CHAPTER 15

Ethnographic Research: Its History, Methods, and Theories

Ethnographic Research: Its History, Methods, and Theories.

Components of Cultural Anthropology

There are two main components in Cultural

Anthropology

1. Ethnography -A detailed description of a particular culture primarily based on fieldwork.

2. Ethnology -The study and analysis of different cultures from a comparative point of view.

Traditional vs. Modern Ethnography Traditional- Early ethnographies that were

focused on the life ways of non-industrialized communities which were thought to soon disappear by “civilized” nations.

Modern ethnography has changed focus towards documented dying cultures and changing cultures in the face of globalization and forced assimilation.

Urgent/Salvage Anthropology Since anthropologists can not stop the

extinction of cultures due to violent or forced cultural changes they have tried to document what is left of these endangered cultures through a technique known as

urgent anthropology: ethnographic research that documents endangered cultures.

Acculturation Studies

Similar to urgent anthropological studies are acculturation studies.

These studies will document changes new cultures that emerged due to globalization while documenting the traditional way of the culture as it might have been pre-contact.

Advocacy Anthropology

Some anthropologists have gone beyond just studies of changing cultures due to Western contact and become an advocate for them.

This is known as advocacy anthropology: research that is community based and politically involved.

These anthropologists are committed to social justice, humans rights, and the preservation of ethnic minority culture.

Multi-Sited Ethnography

Multi-sited ethnography: the investigation and documentation of peoples and cultures embedded in the larger structures of a globalizing world, utilizing a range of methods in various locations of time and space.

Ethnography: Research Methods

Ethnographic fieldwork is best defined as extended on-location research to gather detailed and in-depth information on a society’s customary ideas, values, and practices through participation in its collective social life.

Site Selection

Anthropologists primarily research cultures outside of their own, in a foreign country. This is based on the idea that studies done in one’s own culture might bring biased to the research due to the familiarity with the group or culture being studied.

Research will require several questions to be asked such as:Finding fundingSecuring permission to researchDeciding what focus the research will take

Accurately Describing a Culture

To accurately describe a culture an anthropologist needs to seek out and consider three types of data:1. The people’s own understanding of their

culture and the general rules they share.2. The extent to which people believe they are

observing those rules.3. The behavior that can be directly observed.

Research Methodology There are many facets to researching a new

culture or cultural practice that the ethnography will use:Consent (Acceptance)Participant ObservantKey ConsultantsQuantitative & Qualitative DataMapping, Photography & Filming Interviewing

Informed Consent

Informed consent- a formal recorded agreement to participate in research.

When it is a challenge to obtain informed consent, or even impossible to precisely explain the meaning and purpose of this concept and its actual consequences, anthropologists may protect the identities of individuals.

Participant Observation

Participant observation- a research method in which one learns about a group’s beliefs and behaviors through social participation and personal observation within the community, as well as interviews and discussion with individual members of the group over an extended stay in the community.

Key Consultant

Key consultants- will be a member of the society being studied, who provides information that helps researchers understand the meaning of what they observe.

Data Collection

There are two main types of data collection used in many types of research.

Quantitative- Statistical or measurable information, such as demographic composition, the types and quantities of crops grown, or the ratio of spouses born and raised within or outside the community.

Qualitative- Nonstatistical information such as personal life stories and customary beliefs and practices.

Interviewing These conversations may take two approaches:

• Informal interview • An unstructured, open-ended conversation in

everyday life.• Formal interview

• A structured question/answer session carefully notated as it occurs and based on prepared questions.

Interviewing Activity Pair off into groups of 2. Each student will conduct an ethnography on the

other through interview. First write a series of questions (5-8) about what you

would like to know about the other student. Ask both personal and impersonal questions. Write your partners response (Do NOT put your

partners name on your paper) How easily did your informant (interviewee) answer the

questions and what ones did they feel uncomfortable with?

Do you believe you gained acceptance into your informants world? Why or Why Not?

Based on your observations and interview responses what types of inferences might you be able to draw about your informant?

Eliciting Devices

Apart from traditional techniques of interview, data collection, and the use of a key cultural consultant are eliciting devices.

These techniques can be activities or objects that can be used to draw out individuals and encourage them to recall and share information. Taking a walk Asking about particular stories Share details of one’s own childhood or a

fond memory. Pictures

Challenges of Ethnographic Fieldwork

Ethnographic research creates a tough challenge in itself. Often anthropologists must face personal challenges while trying to adjust to a new culture and conduct fieldwork. Among the numerous mental challenges anthropologists commonly face are Culture shock Loneliness Feeling like an ignorant outsider Being socially awkward in a new cultural

setting.

Challenges of Ethnography

Physical challenges typically include but are not limited too:Adjusting to unfamiliar food, climate, and

hygiene conditions.The need to be constantly alert to

relevant conversations that are significant to one’s research.

Ethnographers must spend considerable time interviewing, making detailed notes, and analyzing data.

Challenges of Ethnography

Social & political challenges typically include but are not limited too:The need to gain acceptance within the

community. Issues involving the researchers age,

skin color, ethnicity, religion, or gender.Being the center of rivaling groups while

trying to maintain a neutral position.

Completing an Ethnography

Upon completion of the data collection in the field the ethnographer must begin to piece together their information. Written ethnographies are more traditional but certainly not the only method to document the data. Digital photography is the method by which the use of audio and visual technologies can be used to collect and analysis the information collected.

Ethnohistory This is a type of historical ethnographic study by

which a culture(s) of the recent past is explored through oral histories, accounts of explorers, missionaries, and traders, and through analysis of records such as land titles, birth and death records, and other archival materials.

This type of research is great for building theories regarding culture change. In science an explanation of natural phenomena,

supported by a reliable body of data.

Description vs. Theory

Once an ethnography is complete so begins the interpretation of the information collected in the field. It is necessary to understand how descriptions can develop into interpretations.

Theories are not usually ascertained by the researcher due to the nature of the data (non-scientific) rather they focus on the probability of certain aspects of the culture.

Researchers might rely more heavily on the doctrine of a culture: an assertion of opinion or belief formally handed down by an authority as true and indisputable.

Also known as dogma.

Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)

In science a single instance of a phenomenon is not enough to support a hypothesis- let alone a theory

Anthropological theories are formulated from worldwide cross cultural comparisons throughout history.

The Human Relations Area Files help to make this happen.

HRAF

HRAF is a vast collection of cross-indexed ethnographic and archaeological data catalogued by cultural characteristics and geographic locations.

Archived in about 300 libraries (on microfiche and/or online).

They include: warfare, subsistence practices, settlement patterns, marriage, rituals, etc.

Anthropology’s Theoretical Perspectives

Ethnographers will typically fall into one of two categories for their fieldwork.

Idealist perspective A theoretical approach stressing the

primacy of superstructure (ideas & values) in cultural research and analysis.

Materialist perspectiveA theoretical approach stressing the

primacy of infrastructure (material conditions) in cultural research and analysis.

This class period (either alone or in small groups) I would like you to examine the culture of Winthrop University. Your write-up (not including the hand-drawn map), should be no more than a single page in length and should do a reasonable job of completing all parts of the investigation. It is worth 20 points and due today at the end of class.

Find a Location: Go to a public location anywhere on campus. Define a specific area of interest, no larger than about 25 feet by 25 feet (the measurements don't have to be exact; you can pace it off or just estimate).

Site Identification: In a sentence, identify your site (e.g., the picnic table in the courtyard behind the Owens building).

Map. Draw a sketch map of your area. A sketch map can be in pencil and need not be drawn to scale, but it should be clear and should show the major features, such as tables, trash cans, planters, trees, grass, or sidewalk.

  Data Collection (Observed Behavior). Sit for 15 minutes just observing the area you

have selected and describe in a few sentences the behaviors you observe and their relative frequency. Describe what is going on. Note how many people pass through your site. Collect data on the individuals passing through. What does the average age appear to be child, teenager or adult? How many males vs females? How many different racial groups? List as many as you can. How many different languages did you hear? List any that you recognize. How many different religious displays did you see (cross on a necklace, a religious head covering, etc).

Focused throughout the research on the five “w”’s “Who” practices this? “What” is

practiced? “Where” is this practiced? “When” is it

practiced? “Why” is it practiced?