Ch01 Lecture

Biology: Life on EarthEighth Edition

Lecture for Chapter 1An Introduction to Life on Earth

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

Teresa Audesirk • Gerald Audesirk • Bruce E. Byers

Chapter 1 Outline

• 1.1 How Do Scientists Study Life? p. 2• 1.2 Evolution: The Unifying Theory of Biology,

p. 9• 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living

Things? p. 10• 1.4 How Do Scientists Categorize the Diversity

of Life? p. 14• 1.5 How Does Knowledge of Biology Illuminate

Everyday Life? p. 15

Section 1.1 Outline• 1.1 How Do Scientists Study Life?

– Life Can Be Studied at Different Levels of Organization

– Scientific Principles Underlie All Scientific Inquiry– The Scientific Method is the Basis for Scientific

Inquiry– Communication Is Crucial to Science– Science is a Human Endeavor– Scientific Theories Have Been Thoroughly

Tested

Levels of Organization

• The living and nonliving world is organized at many levels


• All matter is formed of elements• An atom is the smallest particle of an

element retaining the properties of an element

• Atoms combine to form molecules• Molecules provide the building blocks for

cells, the smallest unit of life


• Some forms of life consist of single cells• In multicellular forms cells combine to form

tissues • Tissues combine to form organs, which

can be united as organ systems• Multicellular organisms are composed of

multiple organ systems


• Organisms of the same type that are capable of interbreeding are called a species

• A group of organisms of the same species living in a given area is a population

• Interacting populations make up a community


• A community and its nonliving environment is an ecosystem

• The entire surface of the Earth, including living and nonliving components is the biosphere

Scientific Principles

• Biology is a scientific discipline• All scientific inquiry is based on a small set

of assumptions or principles– Natural causality– Uniformity in space and time– Similar perception

Natural Causality

• Historical approaches to studying life1. Belief that some events happen through

supernatural forces (e.g. the actions of Greek gods)

2. Belief that all events can be traced to natural causes that we can comprehend (natural causality)• Corollary: Evidence gathered from nature has not

been deliberately distorted to fool us

Natural Laws Apply Everywhere

• Natural laws are uniform in space and time• This principle is key understanding

biological events (e.g. evolution) that occurred before humans recorded them

Natural Laws Apply Everywhere

• Creationism is contrary to the principle of uniformity-in-time and natural causality– Creationists hold that different species were

created one at a time by the direct intervention of a supernatural being, contrary to events we see happening today

Similar Perceptions

• Assumption that all human beings perceive natural events in fundamentally the same way

• Common perception allows us to accept observations of other humans as reliable

Similar Perceptions

• Common perception is usually not found in appreciation of art, poetry, and music, nor between cultures or religious beliefs– Value systems are subjective– Science requires objectively gathered data

The Scientific Method• Scientific inquiry is a rigorous method for

making observations• The Scientific Method for inquiry follows 4

steps…

The Scientific Method

1. Observation of a phenomenon– Subsequent development of questions

2. Formulation of a hypothesis– A supposition that explains an observed

phenomenon, leading to testable predictions


3. Testing through experimentation– Additional controlled observations

4. Development of a conclusion– Evaluation of hypothesis in light of

experimental data


• Scientific experimentation tests the assertion that a single variable causes a particular observation

• The experiment must rule out the influence of other possible variables on the recorded observations


• Controls are incorporated into experiments

• Controls keep untested variables constant• Scientific method is illustrated by

Francesco Redi’s experiment

Application to Everyday Problems

• Assume you are late for an appointment and hurriedly try to start your car

1. Observation: The car won’t start


2. Hypothesis: the battery is dead


3. Experimental design: Replace your battery with another and restart the car


4. Premature conclusion:• The problem was a dead battery because

the car starts when replaced with a different one


5. Recognition of inadequate controls• Did you attempt to start the car more than

once?• Was the battery cable on my original

battery loose?


6. Establishing a controla. Reinstall your old battery, check for tight

cables, now try to start the carb. If car still fails to start on old battery, the

only variable in this investigation now is the effectiveness of the battery


7. Making a better conclusion, based on controlled experiments• Your battery was probably dead

Limitations of the Scientific Method

• Can never be sure all untested variables are controlled

• Conclusions based on the experimental data must remain tentative

Limitations of the Scientific Method

• Results of experimentation must be communicated thoroughly and accurately to other scientists for repetition

• Repetition by other scientists add verification that findings can be used as the basis for further studies

Science Is a Human Endeavor

• Human personality traits are part of “real science”

• Scientists, like other people may be driven by pride, ambition, or fear

• Scientists sometimes make mistakes• Accidents, lucky guesses, intellectual

powers, and controversies with others contribute strongly to scientific advances

Science Is a Human Endeavor

1. In the 1920s, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming grew bacteria in cultures

2.One of the bacterial cultures became contaminated with a mold

3.Fleming nearly destroyed the culture when he noticed the mold (Penicillium) inhibited bacterial growth in the culture

Science is a Human Endeavor

4. Fleming hypothesized that the mold produced an antibacterial substance

5. Further tests using broth from pure Penicillium cultures lead to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin

Science is a Human Endeavor

6. Fleming continued beyond a lucky “accident” with further scientific investigation to a great discovery

7. “Chance favors the prepared mind” (Louis Pasteur)

Scientific Theory

• A scientific theory differs in definition from that of everyday usage– Many people use the word theory to mean

hypothesis, and “educated guess”

Scientific Theory

• A scientific theory is a general explanation for important natural phenomena– It is extensively and reproducibly tested– It is more like a principle or natural law (e.g.

the atomic, gravitational, and cell theories)– If compelling evidence arises, a theory may

be modified

Scientific Theory

• New scientific evidence may prompt radical revision of existing theory

• Example: the discovery of prions…

Scientific Theory

• Before 1980, all known infectious diseases contained DNA or RNA

• In 1982, Stanley Prusiner showed that the infectious sheep disease scrapie is caused by a protein (a “protein infectious particle” or prion)

Scientific Theory

• Prions have since been shown to cause “mad cow disease” and diseases in humans

• The willingness of scientists to revise accepted belief in light of new data was critical to understanding and expanding the study of prions

Science Is Based on Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning– Used in the development of scientific theories– A generalization is created from many

observations– e.g., the cell theory (all living things are made

of one or more cells) arises from many observations that all indicate a cellular basis for life

Science Is Based on Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning– Generating hypotheses based on a well-

supported generalization (such as a theory)– e.g., based on the cell theory, any newly

discovered organism would be expected to be composed of cells

• 1.2 Evolution: The Unifying Theory of Biology– Three natural processes underlie evolution– Much of organism variability is inherited– Natural selection preserves survival and

reproductive genes

Section 1.2 Outline

Unifying Theory of Biology

• Abundant evidence has been found to support evolutionary theory since Darwin and Wallace proposed it in the mid-1800s

• Those who see evolution as “just a theory” don’t understand the scientific definition of a theory

Unifying Theory of Biology

• Evolution explains how diverse forms of life originated through changes in their genetic makeup – Modern organisms descended with modification

from pre-existing life forms– “Nothing in biology makes sense, except in the

light of evolution” (Theodosius Dobzhansky)

Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution

• Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace formulated the basis of our modern understanding of evolution

• Evolution arises as a consequence of three natural processes…

Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution

1.Genetic variation among members of a population

2.Inheritance of those variations by offspring of parents carrying the variation

3.Natural selection of individuals whose survival and enhanced reproduction are due to the favorable variations they carry

Genetic Variability

• Genetic variation arises from segments of DNA (genes)

• Changes in genes (mutation) alter the informational content

• Mutations arise from a number of sources– Mutations can occur from irradiation– Mutations occasionally arise from copying

mistakes in DNA during cellular reproduction

Genetic Variability

• Effects of mutation– No effect (harmless)– A decrease in organism’s ability to function– Death of the organism– An increase in an organism’s ability to survive

and reproduce (rare)• Mutations occurring over millions of years

and passed through many generations cause members of a species to be slightly different

Natural Selection

• Organisms that best meet environmental challenges leave the most offspring

• Natural selection preserves genes that help organisms flourish

Natural Selection

• Adaptations are structures, physiological process, or behaviors that aid in survival and reproduction

• Adaptations that are good for one environment may be poor in another

Natural Selection

• Species that cannot adapt to environmental change go extinct (e.g. the dinosaurs, illustrated by the Triceratops

Natural Selection

• The many different habitats (environments) in an area coupled with evolutionary adaptive processes produce species variety or biodiversity

• Humans are responsible for accelerating the rate of environmental change (and therefore the rate of extinction of species)

Section 1.3 Outline

• 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living Things?– Living Things Are Both Complex, Organized,

and Composed of Cells– Living Things Respond to Stimuli– Living Things Maintain Relatively Constant

Internal Conditions Through Homeostasis

Section 1.3 Outline

• 1.3 What Are the Characteristics of Living Things? (continued)– Living Things Acquire and Use Materials and

Energy– Living Things Grow– Living Things Reproduce Themselves– Living Things as a Whole Have the Capacity

to Evolve

Defining Life

• Dictionary definition of life is: – “the quality that distinguishes a vital and

functioning being from a dead body”• Living things are more than the sum of

their parts; life is difficult to define• The complexity and ordered interactions

of parts in living things gives rise to certain emergent properties

Living Things Are Composed of Cells

• Living things are complex and organized


• The cell theory states that the cell is the basic unit of life

• A single cell has an elaborate internal structure


• All cells contain:– Genes that provide information to direct

the cell– Organelles, small specialized

structures that perform specific functions

– A plasma membrane that encloses the fluid cytoplasm and organelles from the outside world

Homeostasis

• Organisms must maintain relatively constant internal conditions (homeostasis)– e.g. many organisms regulate body temperature

Homeostasis

• Homeostatic mechanisms include– Sweating in hot weather or dousing oneself with

cool water– Metabolizing more food, basking in the sun, or

turning up the thermostat in cold weather• Organisms still grow and change while

maintaining homeostasis

Living Things Respond to Stimuli

• Organisms sense and respond to internal and external environmental stimuli– Sensory organs in animals can detect and

respond to external stimuli like light, sound, chemicals, etc.

– Internal stimuli in animals are perceived by stretch, temperature, pain, and chemical receptors

– Plants and bacteria respond to stimuli as well (e.g. plants to light, bacteria to available nutrients in the medium)

Living Things Acquire Materials

• Materials and energy required to maintain organization, to grow, and to reproduce


• Important materials (nutrients) acquired from air, water, soil, or other living things

• Nutrients are continuously recycled among living and nonliving things


• Nutrients are incorporated into the bodies of organisms

• Metabolism is the sum total of all the chemical reactions needed to sustain an organism’s life


• Organisms obtain energy in two ways– Plants and some single-celled organisms

capture sunlight in photosynthesis. – Other organisms consume energy-rich

molecules in the bodies of other organisms• All energy that sustains life comes directly

or indirectly from the sun

Living Things Grow

• Every organism becomes larger over time – Plants, bird, and mammals grow by producing

more cells to increase their mass– Bacteria grow by enlarging their cells; they

also divide to make more individuals• Growth involves the conversion of

acquired materials to molecules of the organism’s body

Living Things Reproduce Themselves

• Organisms give rise to offspring of the same type (reproduction)

• The parent’s genetic material (DNA) is passed on to the offspring, creating continuity of life

• Diversity of life occurs because offspring may be genetically different from their parents

Capacity to Evolve

• The genetic composition of a whole species changes over many generations

• Mutations and variable offspring allow a species to evolve

Capacity to Evolve

• Evolutionary theory states that modern organisms descended with modification from pre-existing life-forms

• Natural selection is a process where organisms with certain adaptations survive and reproduce more successfully than others

Section 1.4 Outline

• 1.4 How Do Scientists Categorize the Diversity of Life?– Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell Types in the

Domains– Unicellularity and multicellularity in Bacteria,

Archaea, and the kingdoms of Eukarya– Ways Organisms Acquire Energy

Categorizing Life

• Organisms can be grouped into three domains– Bacteria (single, simple cells) – Archaea (single, simple cells) – Eukarya (one or more highly complex cells)

Categorizing Life

• Domain Eukarya contains four subdivisions or kingdoms– Fungi– Plantae– Animalia– The “Protists”

Categorizing Life

• There are exceptions to any simple set of rules used to distinguish the domains and kingdoms, but three characteristics are particularly useful– Cell type– The number of cells in each organism– Energy acquisition

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Cell types named after presence or absence of a nucleus– The nucleus is a membrane-enclosed sac

containing the cell’s genetic material


• Two cell types seen among all living things– Prokaryotic (“before nucleus” in Greek)

• Only 1-2 micrometers in diameter• Lacking organelles or a nucleus• Cell type found in Domains Bacteria and Archaea


– Eukaryotic (“true nucleus” in Greek)• Larger than prokaryotic cells• Contain a variety of organelles, including a nucleus• Cell type found only among members of Domain

Eukarya

Unicellularity vs. Multicellularity

• Unicellular (single-celled) organisms found in:– Bacteria– Archaea– The protists in Eukarya

Unicellularity vs. Multicellularity

• Multicellular (many-celled) organisms found in Eukarya– Kingdom Fungi– Kingdom Plantae– Kingdom Animalia

Ways Organisms Acquire Energy

• Autotrophs (“self-feeders”)– Photosynthetic organisms that capture

sunlight and store it in sugar and fats– Includes plants, some bacteria, and some

protists

Ways Organisms Acquire Energy

• Heterotrophs (“other-feeders”)– Organisms that acquire energy through

ingesting molecules in the bodies of other organisms

– Includes many archaeans, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals

– Size of food eaten varies from individual food molecules to ingestion and digestion of whole chunks

• 1.5 How Does Knowledge of Biology Illuminate Everyday Life?– Science is Part of Everyday Human Existence

Section 1.5 Outline

Science Is Part of Everyday Human Existence

• We can use the scientific method as we observe things in nature

• Applying scientific thought to natural observations does not decrease one’s sense of wonder and appreciation

Science Is Part of Everyday Human Existence

• Scientific understanding and a sense of wonder about nature are not mutually exclusive

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Ch01 Lecture