3.6. Elaborative Rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is a theory which has some links to constructivism, and
is the focus of the parallel study within this project, completed by Ivar Särner.
The theory emerged from the framework created by Craik and Lockhart
(1972), concerning the importance between processing information and
memory encoding. Their theory focuses on introducing two levels of
processing, shallow and deep, which result in an increase in aptitude for
memory encoding. Whilst shallow processing focuses on the practices of
maintenance rehearsal, deep processing is linked with elaborative rehearsal.
For education, this is important as it allows information to be stored more
effectively within long-‐term memory. By increasing the understanding and
connection of the information, both to long-‐term memory and with other
knowledge, the understanding of the original information is more concrete.
This would allow the learner to recall the information as needed, as it is more
strongly embedded in the long-‐term memory (Benjamin and Bjork 2000, p.
640).
3.7. Historiens Väktare
Historiens väktare (HV) is a computer game designed by the ETG for testing
and educational purposes. It aims to teach students aged 10-‐12 about
historical events, particularly in the area of discoveries and inventions from
1400-‐1780. It is a web-‐based game and has, thus far, served as a method of
testing theories surrounding Teachable Agents (see further studies by the
ETG).
3.7.1. Game Structure
The HV game has quite a simple set of point and click interactions. At the
beginning of the game, the player is introduced to the Castle of Time, along
with a time-‐elf who needs to find out information about various historical
events and characters by time travelling. As the elf -‐
sickness), the player must discover the required information so the elf can
learn all it needs to, in order to succeed the retiring Guardian of Time
17
(Chronos). After the player has received a knowledge-‐based mission from
Chronos, the player travels back in time. Whilst there, they can interact with a
achievements. The dialogues with the characters are all pre-‐defined and the
students merely have to click through the options once they have finished
reading the text. They could, for example, visit Isaac Newton in Oxford or
Galileo Galilei in Florence. The players then return to the present to complete
information gathered. The tests are usually in one of three formats, a concept
map, timeline or a sorting activity. Once the player receives enough correct
answers, they are able to finish the test and receive another mission.
18
4. Method The methods outlined below have been split into two parts, the adaptations
made to the HV game, and the experiment conducted to test the theories.
4.1 Adaptations to Historiens Väktare
As HV is an existing game, most of the work completed in regards to game
design is more easily related to the adaptations that needed to be
implemented for the purposes of this study (hence the title of this chapter).
The rest of this chapter outlines the steps and methods that were used in the
development of the new missions within HV, that is, the adaptations made to
the game. The results of these methods can be found in Chapter 5.1.
4.1.1. Finding a Historical Event
As the game needed to take place within a historical context, an appropriate
historical event needed to be selected. To simplify this task, there were
criteria provided by the ETG that needed to be followed. The event needed to
take place:
Between 1400-‐1780
In a country HV had previously visited: France, Germany, England, Italy,
Poland and Denmark.
As the missions concerned source criticism, the event also needed to have a
number of sources, preferably from different viewpoints or about different
theories. They also needed to be available for use within an educational
context.
In order to find an appropriate event, a web-‐based search was conducted,
finding options that fit within the criteria listed above. These were then
assessed according to the sources available for each event, before a selection
was made.
4.1.2 Mind map of chosen historical event
On the basis of the extensive research completed, a mind map was created.
This was done in order to gain a generalised understanding of the facts of the
event and identify possible sources to be utilised. This would provide the basis
for the processes of:
19
Creating the narrative and dialogues on which the game would be based
upon
Constructing the pre and post-‐test questions
Deciding on which sources would be best suited to the game.
4.1.3. Brainstorming how to include SC in a game
As we needed to teach the students about source criticism, we conducted a
brainstorming session which enabled us to suggest a number of ways that
would allow students to interact with historical sources. These ideas were all
based on commonly accepted history pedagogy that encourages interpretation
and historical thinking regarding an event and its sources.
4.1.4. Workshop
In order to make the most educated assessment and decide on the sources and
methods which would be best suited to our aim, a workshop was conducted at
Lund University. This workshop was attended by Agneta Gulz and Annika
Silvervarg (our supervisors), Magnus Haake (ETG member) and Irene
Andersson (History didactics expert), as well as Ivar Särner and Jess Brewster.
Over the course of a day, we presented our initial ideas from the
brainstorming sessions and discussed which ones would be best suited for the
purpose of the study.
The topics discussed at this workshop included:
Aspects of SC and facts to be included. This was in order to decide what
aspects of source criticism should be included, as well as how best to
incorporate the facts.
How the skolsal-‐test should be designed. This was to determine which of the
many possibilities could be used in the game-‐
What is the general narrative. The artefacts and characters that the students
interacted with needed to be carefully chosen so they would fit within one (or
more) of three categories:
Helped answer the mission questions
Was an excerpt or the author of a specific source
Answered questions that were included in the pre and post-‐
tests.
20
The narrative of the game was to follow the existing format of missions
already existing within HV, therefore our chosen characters and artefacts
needed to be placed within this context.
What the difference between the two versions of the game would be: This was
an important aspect that needed to be discussed, as both constructivism and
elaborative rehearsal needed to be taken into account.
4.1.5. Grouping of aspects from the Mind Map
This was done in order to classify the necessary content into different groups.
These groups were based on different characters, theories, sources and any
additional points we needed to include. From this, it was hoped that facts
could easily be attributed to specific sources and a definitive list of the
characters and sources was visually identifiable.
4.1.6. Sketching of scenes based on chosen sources and characters
Basic sketches using pen and paper methods were chosen as a simple way of
communicating our ideas for each scene. This needed to be done in order to
have both a visualisation for ourselves, and to send it to members of the ETG
who would be assisting with the design and programming of the game.
4.1.7. Dialogue scripting in parallel with creation of Pre and Post -‐test
questions to match scene content.
The questions for the testing were written alongside the game dialogues, so all
necessary information could be included within the game. Whilst the
questions needed to represent two theories, they were still written conjointly,
as the content for each set of questions needed to be included seamlessly into
the game.
4.1.8. Feedback and revision until final version
This was the next step completed, as all content needed to be approved in
English and Swedish before it could be implemented. Multiple versions of all
of the game content was created and evaluated by the authors and members
of the ETG.
4.1.9. Difference of the two game versions
In order to test the theories of elaborative rehearsal and constructivism, two
versions of the game were constructed. One of these needed to be a control
21
version, whilst the other applied elements of each of the theories to serve as
an experimental version. As both theories are quite broad, it would have been
unrealistic to include all aspects of either one, nor would that be completely
feasible in a game setting. Consequently, the background research completed
about each theory was used to focus on those points that would assist in this
game context. This occurred following extensive discussions and comparisons
between both theories. Consideration was also given to the interactions found
in the existing game, that constricted the choices we would be able to
realistically implement. The choice also needed to fit within the narrative.
4.1.10. Implementation of graphics and coding
This was the last step taken before testing began and was undertaken by
members of the ETG who built the game within the existing structure.
4.2. Evaluation of HV
The evaluation completed for this study was an experiment that was
conducted in the form of pre and post-‐tests after playing the designed
missions. The following sections outline the setup of the experiment.
4.2.1 Participants
The participants of this study were 44 primary school students aged 10-‐12
years old. All students were from two classes, located at one of two schools in
Helsingborg. One class had 17 students and one teacher (called Class 1 in
subsequent discussion). The other class had 27 students and two teachers
(Class 2). Overall, 4 students did not complete the tests, leaving 40 students in
total.
4.2.2 Equipment
The pre and post tests were all completed on Chromebooks, using Google
Forms. The Chromebooks were provided by the schools and the students had
experience using them. Google forms was utilised for the tests as, on the
advice of the ETG (and in deference to our own opinions), it was believed a
computer-‐based test would be more engaging to students as opposed to a
standard pen and paper test. Images related to the plague were also included
within the quiz to attract interest.
22
The game itself was also played on the Chromebooks, through an internet
browser, as the game was placed on a server. The students accessed this
through a URL, emailed to them by their teachers.
4.2.3. Testing setup
Testing Groups
Prior to any testing beginning, the students were all split into groups, in order
to test our theories effectively. Within each class, the students were randomly
assigned to two groups, the control group who would play the control version
of the game and the experimental group that would play the experimental
version. These groups were then randomly halved again, with half the
students receiving one set of pre and post-‐tests (version 1), and the other half
receiving the second set of the pre and post-‐tests (version 2). This essentially
left us with 4 test groups.
Two versions of the pre and post-‐tests were created in order to increase the
validity of the test and to reduce the chance the students would remember the
questions. Version 2 contained the same answers as version 1 but had
rephrased questions. 22 students were allocated to receive each version. Half
would receive version 1 as the pre-‐test, followed by version 2 as the post-‐test.
The other half would receive version 2 as the pre-‐test, followed by version 2
as the post-‐test. The randomisation of students within the control and
experimental groups was done to counteract any potential difference in the
two test versions and increase the chance of measuring accurately any
learning difference.
Procedure
Each class was visited over a 3-‐day period for 40-‐60 minutes per day. The
timetable for the testing was as follows:
Day 1: Pre-‐ & Part 2.
Day 2: Play Source Criticism mission
Day 3: Post-‐test with Othello played between Part 1 and Part 2.
Prior to our arrival on the testing days, an email with a URL containing either
the tests or the game had been sent to all students, according to the groups
23
they had been placed into. This step was completed by the class teachers and
ensured the classes were prepared in order to make the most of the time
available.
Observations were recorded throughout the testing, with notes on the
comments and behaviours of the students recorded discreetly on a laptop.
Pre and Post-‐testing
The testing in this study was a traditional pre and post-‐test made up of 24
questions. 14 of the questions tested knowledge about historical facts
regarding the The Great Plague of London, of which 1 out of the 6 multiple-‐
choice responses was correct. One mark was given for each correct response.
The remaining 10 questions were all about source criticism, requiring the
students to give 2 answers out of 5 responses for each question, resulting in a
non-‐normal distribution. This is due to the fact that, if selecting two answers
at random for each question, the chance of getting a 0 score is 0.3, the chance
of getting 1 is 0.6 and to the chance to get a score of 2 is 0.1. For the source
criticism questions, one mark was given for each correct response. The source
criticism and fact questions were also randomised to give some variety.
As the test had 24 questions, the ETG advised that this would be too many
questions for the participants to answer in one test. This was mainly due to
the potential for the students to lose concentration and become tired of
reading the questions. As the source criticism questions in particular were
quite long and in some instances required the students to analyse excerpts, it
was important that the students remain fresh and attentive. Consequently the
test was split into two parts, the students playing a short game, unrelated to
ours, between each one. None of the knowledge or skills that could be gained
from these games was found in the tests.
24
5. Results The results of the methods outlined in Chapter 4 have below been split into two parts, those regarding the game design that was used and the data collected from the experiment.
5.1 Adaptations to Historiens Väktare
In designing the new HV game, many steps were taken to ensure the most
appropriate content and interactions were utilised, in relation to the theories
chosen. The sections below firstly discuss the results of those steps and then
describe in detail, the missions that were created.
5.1.1. Finding a Historical Event
Amongst the many potential historical events that met the criteria outlined in
section 4.1.1, The Great Plague of London in 1665 was ultimately selected as
the event for the game. Extensive background research into The Great Plague
of London revealed a great number of different sources that were publically
available, such as diaries, medical journals, city rules and laws (Museum of
London, 2016). Many of these discussed the living conditions and how the
disease impacted London. An interesting aspect about these sources was that
they discussed numerous ideas and theories about what really caused the
plague and what kinds of remedies would be effective. This was ideal for the
game, as it offered a wide range of viewpoints and theories that could be
utilised.
The initial research was completed through Wikipedia, searching for any
historical event that fit the criteria. After the Great Plague of London had been
selected, many more resources were utilised. In particular, the sources for the
Great Plague came from a variety of locations. The main sources that were
used within the game are:
The Diary of Samuel Pepys: Concerns diary entries about the everyday life of
the author Samuel Pepys, written from 1660 to 1669. He wrote many things
about his life in London, his home, his friends, family and what happened
around him. Amongst other historically important events, Pepys diary
includes substantial information about The Great Plague of London. As the
25
author was an eyewitness account to these travesties, this source has
provided a great deal to historians investigating this event (Pepys 1665).
Loimologia: A treatise published in 1672 by physician Nathaniel Hodges, who
also was an eyewitness account to the Great Plague of London. While most of
the physicians fled London during the time, Hodges remained and recorded
the event from a medical point of view. His work is considered to be one of the
most important sources about the work of physicians and how theories of
medicine and remedies were utilised against the plague (Holland 2000, p.
323).
Plague Orders: Written by the City of London and published during the plague.
The Plague orders were specific rules and regulations concerning the plague.
They were enforced upon the residents of London at that time as a method of
reducing the spread of the disease (Roberts, 1721).
Bills of Mortality: A registry in which the total amount of deaths were recorded
each year in every parish of London. The cause of death was also recorded and
particularly how many had died from the plague.
The Causes and Cure of the Pestilence: A treatise written by Reverend Thomas
work concerns a spiritual justification for the plague as well as methods for
atonement to God (Rosewell 1666).
Yersinia pestis discovery: The bacteria that was the cause of the disease
bubonic plague. Discovered by Alexander Yersin in 1894 (Moote 2006).
Any information discovered from these sources, and others, were stored in a
mind map (mentioned in more detail below).
5.1.2 Mind map of Great Plague of London
The mind map contained information from a variety of sources and was a
mixture of factual information and anecdotal comments from sources. The
information included: general facts about the disease, how it spread and its
symptoms, how many were killed by it, how the people at that time believed it
spread and what kind of remedies were prescribed by the physicians. At a
more detailed level, there was also a variety of important sources, characters
and locations.
26
5.1.3. Brainstorming how to include SC in a game
During this session, there were many ideas that had the potential to teach
students about source criticism. These included: travelling to an archiving
facility, a university or having a more in-‐depth conversation with Chronos
specifically about source criticism. This was in addition to the idea we
ultimately selected, integrating sources within a historical context. These
ideas were all based on commonly accepted history pedagogy that encourages
interpretation and historical thinking regarding an event and its sources.
The options for the skolsal-‐test were also numerous, consisting of: sorting
sources into groups, rearranging book pages, using source clues to progress in
the game and timeline activities.
5.1.4. Workshop
The workshop conducted at Lund University was ultimately invaluable as it
was where almost all aspects of the game were decided. The discussions that
took place in the workshop resulted in the findings below.
Aspects of SC and facts to be included
During the workshop, based on the advice of Irene Andersson and in
deference to the points in the syllabus that reference source criticism, it was
decided to include two main concepts of source criticism, identification and
analysis. Within source identification, the challenge is to establish: the author
(or creator), the purpose, the intended audience and when the source was
created. In regards to the analysis of sources, the task was to focus on
ensuring the students would be able to infer the answer to questions, based on
quotes given by a variety of answers.
In regards to the facts being included, it was decided that those used would be
ones that could be easily found from either primary sources or characters who
had lived during the epidemic. The facts chosen also needed to be included in
the pre and post-‐tests that were to be designed alongside the dialogue.
How the skolsal-‐test should be designed
As there were already a number of existing formats for the skolsal testing
designed by the ETG, it was decided that it would be best to utilise one of
these designs. The motivations for this were partly that it would involve less
27
work and testing on behalf of the ETG, but predominantly because one of their
existing formats matched our preliminary designs. As the test had been
successful before, it was also a more reliable format. The test chosen was a
type of concept map, that required students to draw links from different
theories to different sources. A preliminary design of these can be found in
Figure 1, and a more detailed version can be seen in Figures 11 and 12.
Figure 1. Preliminary design of skolsal-‐test.
What is the general narrative
Prior to the workshop, the decision had been made to choose the Great Plague
of London as the topic the game would be based upon. Consequently,
discussion about the Plague within the game context was focused mainly on
the types of questions that we could pose to the students. As there had already
been a substantial amount of research completed about the event, we focused
on those questions that could draw a variety of answers from the sources
available. It was decided that two questions would be posed for the second
mission, how many people died from the plague and what caused it. Both of
these questions seem quite simple to answer, however at the time of the
plague, the truth for both questions would go unanswered. This meant that
the sources utilised reflected a variety of opinions and contained different
facts about the two questions.
28
What the difference between the two versions of the game would be
In discussing the implementation of the theories, which would provide the
change between the two versions, a magical walkie-‐talkie was eventually
chosen. This was the idea that appealed most to the ETG and the authors, for
It also offered the most potential in which to frame and present both theories
within the game. Examples were presented to ETG members that illustrated
the type of dialogue that might be included, including a questioning aspect
that highlighted aspects of elaborative rehearsal and constructivism. This was
discussed and found to be a popular idea amongst the group.
5.1.5. Grouping of aspects from the Mind Map
After a decision had been made on the types of sources, characters and
questions that the students would interact with in the game and in the pre and
post-‐tests, a further amendment to the mind map was performed. This was
done in order to classify the necessary content into different groups. These
groups were based on different characters, theories, sources and any
additional points we needed to include. From this, facts could easily be
attributed to specific sources and a definitive list of the characters and sources
was visually identifiable. The sources chosen to be the basis of the game
include:
The Diary of Samuel Pepys, written by Samuel Pepys
Loimologia, written by Nathanial Hodges
Plague Orders, released by the City of London
Bills of Mortality, released by the City of London
The Causes and Cure of the Pestilence: A Treatise, written by the
Reverend Thomas Rosewell
5.1.6. Sketching of scenes based on chosen sources and characters
Due to the work mentioned above, when it came to sketching, this was a
matter of including all the necessary aspects in a scene that could be an
example of the visuals we wanted within the game. This was done using the
traditional pen and paper method, chosen as it was quick to execute and made
29
revisions simple. At the end of this step, we had created five scenes that each
contained one character and, at times, multiple artefacts.
5.1.7. Dialogue scripting in parallel with creation of Pre and Post-‐test
questions to match scene content.
In creating the dialogue, each scene was allocated separate facts and sources
that were dependant on what the focus for the scene was. This allowed us to
link the dialogue and questions to each character/artefact and ensured we
would not miss any necessary piece of information. Some of the sources
utilised in the game were written in a very old style of English and were
consequently simplified in order to meet the level of literacy of the players. All
content was written in English. Appendix A contains the questions regarding
source criticism.
5.1.8. Feedback and revision until final version
The first drafts of the dialogue and questions were sent to the ETG and Mats
Lind for their input and suggestions. We also requested that Irene Andersson
be sent a copy, due to her extensive knowledge of history didactics, as well as
the target age group. Overall, the first round of feedback was positive,
suggesting that we had established the correct level of language, however
some suggestions were proposed. For the questions, there was a lot of
discussion on the amount of questions that should be included (discussed
below) and some comments about the difficulty of the source criticism
questions, which were addressed. Once feedback from all parties had been
received and included, the dialogue and questions were translated into
Swedish by Ivar Särner. These were again sent out to the ETG, Andersson and
Lind, and after further amendments, mainly in regards to simplifying the
Swedish used, both documents were finalised.
5.1.9. Difference of the two game versions
As there was a need to include two theories within this study, it was essential
that those chosen complemented and supported both chosen theory
of elaborative rehearsal focused on creating a stronger semantic meaning for
chosen theory of
constructivism, only the aspects of effective questioning, reflection and
scaffolding were (albeit briefly) included. As the game has an existing
30
framework that emphasised the use of dialogues and did not contain sound,
the most realistic way of framing these theories was through new text. This
was also the most effective way of including two theories that were based on
reflection and a better understanding of a concept.
The final combination of constructivism and elaborative rehearsal elements,
led to a small change, the implementation of a magical walkie-‐talkie that could
travel through time with the player (see Figure 13). This gave the students a
direct link with Chronos based at the time castle. This text was carefully
written to incorporate both theories, usually in the form of reflective
questioning that encouraged students to think about the questions and
reiterate the facts mentioned. For example,
The way this quote is formulated encourages
students to think more about the number being posed and how it relates to
promoting the elaborative rehearsal theory of Särner by encouraging a deeper
encoding, as the number is linked with a greater concept. It also guides them
into reflecting on the excerpts that accompany this comment, in which Pepys
mentions that the poor were often not included in the official death counts. By
-‐ended questions, the
constructivist guide of Chronos scaffolds the educational experience.
5.1.10. Implementation of graphics and coding
The overall implementation of the game was completed by members of the
ETG. Carolina Ekström created all the required graphic designs for the game,
designing all scenes, artefacts and characters based on our descriptions or
provided links illustrating examples, for e.g. a portrait of Samuel Pepys. Erik
Anderberg then utilised these and completed all coding, implementation and
testing.
5.1.11. Final Design
The outline of each mission could be described as an information gathering
activity followed by a knowledge test. Mission 1 was to serve as the
introduction to the historical context in general and in particular to a key
aspect of source criticism, namely the identification of a source. This took place
31
in the house of Samuel Pepys, a diarist from 1665 who recorded in detail, his
experiences that year. The knowledge test takes place within the Castle of
Time, in dialogue with the time elf.
Key points involve:
Identification of a source
Source: Diary of Samuel Pepys
Time travel to Pepys residence in 1665
Dialogue about the diary and its contents
The following (Figure 2) is a basic concept map of Mission 1.
Figure 2. Basic concept map of Mission 1.
Mission 2 is far more complex than the previous, encouraging students to visit
a number of scenes and interact with a range of characters and artefacts. This
mission introduces more source criticism and analysis methods, and is set on
the streets of London in 1666, once the plague has abated. The students are
tasked with discovering the answers to two questions, and must complete two
tests in the skolsal to complete the mission.
Key points involve:
Analysis of multiple sources
Sources: Diary of Samuel Pepys, Bill of Mortality, Plague orders, Loimologia
and
Timetravel to the Streets of London in 1666
Dialogues and text about each source
32
Skolsal-‐test regarding how the sources are connected to the mission
objectives
The following (Figure 3) is a basic concept map of mission 2.
Figure 3. Basic concept map of Mission 2.
Following is a walkthrough of the two missions.
Mission 1: Source identification -‐ The Diary of Samuel Pepys
updated with the new mission information and objectives, displayed in the top
33
right corner. The mission information contains explanations of what a source
can be and how importan
process of source criticism. Additionally, the player is informed of how
sources can be classified as primary or secondary.
The objectives of the mission and the basic outline are as follows: The players
use the time machine to travel to London and meet with Samuel Pepys. Whilst
there, the player should try to learn as much as possible about his diary. This
is done utilising dialogues and by reading excerpts from the diary. When the
player feels ready, he or she can return to the Castle of Time and answer
questions from the time elf. Moreover, the player is informed that a terrible
disease is spreading in London.
After receiving the mission from Chronos, the player can leave the office and
proceed to the room with the time machine, where the option to travel to the
destination London in 1665 is available. The time machine takes the player to
the house of Samuel Pepys where he is standing by a table, on which his diary
is placed (see Figure 4). Clicking on him initiates the first dialogue. Here Pepys
explains when he started writing the diary, and for what purpose. Lastly he
informs the player that they can read the diary. Clicking on the diary opens up
a new window (see Figure 5) showing a foreword and an entry from April 30,
1665. The preceding dialogue, with Pepys, along with the foreword contains
Castle of Time. The other diary entry introduces aspects of the Great Plague of
London and contains important information the players need to know in order
to give a correct answer to certain questions in the pre and post-‐test. Back in
the Caste of Time the player can initiate a dialogue with the time elf. Here the
time elf poses questions in regards to identification of the Diary of Samuel
Pepys (see Figure 6). After completing all questions, mission 1 is complete and
the player can go back to Chronos in order to begin mission 2.
34
Figure. 4. Mission 1, Source Criticism Identification task in Historiens Väktare. Pepys and
his diary.
Figure 5. Diary of Samuel Pepys, Foreword and Entry.
35
Figure 6. Knowledge test by the Time Elf about Source Criticism.
Mission 2: Analysis of multiple sources -‐ Plague ridden streets of London
After meeting with Chronos in the office, the new mission information and
objectives are received. The mission information continues the focus on
source criticism and explains the importance of analysing multiple sources.
Sources are all important and by analysing multiple ones we can discover
different views, opinions and determine their purpose. Thus the usefulness of
them is dependent on what is discovered. Moreover, the players are informed
that in addition to the diary of Samuel Pepys, there were many other primary
sources that discussed the plague with different points of view. Consequently,
the mission objectives are explained as follows: The player is to travel back to
London, one year later, to try and discover the cause of the plague and how
many died from it.
The new destination, Streets of London, 1666 is now available in the time
machine. The player will arrive at the scene called Crossing.
Crossing
The player is again introduced to Samuel Pepys. This time he is standing on
the street at a crossing in London (see Figure 7). Next to him is his diary and a
billboard on which two documents are pinned. The streets are seemingly filthy
36
as there are multiple piles of garbage, surrounded by rats. There are two
signposts pointing left and right respectively, which are placed on each side of
the billboard. Clicking on any one of these signs will bring the player to a new
scene. The one pointing left directs to the Church, the one pointing right
directs to the Square. There is also a sewer grate, clicking it will bring the
player to the scene Rat Lair. Logically there are no signpost directing the
player to the Rat Lair, therefore, a few clues are included to catch the attention
of the player. These clues consisted of: a small mention of them by Pepys, rats
surrounding the sewer grate and pairs of small yellow dots, appearing and
disappearing, to resemble eyes of rats. The scenes can be accessed in any
order.
Clicking on Pepys will initiate a dialogue. He continues to talk about his diary
and that he came out into the streets to inspect the Bills of Mortality, in which
the total number of dead from last year is recorded. Pepys draws the attention
to his diary for the player to read. In addition to the entry from mission 1, it
now includes three more diary entries which contain important information
the player needs to remember. After reading the diary, the player can click on
the billboard that opens up a new window showing two documents in full size;
Plague Orders and the Bills of Mortality. Each contains important information
relating to theories about the cause of the plague, as well as the amount of
dead.
37
Figure 7. Crossing scene with Samuel Pepys, his diary and billboard in Mission 2.
Church
In this scene the player meets a priest standing outside a church (see Figure
8). Through a dialogue the priest is explaining that it is the sins of the people
that have unleashed the wrath of God upon London and the public.
Figure 8. Church scene with Priest.
38
Square
In this scene, the player is introduced to the physician, Nathaniel Hodges.
Around him are a number of different houses and piles of garbage,
accompanied by rats (see Figure 9). On a door on one of the houses a red cross
is painted. Clicking on Hodges initiates a dialogue in which he explains his
work with his medical treatise Loimologia.
Figure 9. Square scene with Nathaniel Hodges.
Rat Lair
In the centre of the lair on a big pile of garbage, the Rat Lord is sitting, as seen
in Figure 10. He is surrounded by numerous other rats, on which fleas are
crawling. Clicking on him, the player initiates a monologue. Through this
monologue the player is informed about the role of the rats during the Great
Plague of London.
After visiting all scenes the player is prompted to travel back to the Caste of
Time and complete the skolsal-‐test.
39
Figure 10. Rat Lair scene with the Rat Lord.
Skolsal-‐test
These tests were designed to test the students knowledge about the sources
they had read during the game. Some of the responses could only be answered
if they had read one specific source. For each task, (for an example see Figures
11 and 12) the student needed to drag an arrow from a source to one of the
theories. A source could provide the answer to multiple theories and vice
versa. Once a student had answered at least 75% of the test correctly, they
were considered to have passed. Feedback given to the student included green
arrows for a correct response and red arrows for an incorrect one (as seen in
Figure 12).
40
Figure 11. Skolsal-‐test for Mission 2.
Figure 12. Skolsal-‐test in Mission 2, with feedback.
41
Walkie-‐talkie Design
When the players clicked on a new artefact or character, the walkie-‐talkie
became animated, flashing its lights and moving slightly. This attracted the
attention of the students and ensured they were aware of some new
information. A text-‐based pop-‐up appeared with this information whenever
the walkie-‐talkie was clicked on by the player, as demonstrated in Figure 13
below.
Figure 13. Chronos text through walkie-‐talkie, seen in top left corner.
5.2. Evaluation of HV
5.2.1. Pre and post-‐testing
After the completion of the experiment, the two tests were compared to see if
there were any significant differences between the two test versions. This was
completed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The pre-‐test scores were used
for this since they are unaffected by the experimental conditions. Ultimately
there were no significant differences between the tests (Z=-‐0.2726, p=
0.7851). The median values were also identical for the two test versions, both
scoring 11.
The statistical testing was done using the Wilcoxon rank sum test on the
differences between the pre-‐test scores and the post-‐test scores. The result
42
was that no significant difference between the control (no-‐Chronos) and the
experimental (Chronos) groups exist (Z=0.5455, p=0.5861). The median value
of the difference between the pre-‐ and post-‐test scores for the experimental
group was 0 and for the control group was -‐1.
Below is a box-‐plot representing the statistical results for both the pre (Figure
14) and post-‐test (Figure 15).
Figure 14. Pre-‐test results. Game
WtNo wt
Pretest
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
,00
Page 1
43
Figure 15. Post-‐test results.
5.2.2. Observations
Following each session, the observations and comments recorded were
checked for their accuracy based on what both observers (Särner and
Brewster) had seen and heard. Sometime changes were made if an error in
Swedish had been made. Overall, an assortment of comments and behaviours
opinions of the game, which could have some impact on future studies.
Pre and post-‐tests
In regards to the pre and post testing, the observations in regards to the
students were the same. In both classes, the students appeared to be highly
concentrated and focused on the task, both rooms extremely quiet whilst the
students were completing the tests. A minimal amount of students asked for
assistance as they had previously been informed that they should complete
the work on their own. The teachers in both classes, particularly Class 1,
commented that the students were far more concentrated than usual. The
teacher of Class 1 also noted that the students who would usually give up if
GameWtNo wt
Post
test
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
,00
27
Page 1
44
difficulties. During the post-‐testing however, some students did appear to be
quite bored at having to take a test again.
Historiens Väktare
Once again, both classes were noted to be extremely quiet when they first
began playing the game and most were concentrated on reading the text in the
game. In both classes though, some students appeared to be clicking through
all the scenes to the final skolsal-‐test quite quickly. One student finished
everything in 15 minutes, whilst others took closer to 30 minutes.
Observations of both classes indicated the same levels of frustration with it
came to the final skolsal-‐tests. Students became quickly disappointed when
they could not finish it on the first go, though they continued to try until they
had passed it. Some children even got out pieces of paper to record their
correct answers.
Feedback
Comments from Class 1 after they had finished the game were all about two
points. The game was fun, until the skolsal-‐test. Then the game was very hard.
Class 2 had similar comments, also agreeing that the game was good, but that
the skolsal-‐test was too hard. They also mentioned that they enjoyed playing
the game as they got to explore London and could meet different characters,
something they would have like more of. They also wanted to be able to have a
more interactive dialogue with the characters and reply to the dialogue
themselves. Also, there were some who pointed out that it was confusing that
Another comment from the teacher of Class 1, was that the students in other
classes were extremely jealous that they were not playing the game as well.
45
6. Discussion This study aimed to establish if an educational game had the potential to teach
source criticism. It also posed the question of whether a constructivist guide
could assist in teaching students about source criticism.
In regards to the constructivist element, ultimately there is no significant data
from the pre and post-‐tests that indicates there was an increase in source
criticism knowledge. The same can be said for the primary question, whether
it was possible for a student to learn source criticism within a game. Again,
there were no significant results for the testing done that indicated this was
true. Although there were slightly higher marks from the group playing the
experimental version, their scores in the pre-‐test were also higher, thereby
having no significant effect on this study.
Regardless of the results, there were a number of factors learnt during the
course of this study that could assist future studies. There is also still potential
for source criticism to be taught within the confines of a computer game.
Although the data collected showed no significant indication of improvement,
there were some students who did show a small increase of knowledge. This
could be due to a variation of factors. It could be supposed that the source
criticism aspects within the game were too difficult or subtle for most of the
students to properly grasp. Or it could also be that the attention given to the
post-‐test was less focused than in the pre-‐test.
Although Chronos gave the students an initial description of the sources, he
the
knowledge was to be based on information within the sources, the students
may have used it as a shortcut to finishing the game quickly; finding only the
information which answered the questions and skipping the analysis of the
different sources.
There was also the distraction in this game of the factual information, required
of historical facts was improved after
playing the game. Whilst we had aimed to provide the students with a
46
contextualised environment where they could collect the sources in the same
time period they were created, it may have inadvertently led to too much
focus on the historical event and not enough on the sources. Future studies
could increase the focus on the types of sources within the game, discussing
them in more depth and reflecting on their usefulness to other characters.
Within HV, the skolsal-‐test was judged by most students to be too difficult. As
this was the source criticism test, it was a clear indication that the information
placed within the missions was perhaps not highlighted well enough for the
students to properly retain the information. From observing the students, it
was clear from the speed that some students played the game that they were
not reading the text, which was essential if the student wished to pass the
skolsal-‐test. The amount of text within the game is also a barrier for some
students, especially those with poor reading skills. As the success of the game
relied on the student's reading this text, it would be advisable to ensure that
the text used in subsequent versions be condensed. As the aim was for the
students to learn source criticism, it is essential that they read at least some of
the sources. Perhaps this could be done in a more inventive manner, through
an interactive and selective dialogue with a character, or introducing
gamification elements to different pages or chapters. As this was a game
environment, the students expected to be able to play more than they had
anticipated having to read.
in the testing, thereby affecting the statistical results. The post-‐test was
conducted the day after the game was played, consequently the students may
bad thing as the aim was for the students to learn source criticism. A post-‐test
given straight after the game may have resulted in the students more quickly
associating answers, though they may not remember them long-‐term. There is
also the potential that the students were just bored of the test, as some
appeared to be, selecting any answer. However, the time taken for both classes
to complete the post-‐test was roughly the same as in the pre-‐test.
The pre and post-‐
content within a source (essentially comprehension). It is unlikely that one
47
play-‐through of the game would suffice to greatly improve a student's skills in
this area without extensive practise on that skill. However, the introduction of
the idea in a historical framework could still work, perhaps by having
questions about a source appearing within the game after a student has read
the relevant source.
Despite the statistical findings, there was some verbal evidence that indicated
an increase in knowledge regarding source criticism, at least in some
instances. During the experiments, observations were recorded of comments
made by both teachers and students. When the students were playing the
game, a few of them asked for the meaning of specific words, including
e then informed of its meaning,
educating them during gameplay. One class in particular was a little behind in
their coursework, because of their education in the previous year. Therefore
known to
them. Their teacher mentioned this and that she considered it appropriate
that the terms were being mentioned in a historical setting. Although the test
results did not reflect an increase in knowledge, it can be hoped that the
students associate
them a hint as to what a primary source is.
History, along with source criticism, has a place in educational gaming. At the
very least this was evident from the comments of students in other classes,
who became increasingly jealous as the week went on that their friends got to
play on the computers for the whole lesson! Ensuring these games
is imperative in
ensuring their usefulness. Then they can, hopefully, increase
knowledge about history and source criticism.
48
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51
Appendix A: Pre and Post-‐test Questions: Source Criticism
Q English Swedish
1 V1: Which are two important tasks to complete
V2: identifying a source? Choose 2 from those listed below.
Finding out who the author is Discovering when it was created Seeing how long it is Working out how much it would have
cost Reading it to find hidden codes
V1: Vad är viktigt att göra när man ska identifiera en källa? Välj två alternativ V2:Välj två alternativ som är viktiga när man ska identifiera en källa.
Att ta reda på vem som skapade källan Att ta reda på när källan skapades Att ta reda på hur många sidor den har Att ta reda på hur mycket den hade kostat Att läsa den för att hitta gömda koder
2 V1: What two points can classify a source as
V2: Choose two points which help define what a
They were written at the time an event took place
They were written by an eyewitness to an event
They are the first source published after an event
They are the most important source about an event
They are the only source about an event
V1: Källor till en historisk händelse kan kategoriseras som antingen eller . Vilka två alternativ kan kategorisera en källa som V2: Källor till en historisk händelse kan kategoriseras som antingen eller . Välj två alternativ dom du tror bäst förklarar en
källa.
Källan skapades under samma tid som när den historiska händelsen ägde rum
Källan skapades av någon som personligen var närvarande
Det är den första källan som skapades om den historiska händelsen
Det är den viktigaste källan som skapades om den historiska händelsen
Det är den enda källan som finns om den historiska händelsen
3 V1: Which two options below indicate a source
V2: A secondary source can be easily identified if they meet two of these conditions.
It was produced after an event had
witness it
V1: Källor till en historisk händelse kan kategoriseras som antingen eller . Vilka två alternativ kan kategorisera en källa som
V2: Källor till en historisk händelse kan kategoriseras som antingen eller . Välj två alternativ dom du tror bäst förklarar en
52
event It is the second source produced about
an event It is an important source, but not the
most important It features only half the information of
a primary source
källa.
Källan skapades efter att den historiska händelsen ägde rum och av någon som inte var med när det hände
Det är en analys av en tidigare historisk händelse
Det är den andra källan som skapades om den historiska händelsen
Det är en viktig källa -‐ men inte den viktigaste Källan innehåller bara hälften av
informationen från en primär källa
4 V1: What two options best describe why sources are so important to historians? V2: Why are sources so important to historians? Two of the answers below are correct.
They can provide information about events and issues
They can tell us how people lived in the past
Historians have to read every source before they can publish their ideas
They are always easy to understand They clearly answer all questions
historians have
V1: Vilka två alternativ bäst beskriver varför källor är viktiga för historiker? V2: Varför är källor viktiga för historiker? Välj två alternativ.
De ger information om historiska händelser De ger information om hur människor levde
förr i tiden Historiker måste gå igenom alla källor innan
de kan publicera sina egna idéer Källor är alltid lätta att förstå Källor svarar klart och tydligt på alla frågor
som historiker har
5 V1: Which of the following 2 statements do you think is correct?
V2: There are many reasons why sources are useful. Which two do you think are right?
All sources can be useful, it just depends on how you use them.
Having multiple sources is useful as we can discover many views about an event
Sources are only useful if they were written by someone important
Sources are only useful for establishing if an event really happened.
Sources can prove anything.
V1: Vilka två påståenden tror du är korrekta?
V2: Det finns många anledningar till varför källor är användbara. Välj de två som du tror är rätt.
Alla källor kan vara användbara, det beror bara på vad man vill veta
Att ha flera källor är användbart eftersom de ger oss olika information
Källor är endast användbara om de var skapade av viktiga personer
Källor är endast användbara för att ta reda på om en händelse verkligen ägde rum.
Källor kan bevisa allt.
6 V1: What are 2 things you should consider if there are multiple sources and views about an event? V2: If there are multiple opinions and sources covering an event, what do you need to
V1: Vad är viktigt att tänka på när det det finns flera källor med olika information om samma historiska händelse? Välj två alternativ. V2: Ibland kan det finnas flera olika källor till en och samma historiska händelse. Vad är det viktigt att tänka
53
remember?
You can compare them and see if similar facts emerge that reveal the real events
Even if they have different opinions, they can still give us useful information
Only one source is going to give you useful information
correct
To only use the source that is official
på då? Välj två alternativ.
Att jämföra de olika källorna och se om det finns liknande fakta
Även om källorna ger olika information kan de vara användbara
Endast en källa kan ge oss användbar information
Att endast använda den källan som känns mest rätt
Att endast använda den källan som är officiell
7 V1: Official records are useful sources, but Which 2 reasons explain
why? V2: Sometimes even official sources like church records or law books are inaccurate. Choose 2 options below that could explain why this is true.
Some of the population may not be included, for e.g. women, the poor
They may have been created based on false information
They only contain useless information They are most often created by the
King or Queen They are only created for important
persons
V1: Officiella dokument är t.ex. sådant som kyrkböcker eller lagar. Officiella dokument är användbara källor, men är ibland inte alltid korrekta. Varför? Välj två alternativ. V2: Ibland är officiella dokument t.ex. lagar och kyrkböcker inte korrekta. Välj två alternativ som du tror kan svara på varför de kan vara fel?
Det saknas ofta information om vissa grupper av människor. Till exempel kvinnor eller fattiga
Det finns risk för att de grundar sig på felaktig information.
De innehåller bara onödig information De är oftast skapade av kungen eller
drottningen De är endast skapade för viktiga personer
8 V1: Which 2 statements below are true, based on this excerpt? V2: Read the quote below and pick the two statements which you think are correct. I got up and put on my coloured silk suit, with my new wig which I bought a while ago, but will not wear, because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it.
wear the wig as it might be infected with the plague
He bought the wig in Westminster He only wants to wear the suit in
Westminster Colourful suits are not appropriate
during a Plague year All wigs might have the plague
V1: Vad tror du författaren menade med detta citat? Välj två alternativ. V2: Läs igenom citatet nedan och välj två alternativ som du tror bäst förklarar vad författaren menade.
som jag köpte tillsammans med min nya peruk. Peruken kommer jag däremot inte ta på mig för att
Författaren ville inte ta på sig peruken för den kan vara smittad med pesten
Författaren köpte peruken i Westminster Författaren vill bara bära peruken i
Westminster Färgglada kostymer är inte passande att ha på
sig när pesten härjar Alla peruker är smittade med pesten
54
9 V1: Which 2 sentences below are true, based on the following quote?
V2: What two facts can be found by reading this diary excerpt?
It was sad to hear the bells ringing so often for deaths today. I think I heard it ring 5 or 6 times today.
Bells are rung when someone has died 5 or 6 people had died that day. Bells are rung at weddings The bells are very loud 5 or 6 bells are rung for every death
V1: Vad tror du författaren menade med detta citat? Välj två alternativ. V2: Läs igenom citatet nedan och välj två alternativ som du tror bäst förklarar vad författaren menade.
dödsfall idag. Jag tror jag hörde den ringa 5 eller 6
Klockan ringde när någon hade dött 5 eller 6 personer hade dött den dagen Klockan ringde när någon hade gift sig Klockan måste ha varit väldigt högljudd 5 eller 6 klockor ringde för varje dödsfall
10 -‐to-‐day lives of the common people, which of these primary sources would be the most useful? V2: From the options below, which two sources do you think would be the most useful to find out about day-‐to-‐day life?
A personal diary Letters to family The Bible A scientific journal The Law Books
V1: Om din uppgift är att ta reda på hur människor levde förr i tiden, vilka källor är mest användbara? Välj två alternativ. V2: Välj två källor som du tror är bäst på att berätta för oss om det vardagliga livet hos människor förr i tiden.
En personlig dagbok Brev till familjen Bibeln En vetenskaplig tidsskrift Lagboken
