Chapter 16Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and

Colonial Rebellion

OverviewMid-18th c. was a renewal of European warfare:

Austria vs. Prussia over dominance of central EuropeGreat Britain vs. France for commercial & colonial supremacy

Outcomes: Prussia emerges as great power Great Britain gains world empire

Peace results (Peace of Paris, 1763) led to restructuring of taxation & finance:

American RevolutionContinental enlightened absolutismContinuing French financial crisisReform of Spanish South American empire

“Old Custom House Quay”Samuel Scott

European Overseas EmpiresFour phases of European contact with the New World:

Discovery, exploration, conquest, settlement—to end of 17th c.

Mercantile empires & great power trade rivalries (GB, France, Spain); slavery; colonial independence—to 1820s.

• Commercial goals lead to intense rivalry and conflict.• Leads to creation of large navies, thus naval wars.• Fundamental element of this phase is Slavery.• By 18th Century New World Slave population almost entirely

black.• Finally, emancipation from European control.

European Overseas Empires19th-c. Empires in Africa & Asia

• Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Algeria• Trade, national honor, Christian Missionary

enterprise, and military strategy.

Decolonization, mid- to late 20th c.• Dominate socially, economically, intellectually.• Essentially destroy existing cultures.

Source of European world domination: technology (ships & guns)

Mercantile Empires, early 18th c.—boundaries set by 1713 Treaty of Utrecht

Spain: South America except for Brazil; Florida, Mexico, California & SW North America; Central America; Caribbean possessions (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, DR).Britain: N. Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland; Caribbean possessions (Bermuda, Jamaica, Barbados); trading posts on Indian subcontinentFrance: St. Lawrence, Ohio, & Mississippi river valleys; Caribbean possessions (Haiti, Guadalupe, Martinique); trading posts in India & West AfricaNetherlands: Surinam (S. America); Cape Colony (S. Africa); trading posts in West Africa, Sri Lanka, & India; also controlled trade with Java (Indonesia) in SE Pacific

Mercantilist Goals (Characteristics)

1. Bullionism:”Hard Money” Source of wealth.Export more than you import.

2. Each nation to achieve economic self sufficiency.

3. Thriving agriculture to be encouraged.Less of a need to import food.Prosperous farmers could provide based of taxation.

Mercantilist Goals (Characteristics)

Sea Power necessary for control of foreign markets.

Imposition of all internal taxes.

Colonies would provide captive markets with raw materials.

Trade is a “zero-sum” game.Must gain at the expense of others

Mercantilist Goals (Characteristics)

A large population was needed to provide a domestic labor force to people the colonies.

Luxury items should be avoidedThey took money out of the economy unnecessarily.

State action was needed to regulate and enforce all of these economic policies.

State-sponsored trade monopolies

French-British RivalryN. American colonial quarrels over St. Lawrence River valley, upper New England, Ohio River valley; fishing rights, fur trade, Native American alliancesBiggest area of rivalry: West Indies—tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, sugarThe commodities were becoming part of everyday life.Sugar a staple, rather than a luxuryIndia: factories, European trading posts.

The Spanish Colonial SystemUntil mid 1700’s, primary purpose was to mine metal for Spain in New World.Colonial Government

The technical link between New World and Spain was crown of Castile (Queen Isabella)Castilian monarch effectively nominates viceroys to serve as chief executives in New World and carry out law from Council of Indies.top-down administration, almost no local self-government

Trade Regulation

Only one port authorized for use in American trade (Cadiz)Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) regulated all trade with New World Functioned to serve Spanish commercial interests (precious-metal mines)Flota (Commercial Vessels) system tried to ensure Spanish economic hegemony.

Colonial Reform under the Spanish Bourbon Monarchs

Crucial early 18th-c. change: War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) and Treaty of Utrecht replaced Spanish Habsburgs with Bourbons of FrancePhilip V (r. 1700–1714) and successors tried to revive decaying trade monopoly, suppress smuggling.Charles III (r. 1759–1788): most important imperial reformer—royal representatives favored over local councils; improved imperial economy, but introduced tensions between Spanish from Spain (Peninsulares) and creoles (Spanish born in America).This discontent and resentment from creoles would lead to wars of revolution in the early 19th Century.

Map 16–1 VICEROYALTIES IN LATIN AMERICA IN 1780 The late eighteenth-century viceroyalties in Latin America display the effort of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy to establish more direct control of the colonies. They sought this control through the introduction of more royal officials and by establishing more governmental districts.

The Silver Mines of Potosí. Worked by conscripted Indian laborers under extremely harsh conditions, these mines provided Spain with a vast treasure in silver.

African Presence in AmericasHad always existed in some form in parts of Europe, but from 16th c., became fundamental to the British & Spanish imperial economies (plantation economy)Driven by labor shortage due to disease that killed hundreds of thousands of natives.Supplied by internal African warfare: slave markets on West African coast—not imposed by Europeans, but preexistingBegan in 16th c. in Spanish America, 17th c. in British America

West Indies, Brazil, SugarFar more slaves imported into West Indies and Brazil than North America.Over a century of slave trading preceded Jamestown in 1619.By early 1700’s 20,000 new Africans a year arrived in the West Indies as slaves. Slave trade grew in 18th c. because of low fertility rate and high mortality rate of established slaves—difficult to create stable self-reproducing population

This eighteenth-century print shows bound African captives being forced to a slaving port. It was largely African middlemen who captured slaves in the interior and marched them to the coast.North Wind Picture Archives

Map 16–2 THE SLAVE TRADE, 1400–1860 Slavery is an ancient institution and complex slave-trading routes were in existence in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia for centuries, but it was the need to supply labor for the plantations of the Americas that led to the greatest movement of peoples across the face of the earth.

Sugar was both raised and processed on plantations such as this one in Brazil.© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS

Slavery and the Transatlantic Economy

Slave trade dominance: 16th Century: Portuguese and Spanish17th Century: Dutch18th Century: English and French

“Triangular Trade”Guns to Africa---exchanged for slaves---taken to West Indies---they were traded for sugar and other products---which were then shipped to Europe.

New England to West Indies18th Century political turmoil in Africa (Kongo), increases supply of slaves.

The Middle Passage

The Experience of SlaveryEstimated 9 million Africans or more brought to Americas over 4 centuries. The largest forced intercontinental migration in history.More black slaves came to New World than did free European settlers.Bad conditions crossing, disease, death.“Seasoned” slaves worth more than those newly arrived.“Seasoning”: Process where slaves understood they were no longer free.

New names, new work skills, learning local European language.New slaves are “apprentices” to older slaves

The Experience of SlaveryMaintenance of ethnic bonds in the New World—African language, religion

Plantation life:Varied from colony to colony.

Limited protection

Owners fear of revolt, thus slave laws that favor master.

Corporal punishment

Did not recognizes slave marriages

Legally children of slaves were slaves, owned also by owner.

Some slaves mixed Christianity with African religions

Corporal Punishment

The Experience of Slavery

One of factors that continued slavery was racist ideology.

Africans considered “savages” by Europeans, Christians and Muslims.

Image of blackness evokes negative connotation by many European cultures.

Slaves on the plantations of the American South were the chattel property of their masters, and their lives were grim. Some artists sought to disguise this harsh reality by depicting the lighter moments of slave society as in this scene of slaves dancing.Getty Images Inc.—Hulton Archive Photos

The Slave Ship Brookes This print records the main decks of the 320-ton slave shipBrookes.Photographs and Prints Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations

Middle passage - Amistad

Mid-Eighteenth-Century WarsMid 18th Century instability leads to prolonged warfare by major states.Assumption is that war could further national interests.Professional armies that rarely affected civilian population.Two fundamental areas of fighting:

Overseas EmpiresCentral and eastern Europe.

Mid-Eighteenth-Century WarsWar of Jenkins’ Ear (1739)

English-Spanish competition in West IndiesSpain maintains coastal patrols which boarded and searched English vessels to look for contraband.1731: Boarding operation by Spanish on English vessel which resulted in the “removal” of English captain Robert Jenkins’ ear.Ear preserved in jar of brandy…….yummy.Not an issue until 1738 when Jenkins reports of Spanish atrocities.British declared war on Spain in 1739Minor war was opening encounter to European warfare up to 1815

War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)

Frederick II of Prussia

Seizes Austrian province of Silesia

Undoes Pragmatic Sanction and upsets balance of power.

War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)

central & eastern Europe

Prussia invades (Habsburg) Silesia; France & Spain back Prussia, England backs Austria.

Mistake by France. Backing a new German state would later endanger France. Also going against Austria, Britain gets involved by ensuring that these areas remained Austria/British friendly.

French military/economics divided.

War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)

Maria Theresa maintains Hapsburg empire as a major political power

Ended with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748

Prussia retained Silesia, Spain renewed Treaty of Utrecht with Britain so they could import slaves from Spanish colonies

The “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756

France and Britain clash in New England.Prelude to French and Indian War (1756)Great Britain (George II) joined forces with Germany, because they felt the French might attack due to issues in north America. Convention of Westminster (Jan 1756)France and Austria agreed to defensive alliance

Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)

England now backs Prussia, France backs Austria; colonial theater: Britain trounces France in N. America

Treaty of Paris made Britain into a world power, through World War II

Europe and the American Revolution

Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue

caused by problems of revenue collection common to all powers after Seven Years’ War

British tried to tax colonies to pay for war

Colonies responded that they wouldn’t be taxed without representation

The Crisis and Independence

Colonies resisted several measures designed to raise money, including Intolerable Acts

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense aroused revolutionary sentiments

Continental Congress declared Declaration of Independence

American Political Ideas

Influence of English ideas & events in America

Revolution of 1688

Writings of John Locke

Events in Great Britain

John Wilkes affair Arrested after criticizing treaty with France in print

Elected several times to Parliament but king would not sit him

influence of American ideas & events in BritainAppeal to popular opinion

Broadly rejected monarchy, social hierarchies

Yorkshire movement demanded changes in parliamentary elections

Broader Impact of American Revolution

Demonstrated to Europe possibility of government without kings

Idea of preserving traditional liberties

Reject social status