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CHILDCHILD--REARING:REARING:

A SOCIALA SOCIAL--CONTEXTUALCONTEXTUALAPPROACHAPPROACH

Biran MertanBiran Mertan

Eastern Mediterranean UniversityEastern Mediterranean UniversityNorthern CyprusNorthern Cyprus

XIIth Eurapean Conference on Developmental Psychology

University of La Laguna, 24-28 August 2005

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CHILDCHILD--REARING: SOCIALREARING: SOCIAL--CONTEXTUALCONTEXTUALAPPROACHAPPROACHBiran MertanBiran Mertan

Eastern Mediterranean UniversityEastern Mediterranean University

The role of parentsThe role of parents knowledge and skills regarding child rearing, has been studiedknowledge and skills regarding child rearing, has been studied for manyfor manyyears in the Western Industrialized countries. In North Cyprus syears in the Western Industrialized countries. In North Cyprus such studies are newuch studies are new(Mertan, 2003). In this current research the following questions(Mertan, 2003). In this current research the following questions will be explored.will be explored.

Does parentsDoes parents knowledge and skills regarding child rearing influence child deknowledge and skills regarding child rearing influence child development?velopment?How do factors outside the home influence this early developmentHow do factors outside the home influence this early development (e.g. cultural values,(e.g. cultural values,

sociosocio--economic status, maternal work, social networks, relatives, frieeconomic status, maternal work, social networks, relatives, friends, neighbors,nds, neighbors,experts, etcexperts, etc)?)?How does maternal anxiety influence early development?How does maternal anxiety influence early development?The participants were mothers of 150 children whose ages variedThe participants were mothers of 150 children whose ages varied between 12between 12--62 months62 months

with a mean of 40;8 and a Standard deviation of 12;4 months. Mowith a mean of 40;8 and a Standard deviation of 12;4 months. Mothers were selectedthers were selectedand recruited by using the snowball technique. The mothers wereand recruited by using the snowball technique. The mothers were given the selfgiven the self--

administered questionnaire comprised of demographic information,administered questionnaire comprised of demographic information,

child rearingchild rearing

practices, living arrangements, social environment and the Statepractices, living arrangements, social environment and the State--Trait Anxiety Inventory.Trait Anxiety Inventory.The results will be discussed in terms of their theoretical andThe results will be discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications.practical implications.

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OverviewOverview

Studies onStudies on

childchild rearingrearing

practicespractices

and nonand non--parentalparentalcarecare mainlymainly fromfromthethe WesternWesterniindustriandustrialliizzededcountries.countries.

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OutcomeOutcome

Maternal employement...Maternal employement...

NonNon--parental child care...parental child care...

Poor quality of day care center...Poor quality of day care center... Poor quality of family day care...Poor quality of family day care...

Attachment profile of the child...Attachment profile of the child...

The age at which nonThe age at which non--parental care starts...parental care starts... The time spent per week in nonThe time spent per week in non--parental care...parental care...

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NonNon--parental careparental care

AAnderssonndersson (1989(1989; 1992; 2003; 1992; 2003)) BBelskyelsky (1988(1988; 2001; 2003; 2001; 2003)) Balleyguier & Melhuish(1995; 1996)Balleyguier & Melhuish(1995; 1996)

Howes (1999)Howes (1999) Lamb (1998; 1998)Lamb (1998; 1998) Pierrehumbert et al (1992; 2002)Pierrehumbert et al (1992; 2002) Rosenthal (1999)Rosenthal (1999)

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How about other societies?How about other societies?

LLike elsewhere, in Northike elsewhere, in North Cyprus, the effectCyprus, the effectof maternal employment on childof maternal employment on child

development is becoming an intriguingdevelopment is becoming an intriguingquestion.question.

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BackgroundBackgroundThe Turkish Cypriot WomenThe Turkish Cypriot Womens positions position

27.1 % of women have paid employment27.1 % of women have paid employment Employed women have the right of paidEmployed women have the right of paidmaternal leave (40 days before the deliverymaternal leave (40 days before the delivery

and 40 days after the birth).and 40 days after the birth). In addition to this maternal leave, employedIn addition to this maternal leave, employed

mothers are given the right of breast feedingmothers are given the right of breast feeding

leave for two hours per day during the firsleave for two hours per day during the firsttsix months after giving birthsix months after giving birth..

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The goal of the present study isThe goal of the present study istwofold:twofold:

to establish whether the Turkish Cypriotto establish whether the Turkish Cypriot

family environment encourages differentfamily environment encourages differentchildchild care practices.care practices.

to explore whether maternal employmentto explore whether maternal employmentstatusstatus,, familial support,familial support, and the mother'sand the mother'srelated behavior towards the child influencerelated behavior towards the child influencess

the child's developmentthe child's development in a Turkish Cypriotin a Turkish Cypriotsample .sample .

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QuestionsQuestions

Does familial support play a role inDoes familial support play a role inparenting and to what extent?parenting and to what extent?

Does maternal employement statusDoes maternal employement status

influence different aspects of early childinfluence different aspects of early childdevelopment?development?

How does maternal anxiety influenceHow does maternal anxiety influence

different aspects of early childdifferent aspects of early childdevelopment?development?

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MMothersothers of the employed mothersof the employed mothers groupgrouphave significantly higher formal schoolinghave significantly higher formal schooling

than the mothers at home groupthan the mothers at home group.. However forHowever forfathers, education does not differ according tofathers, education does not differ according tomothers employement status.mothers employement status.

MMothers at home had their marriages at aothers at home had their marriages at asignificantly younger age than the employedsignificantly younger age than the employedmothersmothers groupgroup..

All children were born to term without seriousAll children were born to term without seriousmedical complications, and families were twomedical complications, and families were two--parent traditional nuclear in types.parent traditional nuclear in types.

Demographic InformationDemographic Information

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The criticalThe critical variablevariabless

thethe employmentemployment status of the motherstatus of the mother

the daily social interaction with grandthe daily social interaction with grand--parentsparents

the stability of the child carethe stability of the child carethe anxiety level of the motherthe anxiety level of the mother

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TestTest InstrumentInstrument

The questionnaire was comprised ofThe questionnaire was comprised of threethreesections:sections:

TThe demographic information sectionhe demographic information section,, TheThe BabyBabys Day Tests Day Test (Le test de la journ(Le test de la journe dee de

bbbb,, Balleyguier, 1979)Balleyguier, 1979), which was previously, which was previously

adapted for the Turkish Cypriot sample,adapted for the Turkish Cypriot sample,

The STAIThe STAI--The StateThe State--Trait Anxiety Inventory Section.Trait Anxiety Inventory Section.

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In theIn the demographic sectiondemographic section mothersmotherswere required to respond to items relatedwere required to respond to items relatedtoto

age,age,

education,education, working status,working status,

living arrangements,living arrangements, childcare practices and so forth.childcare practices and so forth.

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Baby's Day TestBaby's Day Test

The test has environmental scales and childThe test has environmental scales and child

scalesscales::Environmental ScaleEnvironmental Scale is composed ofis composed of

13 subscales measuring mothers', fathers13 subscales measuring mothers', fathersand siblingand siblingss behaviorbehaviortoward the childtoward the child..

Child ScaleChild Scale consists of 31 subscalesconsists of 31 subscales

thatthat measure child's reactions towardmeasure child's reactions towardparents and siblings.parents and siblings.

The items sample daily activities of the familyThe items sample daily activities of the family..

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A partial replication of BalleyguierA partial replication of Balleyguierss

(1979) study was employed.(1979) study was employed. In the present research 7 of theIn the present research 7 of the

environmental subscales and 6 of theenvironmental subscales and 6 of the

child subscales were selected.child subscales were selected.EEach subscale in both scales has a set ofach subscale in both scales has a set of

items varying betweenitems varying between 55 andand 1919..

The present studyThe present study

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MotherMother--child relationchild relation

Environmental ScaleEnvironmental Scale

EnvironmentalEnvironmental sscalecale sscore measuring mothers' behavior toward the child.core measuring mothers' behavior toward the child.

ScalesScales

NumberNumber

of itemsof itemsCronbachCronbach

AlphaAlpha ExampleExample

MA MotherMA Mother

s Affections Affection

55

.75

.75I feed his/her meal on my lap.I feed his/her meal on my lap.

MRMR Mother's RigidityMother's Rigidity 99 .6.611 II insist on hinsist on himim/her/her finishing hisfinishing hismealmeal..""

MEME Education GivenEducation Givenby Mby Motherother 88 ..5353 II prevent him/her from eatingprevent him/her from eatingwith his fingers.with his fingers.

Max MotherMax Mothers Anxietys Anxiety 55 .69.69 When he/she has a fever, IWhen he/she has a fever, Iimmediately call a doctor.immediately call a doctor.

MF MotherMF MotherssSensitivitySensitivity

77 .64.64 As soon as he/she calls forAs soon as he/she calls forme, I go to him/her.me, I go to him/her.

RL Bond WeakeningRL Bond Weakening 77 .45.45 I leave him/her alone to play inI leave him/her alone to play inhis/her room.his/her room.

MP Toilet Training byMP Toilet Training byMotherMother 77 .70.70 I put him/her on potty threeI put him/her on potty threetimes a day.times a day.

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ParentParent--child relationchild relation

Child ScaleChild ScaleChChildild sscalecale sscore measuring chi ld's reactions toward his/hercore measuring chi ld's reactions toward his/her mothermother

ScalesScales

NumberNumber

of itemsof items

CroCronnbachbach

AlphaAlpha ExampleExample

AM AffectAM Affect

towards Mothertowards Mother77 .65.65 He/she shows pleasure whenHe/she shows pleasure when

I arrive.I arrive.

IM Imitation ofIM Imitation of

MotherMother88 .84.84 He/she vocalises back when IHe/she vocalises back when I

talk to him/her.talk to him/her.

AgM AggressionAgM Aggression

towards Mothertowards Mother1010 .82.82 He/she bites me.He/she bites me.

SM SubmissionSM Submission

to Motherto Mother1313 .75.75 He/she eats when I insist.He/she eats when I insist.

Pr Toilet TrainingPr Toilet Training 55 .85.85 He/she is dry and cleanHe/she is dry and cleanduring day time.during day time.

A AutonomyA Autonomy 1919 .88.88 He/she washes his/her handsHe/she washes his/her handswithout help.without help.

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State Trait Anxiety InventoryState Trait Anxiety Inventory STAISTAI

The State Anxiety ScaleThe State Anxiety Scale (Spielberger, 1970)(Spielberger, 1970)

was translated and validated in Turkish bywas translated and validated in Turkish byner & Le Comptener & Le Compte (1980).(1980).

STAI consists of 20 statements thatSTAI consists of 20 statements thatevaluate how respondants feelevaluate how respondants feel right now, atright now, atthis momentthis moment

The Trait Anxiety ScaleThe Trait Anxiety Scale consists of 20consists of 20statements that asses how individuals feelstatements that asses how individuals feelgenerallygenerally and was used in the currentand was used in the currentstudy.study.

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PProcedurerocedureMothers were selected andMothers were selected andrecruited by using therecruited by using thesnowball technique.snowball technique.

Two meetings with mothersTwo meetings with motherswere scheduledwere scheduled

approximately within a weekapproximately within a weekafter the initial meeting.after the initial meeting. After a brief overview of theAfter a brief overview of the

study the mothers werestudy the mothers were

initially given the selfinitially given the self--administered part of theadministered part of theBabyBabys Tests Test withwith 139139structured questionsstructured questions andandthe STAI Inventorythe STAI Inventory..

TThesehese partpartss could becould becompleted at the motherscompleted at the mothersconvenience.convenience.

Babys

DayTest

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RR

esults andesults and

DD

iscussioniscussion

To address the first question raised inTo address the first question raised inthe current study, that is to explorethe current study, that is to explorewhether the Turkish Cypriot familywhether the Turkish Cypriot family

environment encourages differentialenvironment encourages differentialchildcare practices, data werechildcare practices, data were

submitted to the following analyses:submitted to the following analyses:

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IIn the first instance the profile of the sample inn the first instance the profile of the sample inrelation to therelation to the daily social interaction with granddaily social interaction with grand--

parentsparents indicated that there is no significantindicated that there is no significantdifference in relation to mothersdifference in relation to mothers employmentemploymentstatus.status.

Regardless as to whether mothersRegardless as to whether mothers werewereemployed or not,employed or not, on a daily basison a daily basis theythey have socialhave social

interaction with their own parents such as having ainteraction with their own parents such as having ameal together, bring/taking back the childmeal together, bring/taking back the child (44.1 %(44.1 %of mothers at home and 55.9 % employed mothersof mothers at home and 55.9 % employed mothers

group respectively)group respectively)..

RResults andesults and DDiscussion contdiscussion contd

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ResidenceResidence YYoung Turkishoung Turkish

Cypriot parentsCypriot parentsprefer to live in aprefer to live in a

house with a gardenhouse with a garden((52.452.4%) rather than%) rather thanin an apartment.in an apartment.

Among these youngAmong these youngparents,parents, thethe choicechoiceof living in the sameof living in the samebuilding as the closebuilding as the close

relatives i.e.relatives i.e.parents, sisters,parents, sisters,brothers isbrothers is 3232..33 %.%.

GRAND-

PARENTS

UNCLE

AUNT

TURKISH CYPRIOTTURKISH CYPRIOTFAMILY STRUCTUREFAMILY STRUCTURE

MODELMODEL

E. FAMILY

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TThehe subscale scores were subjectedsubscale scores were subjected

to septo sepaarate tests accordrate tests accordiing to tng to thehestabstability of child care, mother`sility of child care, mother`s

employment status, and mother`semployment status, and mother`strait anxiety.trait anxiety.

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DDistribution of children according to careistribution of children according to care

and maternal employement status (%)and maternal employement status (%)

nn Mothers atMothers athomehome

EmployedEmployedmothersmothers

Familial CareFamilial Care 2626 69.269.2 30.830.8

NonNon--Familial CareFamilial Care 3636 36.136.1 63.963.9

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DDistribution of children according to care andistribution of children according to care and

maternal employement status during the firstmaternal employement status during the firsttwo years of life (%)two years of life (%)

nn MothersMothersat homeat home EmployedEmployedmothersmothers

Familial CareFamilial Care 5353 90.390.3 80.680.6

NonNon--Familial CareFamilial Care 99 9.79.7 19.719.7

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The Results Showed ThatThe Results Showed That......

AA majority of children (majority of children (58.158.1%)%) whowho hadhad earlyearlyfamilial care were currently infamilial care were currently in nonnon--familialfamilial

carecare practices (practices (2 =2 = 66..6262, p

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An Emerging Concept:An Emerging Concept:

Stability of child careStability of child care It appears that caring for the first 24 months of the child isIt appears that caring for the first 24 months of the child is

consistently within the family shared with the mother.consistently within the family shared with the mother. While in some families this trend is continued upto the 5thWhile in some families this trend is continued upto the 5th

year of life a new trend is also emerging where the childyear of life a new trend is also emerging where the childsscare moves to a noncare moves to a non--familial setting.familial setting.

The stability of child care is defined as the continuity ofThe stability of child care is defined as the continuity ofcare shared by mother and grandmother during the firstcare shared by mother and grandmother during the firsttwo years of life.two years of life.

tt--tests were computed on thetests were computed on the subsubscale scoresscale scores according toaccording to

the different mode of child carethe different mode of child care. The mean. The mean subsubscale scoresscale scoresand the computed tand the computed t--values are given invalues are given in the followingthe followingttableabless..

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Comparison of child scalesComparison of child scales aaccordingccording

toto stability of child carestability of child care

ScalesScales

FamilialFamilial

CareCare

NonNon--

FamilialFamilial

CareCarett pp

AM Affect towardsAM Affect towards

MotherMother2.132.13 2.232.23 .65.65 NSNS

IM Imitation of MotherIM Imitation of Mother 1.541.54 1.801.80 1.471.47 NSNSAgM AggressionAgM Aggression

towards Mothertowards Mother.77.77 .86.86 .57.57 NSNS

SM Submission toSM Submission to

MotherMother1.711.71 1.871.87 1.291.29 NSNS

Pr Toilet TrainingPr Toilet Training 2.052.05 2.542.54 2.162.16 p

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As can be seen from the table, only two of the sixAs can be seen from the table, only two of the sixscales reached statistical significance relatedscales reached statistical significance related

with the differences between mean for thewith the differences between mean for thecontuinity of familial care and noncontuinity of familial care and non--familial care.familial care.

The two scales that showed significant differenceThe two scales that showed significant differencewas childwas childs autonomy and acquisition of toilets autonomy and acquisition of toilettraining.training.

Children entirely brought up in their family areChildren entirely brought up in their family areless autonomous and less toilet trained thanless autonomous and less toilet trained thanthose in nonthose in non--familial care setting.familial care setting.

ResultsResults

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Comparison of environmental subscalesComparison of environmental subscales

aaccordingccording toto stability of child carestability of child care

ScalesScales

FamilialFamilial

CareCare

NonNon--

FamilialFamilial

CareCarett pp

MA MotherMA Mothers Affections Affection 2.022.02 2.422.42 2.892.89 p

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ResultsResults Mothers who left their child to the nonMothers who left their child to the non--

family care showed more affectionfamily care showed more affectiontowards the child.towards the child.

However these mothers were alsoHowever these mothers were also

more anxious than those in the stablemore anxious than those in the stablefamily care group.family care group.

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In order to determine if full timeIn order to determine if full timemothers and employed mothers differmothers and employed mothers differ

in their responses towards theirin their responses towards theirchildren and the reactions theychildren and the reactions they

received, treceived, t--tests were computed on thetests were computed on thesubsubscale scores. The meanscale scores. The mean subsubscalescalescores and the computed tscores and the computed t--values arevalues are

given ingiven in the followingthe following ttableabless..

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Comparison of child scalesComparison of child scales aaccordingccording

toto the maternal employment statusthe maternal employment status

ScalesScales

EmployedEmployed

mothersmothersMothers atMothers at

homehome

tt pp

AM Affect towardsAM Affect towards

MotherMother2.192.19 2.192.19 00 NSNS

IM Imitation of MotherIM Imitation of Mother 1.871.87 1.521.52 2.062.06 p

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ResultsResults The only scale that showed a statisticalThe only scale that showed a statistical

significance was the imitation of the mother.significance was the imitation of the mother.

Employed mothers group children imitateEmployed mothers group children imitatetheir mother sigificantly more than theirtheir mother sigificantly more than theirpeers in the full time mothers group.peers in the full time mothers group.

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Comparison of environmental scalesComparison of environmental scales aaccordingccording

toto

the maternal employment statusthe maternal employment status

ScalesScales

EmployedEmployed

mothersmothersMothers atMothers at

homehome tt pp

MA MotherMA Mothers Affections Affection 2.422.42 2.092.09 2.392.39 p

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ResultsResults As in the stability of day care comparisonAs in the stability of day care comparisonthe motherthe mothers affection showed significants affection showed significant

differences according to maternaldifferences according to maternalemployement status. Employed mothersemployement status. Employed mothers

were significantly more affectinate thanwere significantly more affectinate thanmothers at home.mothers at home.

Mothers at home were more rigid in childMothers at home were more rigid in childrearing practices, while employed mothersrearing practices, while employed motherswere more anxious about the developmentwere more anxious about the development

of their children.of their children.

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ResultsResults Overall mothers at home showed higherOverall mothers at home showed higher

anxiety levels than working mothers.anxiety levels than working mothers.

However, further analyses did not reveal anHowever, further analyses did not reveal aninfluence of motherinfluence of mothers anxiety on childs anxiety on childdevelopment.development.

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ConclusionConclusionThe findings of the present research show thatThe findings of the present research show that

The Turkish Cypriot families with vastThe Turkish Cypriot families with vastpreference to family care indeed organizepreference to family care indeed organizedifferent childcare practice compared todifferent childcare practice compared toindustrialised societies in the West .industrialised societies in the West .

Familial CareFamilial Care evidently plays a significantevidently plays a significantrole on childrole on childs autonomous behavior and thes autonomous behavior and theacquisition of toilet training.acquisition of toilet training.

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ConclusionConclusion

Children whose mothers were employed showedChildren whose mothers were employed showedhigher imitative behavior than children whose mothershigher imitative behavior than children whose mothers

were at home.were at home.

Contarary to the higher level of rigidity reported by theContarary to the higher level of rigidity reported by the

mothers at home, the employed mothers were moremothers at home, the employed mothers were moresensitive to the needs and showed more affection tosensitive to the needs and showed more affection totheir children.their children.

Contatry to expection, mothers at home were moreContatry to expection, mothers at home were moreanxious than mothers in employment.anxious than mothers in employment.

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FinallyFinally To what extent does child rearingTo what extent does child rearing

practices are influenced by social andpractices are influenced by social andcontextual variables?contextual variables?

At least for the Turkish Cypriot sampleAt least for the Turkish Cypriot samplethe claim here is that continous andthe claim here is that continous and

stable familial support enhances childstable familial support enhances childssdevelopment.development.

Turkish Cypriot FamilyTurkish Cypriot Family

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Turkish Cypriot FamilyTurkish Cypriot Family

StructureStructure

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The interpretation of the presentThe interpretation of the presentfindings requires great care to befindings requires great care to be

considered due to the relatively smallconsidered due to the relatively smallsample size.sample size.

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Thank you!Thank you!