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161 CHAPTER - IV Custom and its Varied Manifestations A practice that reasonably establishes itself for certain amount of time among a group of people will be known as usage. When the usages is extended to the community in general and it finds its acceptance over a considerable period of time then it turns into a custom. Thus, customs are long established usages or mode of behavior. 1 Customs are social habits and through repetition become the basis of an order of social behavior. 2 Custom refers primarily to practices that have been oft-repeated by a multitude of generations, practices that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in the past. 3 Customs and traditions are group-accepted techniques of control that have become well established, that are taken for granted and that are passed along from generation to generation. The uniform approved ways of acting we follow are customs, transmitted from generation to generation, by tradition and usually made effective by social approval. 4 Customs has been the earliest means of social regulations. They have not grown in any community by a conscious effort but by an imperceptible process of growth as a reflex from the feelings of order, justice and utility that existed in minds of the people. 5 The most conspicuous social customs of the region is the object of worship of local deities known as Jatheras or ancestral mound. The Jatheras represented either elder of the clan or common ancestor of the village, tribe or caste. The place of Jathera was often taken by the theh or mound which marked the site of the original village of the clan. Such godlings, other than Jatheras were Bhumia (the god of homestead) and panchpir. Bhumia was generally one of the founders of the village. It was established that the first person who died in the village after its foundation became panchpir and the second one was Bhumia. 6 A some what similar local deity was chanwand or khero deota, sometimes described as wife of Bhumia. Bhumia was generally worshipped at marriage, on the birth

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161

CHAPTER - IV

Custom and its Varied Manifestations

A practice that reasonably establishes itself for certain amount of time among a

group of people will be known as usage. When the usages is extended to the community

in general and it finds its acceptance over a considerable period of time then it turns into

a custom. Thus, customs are long established usages or mode of behavior. 1

Customs are social habits and through repetition become the basis of an order of

social behavior.2

Custom refers primarily to practices that have been oft-repeated by a multitude of

generations, practices that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in

the past.3 Customs and traditions are group-accepted techniques of control that have

become well established, that are taken for granted and that are passed along from

generation to generation. The uniform approved ways of acting we follow are customs,

transmitted from generation to generation, by tradition and usually made effective by

social approval.4

Customs has been the earliest means of social regulations. They have not grown

in any community by a conscious effort but by an imperceptible process of growth as a

reflex from the feelings of order, justice and utility that existed in minds of the people. 5

The most conspicuous social customs of the region is the object of worship of

local deities known as Jatheras or ancestral mound. The Jatheras represented either elder

of the clan or common ancestor of the village, tribe or caste. The place of Jathera was

often taken by the theh or mound which marked the site of the original village of the clan.

Such godlings, other than Jatheras were Bhumia (the god of homestead) and panchpir.

Bhumia was generally one of the founders of the village. It was established that the first

person who died in the village after its foundation became panchpir and the second one

was Bhumia.6 A some what similar local deity was chanwand or khero deota, sometimes

described as wife of Bhumia. Bhumia was generally worshipped at marriage, on the birth

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of male child and after the harvests. The first milk of cow or buffalo was always offered

there and some quality of unused stored ghee (sucha) before bringing it into use. On the

name of other village deities, there were miniature brick shrines from one to two feet

cube in height with bulbous top and perhaps an iron spikes as finial, in the interior of

which pamps were burnt and offerings placed, containing no icons or carved slabs. 7

The study of the social customs of a region is of immense important as it provides

essential basis for understanding the social structure of the region. As far as the Jammu

region is concerned, as elsewhere in India, a variety of social customs have been

prevalent since long. But the literary data to understand the origin of the prevalent

customs is lacking. Therefore, the only possibility is to collect the information from the

oral traditions which are coming down from generations to generation without muc h

change.

Oral tradition is a way of transmitting history, literature or laws from one

generation to the other in a civilization without any writing system. It not only

supplements the traditional sources but also helps in filling up the gaps in history where

former evidences is lacking, where there is no history or almost none, oral tradition must

bear the brunt of historical reconstruction.8 Therefore, oral traditions are the main source

of information about customs of Jammu region whether they are related to birth,

marriage, death, fast, fairs, festivals, food habits, dress-up, etc. These oral traditions are

transmitted from one generation to another in the form of folk songs, folk-tales, folk-

dances, ballads, skits, plays, superstitions, proverbs, Idioms, riddles, and beliefs, etc.

The social customs and ceremonies followed by the people of Jammu region were

very similar to that followed by the people all over India. However there are some local

variations due to some prevailing local situations and also the kind of contacts they had

with people outside the locality from time to time. Therefore, the people of Jammu region

followed the distinct mode of life style, habits and customs.

Folk songs - There was a long series of folk songs associated with all types of social

customs and were sung on every occasion from birth of a child to the death of a man.

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Folk songs - songs related with birth

1. Bihain

Ambadiya migi sund bheji, teye bandi sarika khaya!

Ambadiya migi sees diti, teye kod belhi sai feleya!9

There was a custom prevailed in Jammu region that at the time of Reetain

ceremony different Pakwans , fruits and other things including Sund made of dry fruits

and dessi ghee were send to the expected mother from her parents with a lot of blessing.

There was also a custom that these things were distributed in the neighborhood. This can

be indicated by song mentioned above.

2. Ghar nand ji de bajan badhian,

Ghar nand ji de!

Bajan badhain te chadan kadaian,

Ghar nand ji de! 10

There was also the custom of celebrating the occasion of the birth of a male child

which could be seen by this song. The main thing in this songs was that every new born

was treated as lord Krishna and his mother as Yasodha and father as Nand Baba.

Whenever there was the birth of a male child the occasion was celebrated with great

festivity. People from the community came to their house and wished them and sang

songs of happiness and sweets were distributed among them. In this way an idea about

the social life of the people of Jammu region can be trace from this song. It also revealed

the custom of celebrating the birth of male child and discrimination towards the female

child as there was not any mention of such types of custom of singing such song on the

birth of a female child. The reason behind this thing was that girls were considered as

economic burden on their parents.

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The birth of the son was a matter of great rejoicing. The family attained religious

merit and happiness in this as well as in the next world through the service and

obligations of the sons and grandsons.11

3. Kahey di Teri baniya katori

Kahe gudti gholi!

Sone di meri baniya katory,

Patashe gudti gholi!12

There was also a custom prevailed in Jammu region that immediately after birth the new

born was licked milk, ghee, or honey. This was known as Jatakarma Sanskara but in

Jammu region it was known as Gurhti.

4. Badhawa

Bhabhi meri hira janmeya,

Lal janmeya,

Ke Nande gi degi badhai,

Meri Rani bhabhi!

Nande! Tere perai pichhe, Nande ! tere bhage,

Hari ne meri kadar banai,

Tu munha da bol hah Nande!

Ke laggi tu aaj badhai 13

This song was a sort of conversation between nand and bhabhi. Whenever, there

was the birth of a male child nand got an opportunity to extract garments, ornaments or

cash money from her bhabhi. The song mentioned above also indicated that nand gave

well wishes to her bhabhi on the occasion of the birth of her son and in return her bhabhi

gave credit to her that it was only because of her good luck that she gave birth to a male

child and with happy hearted wanted to pay everything whatever she wanted in return of

this happiness. These songs also show the high position of the sister- in- law.

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Lorian

Joote te jatare, Maamein gil pyare!

Maaman ping batai ja, uchcha taali pai ja!

Uchche taale paija, badda jhoota dei ja!14

This song was sung by the mother to make her child sleep

Sutra te naamkaran

Ikkye dine da baba bhagi,

Mata suchi hoi

Te kanne lain sutra pai!15

On twenty one day of birth, house was considered as sootak free called as sucha

hona in local language. Among some communities Sutra ceremony was performed on

this day.

Sagane mahurate janm ladke da

Aounsh narene lai

Rasi kehda ja darya

Te bhagi na rakhai!16

There was also a custom that on this day Naamkaran ceremony of the child was

performed. Bua of the child gave him a name by calling in his ear.

Mundan sanskara

Veera aei a munnane yali raat

Galia mat firana!

Veera aei a sagane bali raat

Galia mat firna!17

This period was considered as of weak stars so child was not allowed to go out of home.

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Songs related with marriage

1. Badhawa or badhai

These songs were sung on the auspicious occasions like birth of male child, sutra

ceremony, mundan ceremony, janeo, saant, sehra-bandi and vivah.

Tikka judeya da aaya,

Lag sanu deir!

Tui lao mere vira,

lagi sanu deir!18

This song was sung on occasion of tikka ceremony. Badhawa songs were sung on

the many other occasions like saant, gandia, gana, sehra, ghori chadana jaanni, pojeki,

laadi, nandredna, kumb badhai, badhu parvesh, etc.

Godiya

The songs sung on the marriage of boy were called Godiya.

Mera vira, sunneda vira, Roundi kashmira!

Beda bajjan baje, Jaani sobhan raje!

Vira di janni chali ai.”19

These songs were sung at the time of preparation of marriage procession and the

grooms riding the horse before leaving for bride’s house. In these songs women praised

the mare, the bridegroom, and the barat.

Pehla tamool teri mau da aya,

Mau ne katya babal banbaya!

Panj rapaye kanne panna de beeda,

Lai jaya ladya sees noyai!20

This song indicated that there was the custom of giving money to groom as

tamool at the time of sehra bandi. The first tamool was given by her mother.

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Bhanna bag fadan je aie veera,

O te mangdiya lakh badhaia veera!

And

Janda bhenu ne rokaya,

Dai ja dal charai!21

There was also a custom that sisters of groom tied Ganna to mare and also offered

channa daal to her at the time of janni bardana. In return they took lagg from groom.

Ke kis dega dera surma puyai,

ke kis dega sadhe lag he rams! 22

These songs were sung by bhabhi while putting surma in eyes of her Dewar.

Suhag

Maadhaniya, haiyo, merya dadya rabha,

Kenne janiya te keena la janiya23

These songs were sung on the marriage of a girl which revealed the grievances of

her parents and the auspicious indications of the wishes of the girls, friends and parents

for her long happy married life.

Sitanian / Bolian

Bhor kashmira da aaya, Bhor kashmira da aaya a!

Jije de maayu gir beno, thunga laaya!

Thunga laaya, bano jaala paya!24

These songs were sung on the marriage by the women from bride’s side. In these

songs sarcastic remarks were given to the bridegroom and his relatives.

Jagarna

Ajj maa munde de nache kardi,

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Tai beil karandi !

Bua bathi peera daiya,

Mami tel chuyandi !

Ajj maa munde de nache kardi,

Tai daan karandi !25

These songs were sung when the barat took leaves from bridegrooms home. After

the departure of barat, women belonging to boy’s side indulged in dancing and singing

songs for the whole night.

Sehra

sehra lande lare gi garmi ai,

Pakkha jholai nai, belan dindi mai

These songs were sung by the women when sehra ceremony was performed in

boy’s house.

Chhand

Chhand baraag akhaya te chhand aaga kasar !

Sas meri parvati te sora mera parmeshwar !26

These were the small songs which were sung after the going back of Barat from

brides home. The bride’s sisters and friends sat around the bridegroom and compelled

him to sing chhand.

Apart from these songs related to marriage, there were many other songs which

were sung at the time of vedee, kanyadaan, phere, tying of thread called ganna, tamool,

pani-barana, dwar-dakai and aarti-bardana.

Songs related with death

These songs were specially sung on the eve of death of any person.

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Luhaniya

Chandan rukh badhayo,

Lammi peid banayo ji.

It was also called luhan, whenever, anybody died the women sung these luhanian.

Palla pana

Kuthe geyan malaka hai !

Kussi saanpi geyan, malaka hai!27

After the death of a person, women cried very loudly and joined their head with

each other. They wrapped their face with their dupatta and cried very loudly in a

rhythmic way and sing songs.

Kotal songs

The death of an old man was celebrated rather than mourned. Their relatives said

that

Aeth parali upper kappohan,

Chal ha budia dunge pattan,

Dikhi khari jai bair bayadi,

Lai batte bhande taryadi!

Chini khakhe de jhiyali,

Budda upper dita bayali!

Dinde lambe maran Tai,

Budda patta ni gaya kadai!28

Songs related with seasons

The people of Jammu region sung songs for every season like soha (summer),

barsaant (rainy season), sayala (winter), basaant (spring), etc. When these seasons came,

they brought certain changes with them and these changes put an impac t on the mind as

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well as heart of the people. This impact can be seen in season songs. Some songs even

indicated the feeling of the wives whose husband has gone to some far off place. The

theme of these songs were separation from loved one and in these songs they called back

their beloved like :-

Mene deya mehrama, ghar payana phera!

Rutan aaiyan bandhian, aai ghar payan phera !

Ritadian

These songs were related to one or other season and there was no difference

between ritadian and season songs like:-

Son mahine diya badaliya, barean sanje de des!

Sajna de sije kapade, gori de sije kale keish!

Doladoo

These songs were sung by jogis, dares in the chaitra (march-April) month. They

visited the houses of people and sung on the sweet Tal of dhol. Through these songs they

told the people about the coming years name and also demanded clothes from the people.

Chaitra mahine, chaliabaah, bachade aali!

Tehle Pajji ge ruche de,

Sajan-mitra doye chaligaye,

pid patri ge dukhe de!29

Shinja

Weather song or seasonal songs were also called shinja.

Bara- maah

These songs were sort of short story. They indicated the situation of a beloved one

whose lover has gone out.

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Festival song

People of Jammu region were very religious minded and gave very importance to

every festival like any other occasion. Many songs were also associated with various

festivals like navratas, holi, lohri, bachdua, drupadi, diwali, karwa chauth, rutt, etc.30

Folk Ballads

Ballad was a comparatively long, impersonal narrative song, which depicted a

single incident or incidents through the content, style and designation of the folk. It was

easily understood by almost all members of folk group, learnt and transmitted through

oral tradition from generation to generation. 31 Folk Ballads of Jammu region were of two

types- Baran and Karkas and were sung by the folk singers known as gardi or yogi and

dares. These were the typical features of Jammu region.

Bar was a corruption of the Hindi word “Bir” which means brave or chivalrous.32

The theme of the baran was mostly heroic exploits of folk heroes, the singer played on

sarangi or chakra with the help of gaz (Bow) to which bunches of ghunghrus were ties.

Their tinkling echo was also used by the singers to heighten the effect. The baran were

long and could be sung for hours together. The special feature of this song was that each

line ended in a considerable prolonged sound of terminal ‘e’. 33 The famous baran of

Jammu region was of Raja Mandlik, raja Modi, Mirdas Chauhan, Raja Hins, Hira hiran,

etc.34

Karkas/Karkan

These were long songs which depicted the size of history of a local deity

(kuldevta) on the eve of religious ceremonies. Karkas have a religious and spiritual

character. The famous karkan of Jammu region were of Baba Jitto, Data Ranpat Dev Ji,

Data Virpanath, Baba Sidh Goriya, Baba Surgal, Baba Paid, Baba Bhoto, Baba

Gorkhnath and Baba Bhairo Nath, etc.35

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Bhakan/Pakhan

The simplest, the most natural, spontaneous and requiring no aid of a musical

instruments. It was the group of a rustic song called bhakan or pakhan. This type of songs

was sung in group, and was most popular in Udhampur, Kathua and Jammu hill states.

One singer gave the lead, placing one hand on his ear and waning the other in the

air according to the rise and fall of the burden of song that was for maintaining the

rhythm and harmony among the group, similarly one voice rides all other of the chorus to

maintain harmony and sur- tal of the song. On special occasion like fair and festivals

group singers sang pakhan all through the night. Even women indulged in singing

bhakhan.36

Masan or lehran

The song aiming at exorcising of ghosts, bhuta and spirits formed a separated

class by themselves. These were known as Masan or lehran and were technically

performed by jogis and gararis with the accompaniment of dhol, ghara and thali. A rope

was tied in the middle of the ceiling and victim was made to sit there holding the rope.

Jogis and gararis recited mysterious hymns called Masan accompanied by the music of

drum and thali played on ghara. Under the influence of this music, the victim would

gradually start tossing her head right and left increasing the movement and intensity till

she violently played holding the rope. This continued for some hours together. The

process was repeated for seven or more days till it was declared by the doala that the

Masan has been agreed to free the victim such chaukies were held during the rainy

season and during the night.37

Bhakti songs

The bhakti songs of Jammu region were divided into two parts.

1. People of Jammu region have divine faith in local deities like Vaishno Devi,

Sukrala Mata, Babe Balli Mata, Kali Mata, Chichi Mata, etc. They have complete

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faith in these devis and devoted many songs to these deities. These songs were

known as Bhainta.38

2. The songs which were related with the ten incarnation of Vishnu were known as

Vishanpatte. It derived from the word Vishanupad.39

Proverbs and Ideoms

The proverbs are the store house of information. They gave information about

every aspect of Men’s life. The way of thinking, beliefs, can also be seen in these

proverbs. These were very commonly and freely spoken by almost all the people

concerning different strata of society in this region.

Riddles

Riddles also occupy an important place in the life of people of Jammu region. The

elders pose these riddles to children at the time of narrating stories and the children try to

find out the meaning of these riddles. Gentle humor, creative imagination and glimpses of

the life of people inhabiting these areas were revealed through these riddles. 40

Manifestation of customs

Pre – Nuptial Customs

Reetain/Thoya

On the eight or fifteenth day of the shukla Paksha (bright fortnight) of the eight

month of conception, 4141 the parents of expected mother send her different types of fried

and cooked meals like gheur, mathian, khamire, papad, pakaurian, phullwarian, dahi –

bare, chhole, sweets, suchiya, etc., along with clothes and cosmetics.42 This was known

as Linda in Jammu region.43 Some of these were offered to the pregnant women and rest

were distributed among the community members. The kul-purohitani as well as ladies of

community was invited. The expected mother was made to sit on peerha (wooden chair)

and wore yellow or pink color clothes (according to the customs) which were given by

her parents. The nayan (female barber) combed her hair and bihaian songs were sung by

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the ladies assembled there which were akin of ceremony, praying and wishing safe

delivery, particularly of a male child.44

This sanskara was known as Pumsavana or Simantonayana Samskara in the

Dharma Shastra but in Jammu region it was known as thaoya, reeta. This custom was

performed as a sort of medium of declaration to the community of the news of pregnancy.

At the beginning of ninth month of the pregnancy a special kind of dish called sund was

also send to expected mother by her parents. It was made up of dried fruits fried in the

desi ghee.45

In this month special arrangements were made. The first thing was to select a

suitable room in the house. On an auspicious day, it was selected in the convenient

direction and called as the sutika bhavan or maternity house.46 The delivery was usually

conducted in her in- law’s house; therefore, she remained here after the thaoya ceremony

majority of people conducted the deliveries at their homes with the help of an

experienced lady called dai.47

Birth customs

Immediately, after the birth of the child, a bit of honey mixed with ghee was put

into the mouth of the child by means of gold ring.48 This was known as ghurhot in Jammu

region,49 but was called as Jatakarma samakara in Vishnudharmottra Purana where it is

mentioned that after birth child was to be made to lick the powder of various herbs mixed

with purified butter.50 The birth of female child was not celebrated with great rejoining

and was considered as a grave misfortune, as her parents has to bear heavy financial

burden in connection with her marriage and subsequent ceremonies.

On the other hand the birth of male child was celebrated with great rejoining.

Among Hindu the birth of son was a religious necessity because a son was considered as

support in old age and essential for the performance of certain rites and ceremonies after

death of his parents, which secure his parents salvation. After the birth of the child, house

was considered as polluted for the period of twenty one days which was called “sootak”.

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For the members of community it was observed for thirteen days in case of boy and five

days of girl, twenty-one days for family members and forty days for the parents of the

new born.51 On the fifth day, the first purificatory bath was given to both mother and

child. This was known as panjab in Jammu region. Ganga jal and gootra (cow’s urine)

was given to both mother and child as a part of purificatory rite. Karah was distributed

amongst relatives and friends who came to congratulate the family. 52 The father of the

child summered the kul purohits enquired about the child. The purohit consulted the

janam patri and told everything related to child, his parentage, ruling constellation, and

about future prospects. The ladies from the community came to see the child and mother.

They took milk with them and gave money called sagun or dudh de paise to mother.53

Sutra

The sutra ceremony was performed on the eleventh or thirteenth day of the birth

of the child. A purificatory bath was given to both mother and the child. The family

panditani or Kul- purohitani was called and with durba grass and pipal leaves she made

both of them to relish gutra (cow’s urine) and Ganga jal. Then the mother was made to

sit on peerah with the child in her lap. A thread of red color called khamni or mouli (In

Jammu region) was tied to the peerha.

The ladies of the community came to attend the occasion. Both child and mother

were made to wear yellow or pink color clothes (according to the custom) which were

given by her parent. The unspun cotton thread was tied around the neck of both mother

and child. The custom was known as kachi tand pana.54 Most of the people of Jammu

region conducted only informal sutra ceremony on the eleventh or thirteenth day and

arranged formal feast and function later on, according to the mahurat and arranged it with

the mundan ceremony.55 On the twenty first day the final purificatory bath was given to

both mother and child. Both of them were given gutra and Ganga jal along with other

family members. The Ganga jal was sprinkled in the home and whole house was

considered as free from sootak.56

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Nama Karana

This ceremony was enjoined when the time of impurity was over or on any

auspicious day when soft constellations were in conjuction. Many factors were kept into

consideration while naming a child especially the social status of the child. The name of a

Brahman ought to be auspicious, that of a kshatriya should denote power, of a vaisya

wealth and of sudre- contempt. The name giving should be according to one’s family

tradition.57 Generally, nama karan or name giving ceremony of child was held on an

exact auspicious mahurat fixed by kul- purohit after consultation of the janam – patri. In

some communities, the child was given the name by his paternal aunt (bua) while in other

communities it was given by kul-purohit with consultation of janam – patri and was

strictly kept secret with fear of its being used by an ill intentioned person and a nick name

was also given to the child. Usually the name was given to the child a fter the expiry of

the period of confinement which was considered as the period of sootak.58 The name

given to child must have a letter of the word referring to the nakshtra or asterism under

which the child was born.59

Mundan

It was an important ceremony in which the head of child was entirely shaved.

There was no fixed time for performing this ceremony. It could be in the first, third, fifth

and any year of odd number. An auspicious mahurat was fixed by the pandit with the

consultations of janam parti.

It was performed before the family deity to whom the family women sung prayer

and propitiatory songs. The ceremony began with the throwing of water over the goat and

shaking its head was considered as a sign of the acceptance of the offering by the deity. It

was called as bijna latter on the goat was sacrificed. A great meal called dhaam was

served to all relatives and friends.60

Some clans like Jamwal and Sambyal performed mundan at the shrine of Bahu

fort, Charak at the shrine of Data Ranpat Devji at Birpur. Among Manhas and a few

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other communities the celebration was attended with symbolic sacrifice of goat at the

kuldevata’s dehra or shrine.61 Chib performed this ceremony at the shrine of kul-devta at

Nad near Akhnoor.62 Bhau performed this ceremony on the dehra of their Kul-devta Baba

Accho at Khwara (Kaleeth). The goat was sacrificed but only in a symbolic way. They

offered goat in the name of Baba and when his head shivering it was considered as bijna

and he was let free rather than cut it.63 Some took the child to a barber and got his hair cut

without any ceremony. Others performed it according to the shastra and held great

celebration and also invited their kith and kins. The low castes like megh, batwals, kalis,

sansis, perne, dum-mahashas, performed all the shastric ceremonies concerning

childhood except that of jajna paved (Thread wearing) which was denied to then by the

scriptures.64

Niskramana and Annaprasana

Both these samskaras were observed among the people of Jammu region but in a

modified way. They were performed among the people of higher castes like Brahmans,

Rajput and Khatris, etc., and when child completed six months. In some communities like

Sambyal this was known as Chhatiya.65

Bhumau Upavesana

It was to be performed in the fifth month after birth. The god Varaha and the

goddess Prthvi (earth) were to be worshipped. The preceptor and Brahmana were to be

honored. Then besmearing a portion of surface of the earth and drawing a circle on it, the

child was to sit on it in accompaniment of the sound of conches and recitation of the

Vedika mantras. After placing the child on the floor, a feast was also served to the

brahmanas.66 This custom is still followed by some communities of Jammu region like

the Sambyal clan of village bara district samba, but only in case of male child.

Vidyaramba

This samskara was also performed in the Jammu region but not in its original

form, but in a symbolic way. When a child was admitted in the school for the first time

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some sweet was distributed among the family members. Usually the child was admitted

in the school during the Navratras.67

Marriage customs

Marriage or vivaha was the most pious samskara of man’s life. It laid the

foundation of domestic life and considered as the means of perpetuation and continuation

of Vamsa or Kula.68 The girl to be married should not be of same gotra and pravara. She

should be seventh in succession from father’s side and fifth from that of the mother.69

The normal marriage was arranged by the parents of the couple and after much

consultation of the janam patri or horoscope by the pundits.

The marriage customs started with kurmai or betrothal. Generally, the marriage

was settled by negotiation between the parent of bride and bride groom. The negotiation

was initiated by a middle man called ravara70 and fixed with the consent of both the

parties. The heads of both the families called the kula – purohit to match the horoscope of

both the girl and the boy. After satisfaction that both were suitable match for each other,

fixed the date for kurmai.

A ceremony called Roka or thakka (in local language) was performed in which

the father, taya, Chacha, and others male elders of the bride’s family went to the home of

bridegroom and applied a tilak on his forehead with the proper ritual performed by the

purohit. The money was also given to the groom in the form of shagun. Now, this shagun

could be any amount of money but according to the custom it was Rs1.25 only71 besides

this sweet, fruits, clothes to the boy’s family members and some cash money to his near

relatives were also given. The main purpose of celebrating this occasion was to make

betrothal publically accepted in the presence of biradari. After the completion of this

ceremony another ceremonies called shagun and marriage was fixed with the

consultation of purohit and other near relatives, etc.

After the fixation of date it was notify on an invitation written on paper dyed with

saffron to make the jubilation and solemnity of the auspicious occasion called lagan or

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neidra. This invitation was sent to all the kith and kins by both the parties and a general

feasting and rejoining was started for fifteen to twenty days before the actual ceremony. 72

A day before or the same day of marriage the next ceremony called shagun was

performed in which the bride’s brothers went to groom’s home. A tilak was affixed on

the forehead of groom and an ornament of gold was given to him. The most important

things sent by bride’s parents were druba, earlier of druba grass now of gold, chandi ki

koli (silver bowl), sehra rumaal,etc.

There was also the custom of sending thaals known as shagun ka thaal, which

consisted of dry fruits called meba in local language, patashe, misri and was wrapped by

red cloth called luhan. All the preceding was done in the presence of kul – purohit and

other biradari members and relatives. Folk songs like badhawa were song by the ladies.73

Sagan lena

There were some customs which were followed in both the houses like sagan

lena, saant pakana, ganna, tel chinchana, saant, eating ghiur, etc. An auspicious

mahurat was fixed by consulting the pandit. All the ladies of community were invited.

The mother of the bride/ bridegroom wore nath called balu in local language and a pink

dupatta decorated with kanari. The earthen chulla, a nithi and jajjru were made which

were dried in the sun light. They were coated with cow dung and painted with parola and

decorated with different colors. On this chulla, saant was cooked and in the nithi, havan

was performed. Five small sticks of Ber wood were made called as banyalia. khamani

was tied to the chajj, chhanani, chakki and banyalia. Seven thread of red color were

prepared which were kept in the daras. This was known as khulle sagan with which

started the marriage rituals.

Sagan Peene

Women from community assembled in the evening and grinded the sagan in the

Chakki known as sagan peena. On the day of saant women assembled early in the

morning under the shadow of stars and prepare a special type of eatable called badakune,

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and small babriya, etc. on the chulla of sagun. At this time mother wore a pink dupatta

and balu. This was known as saant pakana. badhawa songs were sung by the ladies.74 It

was a believe that this time was considered as the time of weak stars on the part of both

bride and groom so rite called ganna was performed in which pandit after worshipping

the god Ganesha and other nine planets tied a mouli on the wrist of both bride and groom

in their respective homes.75 After this they were not allowed to go out of home alone.

Chindaly kholana

This custom was performed only in bride’s house before tel chichana ceremony.

Tel cinchana

The mother of bride or groom worshiped a small girl called kanjak in local

dialect. A mouli was wrapped to druba grass and kept on the head of the bride or groom.

First of all kanjak put a coin in the oil and with the druba grass put oil in the hair called

tel cinchana next mother and then one by one all other members put oil in hair and also

gave money to nayan and chiri as bandara. Folk songs were sung by the ladies. The bride

groom was taken out by some other member of the family or friend and made to sit on a

chowki with a mouli tied on it. Nai played an instrument called kehl before saant so that

people came to know about the saant ceremony.76 Kanjak rubbed butana on the right

shoulder of bride or groom. Next mother and then others applied it to hands, face and

feet. Butana was a paste made from sandal wood, turmeric and rose water. Both of them

were given a purificatory bath called saant.77 After bath they were covered by a black

blanket and made to stand on the chowki by maternal uncle.78

Maternal uncle hold a utensil called gadwa full of water and stood opposite in

direction to bride or groom and then circumambulates around them while dropping water

from the gadwa and women also stood there holding the mango leaves and sang songs.79

Mama gave shagun in the form of money and made her or him stand and took inside.

When he or she was taken inside a doona or a small earthen plate called chapani was

kept in the door with two small chapaties called babria, rice and flowers in it, bride or

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groom hit it with feet and came inside. The custom of saant was performed under the

supervision of niyani and chiri. They were given money called Bandra. Mother cleaned

the place where saant was held with her hand; she crossed the chowki for seven times and

kept it on the roof. She put a mark of her hand on the wall.80

The pandit performed the navgraha pujan. Toran a structure made of wooden

rods triangularly arranged in such a way that each rod has a number of wooden images of

birds. It was of red color and erected after saant on the frame of the main door to ward

off the ill effects of evil eyes.81 A cord made of mango leaves was also hung in the main

door as mango leaves were considered very pious. The bride was given chudda, ballu,

kalire, challiyan and sallu to wear by her maternal uncle.82 The blackgram (channe)

which were soaked in the water a day before were distributed among the ladies who came

to attend the saant.83

A holy jag called dhaam or saanti da bhat in local language was served.84 The

hawan was performed by the Pandit. Bride or bridegroom with their parents and maternal

uncle and aunt sat in the hawan and gave ahuti with the surche. In the end burj was kept

in the hawan and a purna ahuti was given by everybody present there. With this saant

ceremony was performed.85 Then Bride or groom was given ghiur to eat along with

friend.86

Barat or Marriage Procession

In the evening, the bridegroom was dressed in a formal married suit called

Achkan87 now shervani (as per-trend) with a golden veil (sehra) on the head and a sword

in the hand. The Rumaal of shagun was wrapped on the sehra. This was done under the

supervision of Pundit.88 The bride groom was made to sit on a chair and starting from his

mother one by one all the relatives, friends, family members came and gave cash money

in his hand called tamool. Folk songs were sung by the ladies.89 Sister- in- law (bhabhi)

puts surma (collyrium) in the eyes of bridegroom. There was the custom of sitting on

well decorated mare by the bridegroom called ghori chadana. The sisters of bridegroom

offered pulse (channa dal) to mare and tied red thread called gana to the mare. Both

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bhabhi and sisters took their lags.90 Then accompanied by his parents he went to village

temple to take blessing.91

After this bridegroom left for bride house with other family members and

relatives. This was known as barat or jani bardana.92 All the male members

accompanied the barat, while all the women remained at grooms home. They performed

jagrana for the whole night.93

When jani (Barat) reached the bride house a special instrument called kehl was

played by nai. Milani was held between father, mother and mama of both sides. This

custom was common to all castes of Jammu region except for the Rajput where the

milani of mothers was done at a later stage.94 In milani there was a general distribution of

presents between both the parties and money was thrown out. Then whole Barat except

bridegroom had to take meal. He took it separately after the barat has gone.95 There was

not the custom of taking bridegroom directly to bride’s house. The arrangement for his

stay was made in someone else house called lohe aala kar and taken in brides home on

mahurat.96

The actual marriage took place at an auspicious mahurat fixed by the purohit. It

began with inner vedee rite also called lagan or andarwali veda which started with Vedic

mantras. This was performed inside the home in front of Dares. When bridegroom

entered the room he put his sehra down, the bride’s father washed his foot and her

brother gave him a cloth called as barani to sit. This was given as a sort of respect to the

son- in- law.97

The gifts sent by bridegroom’s side called Barasui was displayed to the ladies

assembled here and chakk, paranda, suhagpura, kalihar, were given to bride because in

the outer vedee she has to sit by wearing all the things. The bride sat in the vedee by

wearing the dress given by her maternal uncle. The whole expenses of vedee was done by

bride’s side because it was considered as against the dharma to spent money of grooms

side in the vedee.98 The other important thing performed in the inner vedee was the

kanyadan.

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The outer vedee was set-up and sacred fire lit in the courtyard of bride’s house.

Women from the locality assembled there and sang songs descriptive of marriage life.99

Vedee was a palanquin shaped square structure erected over the four small pillars placed

at each corner, joined at the top by horizontal rods with a flower in centre where all the

rods converged to form a dome-shape structure. Under this structure only, with the

recitation of Vedic hymns, the matrimonial ceremony was performed. The hawan kund

was centrally placed.100 The bride and groom seated opposite but near one another.101

Pandit recited the mantras and asked the groom to hold the right hand of the bride. This

ceremony was symbolic of taking the charge and responsibility of the girl and was called

as panigrahana or grasping the brides hand ceremony.102

Mounting the stone

In order to make the wife firm in her devotion and fidelity to him, husband made

her tread on a stone to north of the fire, with her right foot. The ceremony was symbolical

of firmness and strength in crushing the enemies. This ceremony was known as

Asmarahona or mounting the stone.103 Stone in this ceremony was symbolic of firmness

and strength in crushing the enemies.104

Agni paradakshana or phera

Then the young couple was made to stand up, facing east, with garments tied

together called Joel. They went five times around the sacred fire, each circuit being made

in seven steps, while the pandit recited mantras from the Vedas. 105 The brothers of bride

stood behind the couple while the couple faced each other. The bride placed both her

hands into the groom’s hand, her brother then put the puffed rice called phulia (symbol of

prosperity) into them. Together they offered this phulia as an ahuti or sacrifice into the

fire. The pandit from both the sides chanted prayers and texts from the Vedas. Women

assembled around it sang songs and beating of drums accompanied almost every portion

of the marriage service. In each phera women gave bowls to bride groom. The main

object of this ceremony was referred to a domestic felicity. Then came the ceremony

called as saat bachan in which bride put forward seven conditions to bridegroom. The

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bridegroom accepted all things. The bride stood up and sat in the left side of the bride

groom. Now, both were considered as husband wife. Then bride was taken inside by her

friends. The next day bidai ceremony was performed.106

Gaona, pheraghera, Maklawa or hometaking

Immediately after the completion of marriage procession the bride was taken by

her bridegroom to his home. Before the arrival of bride a custom called Paruha was done

by the ladies. They were not taken home directly but they were made to sit in someone

else home called as lohe aala kar where they were given some sweet to eat and sagun.107

while newly wedded entered the main door of the house, pani barana ritual was

performed by mother, all the paternal and maternal aunts. At the same time sisters stood

in front of the main door closed their way with the mouli and in return took lag for that.

This was known as dwar dakai.108 Then both were taken in the room where deras was

place. They worshipped it and after that started the local customs.

First of all mother- in- law sat on the chair and a sort of pakwan called as sasurut

was given to her by her daughter- in- law. She touched it with her forehead then all other

maternal and paternal aunts did so. This was known as sasurut bandana. Dewar (brother-

in- law) sat in the lap of his bhabhi and took lag for that called as goad bathai. Then bride

hold a handful of gulra and coins. Gulra was given to sister- in-law and coins to father- in-

law. Groom put off his sehra and gave it to his sisters who took lagg for this. They went

to dehra of Kul-Devata for rakaida or tarage. Then they came back.109

Bride bathed, wore clothes given by her elder sister- in- law with other cosmetics

from her- in- laws side. The fully-dress-up bride was made to sit in a corner where all the

ladies from the community as well as family members and relatives came and saw the

face of bride called as munh dikhai ki rasm. They gave money to her known as masani

and in return bride touched their feet and took blessing. 110 In reality it was a form of

introductory ceremony. Another custom called as bitti buyalna was also performed.111 A

community meal called chav was served. In the evening, the bride accompanied by her

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husband, went to her parents on her first short visit called dafera or rafera.112 After

staying here for some time they returned back to her in- laws home.

The custom of reception of a bride was very conspicuous. Generally, women draw

a big-octagonal lotus flower with happy shining colors on the floor. The bride walked on,

keeping her feet on the cotton made structure called poonian until she reached the

flowery structure where she was made to sit either on the floor or on a seat arranged over

the flower. Generally a pair of feet was painted before the entrance to the chamber

pointing the path.113

The emblem of marriage among women was the balu or nose ring which

indicated that the wearer possessed a husband. It was not worn by a widow. In regular

Hindu marriage the binding rite was the lawan phera, which could in the case of a

woman occurred only once. No physical defects subsequently could annul the relation

thereby created and the father’s control over the girl ceased with it. Bridal pair was

knotted with joal. The phera (circumbulation) of the home fire and recitation of certain

hymns of the attending purohit made the marriage an unbreakable tie for the Hindu

couple.114 The last ceremony performed in the marriage was Sattali.115

A number of customs have to be followed from time to time like for one year after

marriage the parents of bride sent many things to her in- laws home on every festival

called as tyar dena. In return, her –in- laws also sent her many gifts called tyar yana.116

Death Customs

When death was near, a pandit was called. The dying person was laid with his

bedding on the ground called bhunjan tuarna.117 The place has previously been leaped by

cow dung,118 which was known as mandali pana. This place was covered with a blanket

on which the earth of tulsi plant and druva were placed.119 Usually, the dying person

made offerings of grains cash, clothes, utensils and ornaments before death. This was

called as raskas mansan. Money was also offered to the dying person known as najari da

rapea dena.120 It was supposed that the tail of cow should be grasped by the dying person

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at the time of death because there was the custom of giving dana of cow by the dying

person to the Brahman. This custom was still continues in the region under study. This

was done to get assistance in crossing the Vaitarni river of Hindu hell. The verses from

Bhagavad-Gita were recited to a dying person. Pandit chanted mantras called upon the

dying man to repeat one of the names of Visnu such as Ram, Narayan, Hari by doing this

it was assured salvation.121 Then panjratni (an alloy of five metals gold, silver, copper,

iron, and bronze), gangajan, tulsi leaves were put into the mouth of dying person and a

diva made of flour and desi ghee was lightened in front of him known as deeya batti

dena.122 Shankh was blown.123

All the death rituals were performed by the elder son124 under the supervision of

charji. charji made a ball or pinda of flour which was offered to the deceased while the

body was washed, shaved and covered with a white cloth called kapphan in local

language.125 Son wore white clothes called pungi and walked bare footed.126 After the

performance of certain ceremonies, the dead body was put on a wooden plank called

pead or kerah and took on shoulders, usually by the family members or men belonging to

the dead person’s clan to shamshan.127 Before coming out of home a diya was lightened

in the home which was covered with the earthen plate called theekar in local language. It

was a believe that the soul of dead person was wandered in the home for ten days and this

diya save him from the darkness.128 When they reached half way, water was sprinkled in

a circle round the bier and son or next of kin dashed an earthen ware vessel called baltoi

in local language on the ground and loudly bewailed the deceased. 129 On reaching the

burning place, a pile of wood called chali in local language was erected on which the

dead person was laid, generally facing north. The charji performed some rituals and after

uncovering of the dead man’s face, a mixture of ghee, honey and curd was dropped in the

mouth.130

After placing five pinds on the body, the funeral pyre was lightened by the person

wearing pungi while the body was being consumed, the relations sat around at some

distance and when it was partly burnt the eldest son or next of kin took one of the sticks

of which the bier was composed and broke the skull. This was supposed to facilitate the

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escape of the soul from the body. When the cremation was over, all took bath before

returning to their homes. The burning should be on the day of the death, if possible and

always before sunset.

After the burning was over, the bones of the toes, fingers, jaws called Phull were

collected on the third day after the death. They were kept in a vessel and later on thrown

in to holy water of Ganga at Haridwar.131

The mourning period was observed for different days among different castes.

Brahmans mourned for eleven days, Rajputs for thirteen days, and Rathis for twenty one

days. During this period men shaved their heads and beards, women put off their

jewellery, music was prohibited, and uncooked food was taken. 132 They were not allowed

to use a krahyee in the household for thirteen days.133 A pot full of water was hang on

some door with a small hole in it and drops of water released from that pot which

indicated that the age of a person reduce every second like the drops of water. 134 The

person who wore pungi has to eat once in a day till the time of Karma and has to give

water to the pipal tree daily. The separate food with the name of dead person called Naiti

was kept and given to cow. During this period everybody slept on the floor. If any

marriage was held then the period of mourning end. 135

If the husband of a woman died. The mourning period was lasted in her parental

home for five days. On the tenth day women from her parental side went to their- in-laws

house to give her Randepa136 and in return the women from deceased side also went to

her parental home to exchange their mourning called as morami makan.137

Dasma

On tenth day all the relatives, community members went together to some river or

place where water was available for taking bath. Community meal was also prepared. If

an old person died his close relatives were given sugar and ghee to eat and ladies came

with them were given dupatta and sugar in return.

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Karma or Terma

On this day, charji came and karma ritual was performed and an offering called

as chej which consisted of a cot, fruit, utensils, cloths, umbrella, flour, etc., were given to

him. After that all the family members and close relatives bathed. Then Pandit performed

the Jal Khalana and rasam pagadi rituals. Women from the side of their kudam gave

bindi, lipsticks, and bangles to the ladies who put off these things. They coated their floor

with the cow dung and also painted it with parola so that all types of soag or mourn

disappeared. They also gave cash money called pungi de paise to the person wearing

pungi.138

In the name of departed person a cot with bed sheet, mattress, grains, fruits,

vegetables, clothes, shoes, utensils, umbrellas, sweets, etc., put together and offered to the

charji who acted as a purohit. The gift was known as chaj. Garud Purana was read out

during the mourning period by the pandit at the time convenient to all. Narayan bali was

also performed in case of a person died of an unnatural death.

Masak, Adbarakhi and Barakhi

In order to satisfy the soul of dead person from the death till one year every month

charji was called and pinda dana was performed. Charji was given food to eat. Some

people gave food to the choice of dead person to Brahmans or other persons. On the six

month adbarkhi was performed and after one year barakhi was performed. On barakhi

also chej was offered by the name of dead person.

After four years chauwari was performed in which chej was offered and Rasam

pattadi was also done. Pattadies were given to brother- in-laws. They were given food to

eat called as Sat-pakwaniya. A community meal was also performed.139

Dussana

There was also a custom prevalent in Jammu region that if someone died in a

family on some festival day. That very festival was not celebrated again as it was

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considered as dussana of that festival in that family. In the case of chib, once a girl was

died during Navratras days, they stopped celebrating the navratras. People of this family

did not keep saankh in their home and also did not kept fast.140 This dusana could be stop

if there was the birth of a male child in that family on that very day. Like the Sambyal of

village Bara, district Samba, they had the dussana of two festivals, navratra and bach

duah, there was the birth of the male child on the day of bach duah so they started

celebrating that festival again, but there is still the dussana of navratra festival in their

family.141

Customs relating to women

There were certain customs specific to women which also indicated their position

in the society. Important of them were sati, female infanticide, child marriages and

others. These social customs were followed by the people of region under study and

contributed to the hardships of women folk.

Sati

The custom of sati was practiced by the people of Jammu region since very early

days. This custom even find its mention in dogri folk literature, ballads, legends and

official records. Earliest mention of Sati comes from the famous Persian work

Rajadarshani of Ganesh Das Badhera. It mentioned about the self- immolation of the

wives and women attached to Raja khir Rae of Jammu in about A.D. 227.142 Fredric

Drew has cited few cases of Sati among Rajputs in Jammu region. He wrote, though not

practiced in case of everyone who became a widow, yet it was followed as a general rule

by more than one caste, and was, probably, the most strictly carried out by the Mians. It

applied to all the widows of the deceased.143 The practice seems to have been widely

prevalent in Jammu among all classes of Hindus. This practice finds its mention as early

as third century A.D. Another early reference to Sati in Jammu was that of Nella Rani,

wife of Raja Suraj Dev, which happened in about A.D. 850. 144 The driving forces for Sati

were of various nature. First was the conjugal fidelity towards the deceased husband.

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Second, was that after being consumed by the God of fire i.e Agni Devta, the faithful wife

could become one with her deceased husband in the next world.

Thirdly, the honor given to a widow and her family after this step, was a strong

motive even for an unwilling case. Finally, it was the anticipation of hardships and social

dishonor attendant on a lifelong widow hood compelled widows to perform Sati.

However, in later ages, there were references to forceful Sati which led a number of

young widows to commit sati forcibly of merit to avoid misery and pain. 145 In later years,

rulers like Ranjit Dev took several measures to do away with this evil custom. 146

Female Infanticide

It is difficult to trace when and how this practice originated in this region. It was a

common belief in the region that a girl taught to read and write would become a widow.

Such prejudices perpetuated illiteracy and ignorance among the women of the region.147

Birth of female child was considered not only undesirable but a serious calamity among

certain castes. This was because of the fact that their marriages required a lot of

expenditure. This custom of killing the female daughter at an early stages was prevalent

among Rajput families,148 especially among Mians of hills149 but later on some Brahmins

and khatris too adopted it.150 The Manhas tribe of Rajputs practiced it the most, followed

by Salaria, Jamwal and charak Rajputs. Some other high class Hindus of Khatri, Bedi and

Brahmin families also followed this custom.151 Usually the infants were placed in earthen

vessels and water pots and burid in the ground in pachhwarha (backyard) which was

attached to the house of almost every Mian.152 Some of the people immersed their newly

born daughter in a jar of milk and suffocated her to death. 153

It is also mentioned in Rajdarshani that the killing of girls was prevalent in whole

of the Rajput tribe in the Duggar region.154 Fredric Drew also observed that there was an

impression of disgrace among the mians, to see their daughter led to someone else’s

house, but we could not be sure that this was a result of the long continued practice that a

cause for it.155 Till of late years, it was an almost universal custom among the mians to

destroy every female infant born to them.

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Child marriage

In duggar society, if a girl was not married at a proper age, she was derided and

her parents were considered as pitiable and even sinful, 156 Infant marriages were

performed when girl was only two to four years of age. This custom was very common in

duggar region including both higher and lower strata of the society. 157

The root of this evil lies in the belief among Hindus that, it was the aim of all the

parents amongst Hindus to get their children married as early as possible and it was the

aim of all to beget children as soon as the parties to a marriage have reached the age of

puberty. Infant marriages were considered by the people of the society as a proper

discharge of the religious duty to get their children married and was regarded as a credit

on the family where this custom was preserved. 158 Reason for the existence of such a

custom in the society may be found in the general belief that, if married early, would not

indulge in false practices bringing a bad name to the family. And if such a thing

happened, it would become a problem for the parents to get her married.

Polygamy

The population of the region was predominantly monogamous, but the examp les

of polygamy were not absent either. Polygamy was adopted as a fashion among some

aristocratic and middle class society in the region. 159 Many instances in this regard have

been recorded in the history. For instance, Raja Vajradhara(1164 A.D) had two wives and

Raja Kapur Dev had a number of wives. Second marriage was allowed only if first wife

was barren or had a physical infirmity. The second marriage was usually done with the

consent on the first one, though it was not an essential pre-requisite.

Customs related with honor or prestige

Whenever a girl was given in marriage. Her parents, brother and all the relatives

who were elder in age then girl did not even drink water from her- in-laws house. After

bath, early in the morning, daughter–in- laws touched the feet of her- in- laws and took

blessings. Whenever, anybody came to her home, she has to touch his feet and also the

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feet of her-mother- in-law. There was also the custom that before cooking food the

kitchen or chownka was coated with cow dung called chowka poorna and food was

cooked by wearing giddy. Women may eat only after her husband has fed. She did not

address her husband by his name. She always referred to her husband as the child’s father

or by some other Euphemistic term like Ji.160

Daughter-in- law observed purdah when the father-in- law was present and it was

generally observed that when he came into the house, he would either cough aloud, so

that they may cover their faces and tone down their voices. As a general rule, there was

no direct conversation between the father –in- law and daughter- in- law, if a situation and

an occasion necessitate it, it was brief to the extent of being monosyllabic, and the

daughter- in- law was barely audible. Purdah was also observed before the husband’s elder

brother.161

Dana

People of Jammu region gave importance to fasts /vratas and offering called

Mokha. Karwa chauth, bach-duah, drupadi, bhugga, channan- chhat were the fasts

observed by the women. Puneya Ekadesi, janmashtami, shivratri were some fasts

observed by both men and women. After keeping the vratas for a particular period, the

people of Jammu region went for their mokha. This custom was continued since a long

time. The offering made during Mokha of chanan chhat was given to sister- in- law and

that of karewa chauth to mother- in- law. There was a believe that after giving mokha of

vrata the person go to parloak.162 There was also a custom among the people of Jammu

region to give cooked food in the form of chapaties, rice, and a dish to brahmana daily.

This food was called as gaisan. The gaisan, which was given from basakhi to the

sankrant of haad month, was known as dhayada.163 In spite of this the kul purohitayani

also came twice in a month to take uncooked food called neem. Whenever a new grain

was taken in the home there was also the custom of giving a portion of it to the Brahman

called as Nikaran Mansana.164

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Customs related with birds and animals

Many customs related with animal and birds were observed by the people of

Jammu region. The most important place was given to cow which was treated as a semi-

divine animal. Her divine counterpart was called Kama-dhenu. She was never to be killed

or ill treated. To let a cow died with a rope round her neck was considered a heinous sin

to be expiated only by feeding the brahmana or a pilgrimage to the Ganga. A cow when

ill was, therefore, at once let loose.165 Even Rajdarshani mentioned about.166Before

cooking food in the morning first two chappattis were given to cow known as gou-grass.

There was also the custom of offering grass to cow on the day of sankrant. The offering

of cow was also done by the dying person. Naiti was given to cow. Cow’s urine was also

considered as very pious. There was also the custom of giving Pedda to cow on the day

of gopal Ashtami and garland of flowers was put in her neck.167

Cow worship assumed another form in connection with the theory of

transmigration. It has become the part of the theory that soul migrates into the cow

immediately preceding its assumption of the human form, and she escorts the soul across

the dreaded river Vaitarni, which bounds the lower world.168

The hill legend tells how Siva once manifested himself in his fiery form, and

Vishnu and Brahma went in various directions to see how far the light extended. On their

return Vishnu declared that he had been unable to find out how far the light prevailed, but

Brahma said that he had gone beyond its limits. Vishnu then called on Kamadhnu, the

celestial cow, to bear testimony, and she corroborated Brahma with her tongue, but she

shook her tail by way of denying the statement, so Vishnu cursed her that her mouth

should be impure, but that her tail should be held holy for ever. 169 Goat was another

animal to which mystic power were attributed. Probably the chief reason was because it

has a curious habit of occasionally shivering, which was regarded as caused by some

indwelling spirit.170 In Jammu region goat was sacrificed in the rituals associated with

kul-devta. Bal was given to dog during shradhas and daily rituals.

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During shradha, crows, cow and dogs were given bal.171 Snakes were worshipped

all over Jammu hills as Naga-deota.172 In the Nagpanchami there was also the custom of

putting dallassi into the barmi. A pregnant woman did not give her shadow to the snake.

There was a believe that if this happened the snakes became blind. 173

People of Jammu region also consider monkies as the sacred army of god

Hanumaan and offer gram and other eatables to them to take blessings of god hanuman

and lord Rama for alleviating their miseries.174

Cat was considered a Brahmani and it was a sin to kill a cat and the killer was

likely to be punished by becoming a cat in his next births. To avoid this fate in his next

births a cat made of gold had to be given to a Brahman. 175 Ants were fed all over Duggar

with panjiri or gullar made of five articles or simply with raw rice or flour. It was done to

assure good luck.176 Even insects in some cases regarded with veneration. It is deemed

most unlucky to destroy a colony of ants. The ant hills, is , as we have seen, used as an

alter by some . Hence ants are carefully fed on certain days by Hindus. 177 Among birds

garuda held the foremost place of reverence, being a vehicle of Visnu, and its sight on the

dussehra was eagerly sought after by devote Hindus. Similarly peacock being vehicle of

saraswati, the goddess of learning, was held sacred.178

During the month of Basakh, there was the custom of keeping a bowl full of water

for drinking of sparrow called as chadolle. Fresh water was put daily in the bowl and rice

was also kept near the bowl. During the month of chaitra, there was the custom of giving

bajra to sparrows.179 Fish are in many places regarded as sacred. It was a common

custom among pious Hindus to feed fish at sacred places with a lakh or more of little

balls of flour.180 As it was in case of Jamwal clan of Raya suchani of district samba, they

worshipped fish as they had Baba Pehr as their Kul-devta which is in form of fish.181

Customs related with superstition

The age old back wardness and orthodoxy had given birth to some good and bad

omens and superstitions. The people of Jammu were so superstitious that when they met

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some people belonging to the names of certain towns and village out of antipathy towards

their inhabitants. For instance Jammu was called- warh Shahr, Samba-citan-Walha

Shahr, Akhnoor- Daryawalla Shahr, jasrota- watta walla shahr, Bansal- Kacha Pind,

Prole, Nagri and Jaganu Qila Wala Pind.182

The people of Jammu region were also stanch believer of Shagoons. If they went

somewhere and a cat crossed their path it was taken to be a bad omen. A crow on the roof

was a warning of the arrival of a guest. They believed that a journey to hills on Tuesday

and Wednesday was not free from hazards and troubles. Some peop le have gone to the

extent of saying that

“Mangal Budh Jo Jaiyee Pahaar, Jiti Baazi Aaiya Har”

If an owl barked before a ceremony it was postponed taking it as ominous. If one

sneezed it was also taken as bad sign.183 The parents of expected child were advised not

to do any work and maintained complete calm during the solar or lunar eclipses. They

were even not allowed to sit at one place for a longer period and advised to do worship

otherwise their action during this period may reflect in the form of deformity in the body

parts of the baby who was in the womb.

Arms were given to beggars and Brahmans on this day to avert the evil effects of

planets. As the period of her pregnancy advanced, she was not allowed to go out of home

during odd hours. She was asked to remain indoors during lightening, thunder, and

eclipses.184

People stopped eating and drinking during the eclipses period and a knot of kusha

or Drubha grass was kept in all edibles like food, milk, and curd, etc., so that these were

saved from becoming impure. It was a common believe that Drubha grass knots save all

these eatables from the bad effect of Grahan.

Everybody has been asked to remain in a meditative Mood and attended to the

daily routine work only after a bath on the expiry of the eclipse.185

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The people of Jammu region followed many customs when coated the floor with

cow dung. This coating was done in two ways. In normal routine it was always moving

with the hand in half circles so that the hollow of the circle remained towards the door. In

conditions of mourning and sad happenings the movement of the hand was just in reverse

direction. Therefore, the outsider knew the situation of the house looking at the surface of

the floor only then he entered the house. In some parts of Jammu it was known as

Chowka Poorna while in other parts it was called as Lipna. The term lipna was widely

used in duggar ranges for coating a wall or floor with any semi-sold thing, for instance,

Cow-dung, moist mud, etc.186

In areas like Kishtwar, the crowing of a cock in the evening, sight of a priest in

the morning and the cowing of crows at night were considered unlucky. They still believe

in the omens, talismans, charms, amulets and dreams. Walking on burnt coat or fire is

still practiced at the shrine of Ashta Dash Bozi Devi at Sarthal, on every annual fair. Till

late period, the villagers would perform the ceremony of Bhum- Jehwai.

According to this ceremony, cooked food placed in plates was taken to the

agricultural fields to be eaten by children. This ceremony was considered very suspicious.

Another ceremony was to fix, a bunch of leaves of fruit trees on a stick with a couple of

flowers especially narcissus and a bunch of wool. This miraculous stick was fixed in the

earth of every agricultural field with the intention of obtaining a bumper harvest.187

The Hindus have many superstitions connected with menstruation in women.

Women were considered ceremonially impure during this period. Even a Brahman

woman, we are told, degenerated into a chandali, The lowest of the low, once her period

started. It was only proper that such a woman should be excluded from decent society

during her uncleanness. Hence she was not allowed to enter the house, cooked meals or

touch a clean person.188

A menstruating woman did not touch anything belonging to her husband. It was a

belief that a menstruating woman handled anything of her husband, he will surely fall

ill.189 The Puranas also attach great importance to the menstrual flow of women. The

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Agni Purana says that if a menstruating woman touched anything she has to perform a

number of penances. The Siva Purana says that mantras should not be recited before her.

According to the Kurma Purana one should not talk with her nor eat anything offered by

her. To make sexual intercourse with her was regarded as one of the greatest sins in the

Vamana Purana.190

There were some other superstitions related with the women folk. It was believed

that if a woman bath in the open or in a nude way, water deity known in local language as

Jal pir was get attracted by the woman and he always remained with her. Whenever she

sleep, that Jal pir intercourse with that lady, as a result of this, many blue spots were

found on the body of that woman especially around thighs. That woman remained under

the influence of Jal pir. He did not lead her toward progress and always created conflicts

in her married life. It was said that if an unmarried girl has the influence of Jal Pir, she

should get herself free from his influence otherwise he also got married with that girl and

did not let her free till death. Her married life also did not succeed. 191

Food Habits

The food habits of the people of Jammu region dependent on the climatic

conditions of the region. The whole region was divided into two parts Antargiri and

Bahargiri. Antargiri is a hilly area whereas Bahargiri is a plain. Food habits of the

people of hilly areas comprised mainly of wheat, maize, patato, pulses, saag, milk, curd,

butter, and honey whereas the food of plain areas consisted of wheat, rice, bajra, gur,

milk, curd, gram, peas, pulses, and green vegetables. 192 In spite of this, people in their day

to day life as well as on special occasion used to prepared different types of pakwans and

other sweet and saline dishes.

In the summer season, there was a lot of mangoes in kandi and hilly areas of the

region. Many edibles were prepared from these raw mangoes and were taken by the

people of this region with great rejoice like chhacha of raw mangoes (makdia) ambal

(mani) of mangoes.193 Chhacha was prepared by cutting mangoes in small pieces. They

were mixed together with mint, salt, chilli, onion, in a mixy called as kunda -danda in

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local language and grinded. Then curd and sugar were also added according to the taste.

Mani was prepared by boiling mangoes in the water and after squeezing them completely

salt and sugar were mix in it.194 A sour product called maad in local language was also

prepared from the raw mangoes and was kept for the whole year to use in preparing

ambal and other sour dishes. Amb- Papad was also prepared.195

During the special occasion such as community meal (dhaam) maash dal, channe

daal, rajmash, ambal, auria, were prepared. Plain and sweet rice called Mitha bhat in

local language was very famous.196 In the Basholi area rong and karri were also serve in

dhaam.197

Dhaam was served on large leaf Planks of lotus leaves or made from leaves by

stitching together called pattals and stitched cups of leaves called as doonas. Sripalau

and meatpalau were the two important varieties of rice prepared by the people of Jammu

Region. The dinning place was usually on the ground which was cleaned and plastered

with cow dung and was separated by drawing a border. 198

Many types of sweet delicious dishes and pakwans were prepared by the people

of Jammu region in their day to day life as well as at other special occasion. Pakwans of

ghiur, suchiya, khamire, puriya, babria, sweet-namkeen chille, siyan, charoliya,

theekarmande, rutt, pude,dropada, etc., were prepared on the festival. Khamire were

prepared by wheat flour kneaded and leavened with yeast (khamir) and then baked on

tawa. Thothrus were globular in shape and smaller in size, rest preparation was same.

Ghiur was made of loosely kneaded leavened wheat flour (maida) so that it was a slurry

and flow then sprinkled with hand in very hot ghee in a shallow bottomed pan, so that it

assumed a jelly like form of bread. It was taken with sugar and curd. It was a special dish

offered to bride and groom in their respective homes after saant and also offered to

groom by sisters of bride on the wedding day. Charolia were made from thin paste of

fine wheat flour put in earthen vessel with four tubular holes. The paste was allowed to

flow on a big tawa called loh in a manner that four parallel lines were formed on the tawa

and similar cross lines were also formed while allowing the fluid to flow at right angles to

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the first, with the result that the resultant product has squares all round and was baked on

low flame and was taken with milk. Chille was prepared from gram flour. It was made

spicy by adding salt, dhania and chilli. Pude was prepared in ghee by mixing suji, maida,

sounf and sugar. Vratas like during Bachdua and Drupadi, rutt and dropada were

prepared. On the day of Lohri, tricholi, popcorns and khichadi were prepared. Rice was

not prepared on the day of Ekasdeshi. There was the custom of putting kadai(fry Pan) on

the chulla(fire) on the day of Sankrant.

During the time of Marriage, there was the custom of distributing bhaji in the

form of laddu, sakarbare, mathia, semiya, sweet namkeen babru, kalhe, ghiur, and

sasurut in the whole community.199

A special type of dish called as Madra was also known for a long time200 and

made by people in every occasion of happiness. It was made in two types salty and sweet

madras. The urad(mash) or rajmash or roungi were fried in ghee. Well churned curd

softened and mellowed. Salt, chilli pods, cloves of garlic, powered turmeric, coriander

powered were added, and it was further cooked on low flame. It was eaten with rice.

Sweet Madra was prepared by adding turmeric in milk and it was allowed to simmer, dry

fruits especially chhoare and songi were added and further cooked Sugar was added.

Rice, daal (channa), rajmaah, ambal was prepared in the days of sraddha. It was

said that without the ambal of kandoli and bindi no sraddha was complete. Kheer of milk

and rice, and curd of bhalle was the important thing during shradha.201

Dress and Ornaments as a part of custom

From the time immemorial, the people have adorned themselves with precious

and semi-precious ornaments. The people of Jammu region also showed the continuity of

customs of wearing ornaments. Ornaments could be regarded as a mark of man’s

attachment to the material world. It also revealed the zenith of a society in the field of

culture and the social and economic status of the people wearing these ornaments. People

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of Jammu region adorned these ornaments as per certain religious beliefs and customs of

wearing ornaments.

It was the custom and religious belief to pierce ears and nose of all men and

women. In due course of time it became all the more compulsory for women to pierce

nose because it was required to support nath,(nose-pendent) as a mark of suhag , I’e

wifehood. It was an established custom of the society to wear nath on marriage. Thus,

piercing of nose became an inescapable rite for the women. These nose ornaments were

known as burlak, nath, balu, koka, besar, shingarpuri-nath, laung or keel, tili, khoala-

balu, etc., in local language.202 (Nath was given to her by her Mama (maternal uncle) at

the time navgrahan shanty poojan.203 Another adornment called Kalire, made of dried

fruits, flowers, cowries, leaf-thin silver kalash, etc.204 The other important items of the

wedding ornaments were chakk which used to send by her in- laws. Besides these

ornaments chura, made of a synthetic material or red glass bangles were also worn by the

bride. The chakk and chura were used to wear for one year after marriage. The nath or

bali or its much miniaturized version, tili continuoued be a part of her body as a symbol

of suhag even on pyre.205

Even the importance of these ornaments could be understood from the blessing

which an elder person gave to a newly married women by saying, ‘Teri nath te churi

barqhar rehan I’e may your nose–stud and bangles remained protected.206 Even bichhuas

was worn on the toe as a sign of suhag while getting married.207

The women of the Jammu region had to adorn their forehead with various kinds

of jewellary ornaments as a mark of suhag. These were known as tikka, bindi, mangtika

or mangpatti, ard-chandraman, bindiyana-tikka, dooni-tikka, kutbi, sosani, jhoomar,

chand- bindi, shingar-patti, chiri, samosa, etc., in local language.208

Along with this ear ornaments wore by the women of Jammu region were karan-

phul-jhumka, phumki, murki, khalil, kundalas,jhumkas, bunde, balis, tops, ring, tili,

machchli, sakolries, dandiyan,mor-phankhi,bala-khungridar, kante.209 The neck-

ornaments also occupied a very prominent place in the life of women of Jammu. They

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used to adorn the upper part of their body with various types of ornaments known as

chandan-har, orali, guluband, mohan-mala, sat-laraya, panchlariya, peendal,

champakali-har, jugnu, chand, kanthi, nama, sangali, moharn, nava ratna, rani-har,

etc.210

Chura or bang was also considered as the sign of married woman. It was said that

this ornament was also worn by a suhagan on religious ceremonial hours as a compulsory

wirst ornament. Besides this, others were kangan, hath phul or panch-oangole, bain ,

churi, dastband, maridiyan, pariband, ilichi-dana, garichuri, churi-bangles, glass-

bangles-churian, etc.211 The people of Jammu region also adorned themselves with many

finger ornaments like anguthi, aarsi, chhalla, rattan-chowk, anguthi-mundri, chhalliyan,

punchangale, nuthi-chhapan in local language.212

According to the science of astrology various jewels and stones have played a

very important role in the development of various aspects of a human life. These stones

and jewels helped a man in achieving success in life keeping in view the effect of nine

planets on individual concerned.213 The people of Jammu region also believed in the good

and bad effects of these planets. Besides this many totemic ornaments like silver bangles,

anklets and amulets were also tied to the body of child to protect him from evil eyes214

Taweezes were also continuoued to be worn as protection against the evil influence of

planets.215 They were worn on such parts of the body, where they remained invisible. 216

Folk-Dances as a part of customs

Hirna

Hirna form of dance performed during lohri that too in the houses of the people

who were blessed with the birth of new baby or where in new wedding had taken place.

In this dance, dancers put on a mask of dear on their face and dance in a circle rendering

certain folk rhymes. Drums and cymbals were the main musical instrument used during

performance. There was no age bar for the performance of this dance. 217

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Jagarna

It was more or less a mock drama in which ladies gave the performance. After the

departure of barat from Bridegroom’s house, all the ladies from community assembled in

the house of groom and dance at the tune of dholki, a small household drum. They

enacted the roles of various male members of the family and close relatives of the groom

and cheered at them with a peel of laughter. The drama went on for whole night so it

known as jagrana that they have to keep themselves awake throughout the night. Jagarna

was in vogue throughout the region of Jammu.218

Keekali

Keekali was a very simple but interesting folk dance performed only by the

women -folk especially of young girls. No musical instrument or a particular place was

needed for this dance. Before starting this dance girls were divided in many groups, each

group comprising two girls, each girl facing her fellow girl hold her hands with a strong

grip. Then girls bend their heads backward for balance.219 They started revolving first

gradually and started gaining speed with the rise of tempo of dance till they look like a

whirlwind. In spite of high speed they continued singing like-

Keekali kaleel di, Paga mere vir di,

Dupatta mere bhai da, phete munh javai da.220

Tamachara

This dance was also performed by the women –folk on the occasion of marriage

of boy especially after the departure of barat from groom’s house. Women assembled at

the house of groom and dance vehemently. They provided rhythm by a dholak and

clapping of gathering. A pair of girls would come in the centre and performed keekali or

action of some other style while singing sarcastic verses which created laughter of the

whole assembly and fury of the dance till the climax of a round was reached. Then the

second pair came out and like this it went on.221

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Bhangra

Some areas of Jammu Region like Kathua, Hiranagar, R.S.Pura and even some

villages around Jammu were much influenced with the Punjabi culture. Therefore,

Bhangra was also performed in this region. It was performed on Baisakhi, the first

Baisakh that is on thirteenth april every year when the young boys attired in a beautiful

traditional dress came out in procession dancing on the beat of drum and making

hilarious gestures with ejaculation of sudden rhythmic notes, popularly known as Bolian.

Bhangra was the folk dance of Punjab but in Jammu Province, Ranbir Canal, Jammu,

Airwan, Bamyal, Kandi areas near to the Border were the center of Bhangra. At Airwan,

near Kathua, there used to be competition among the parties coming from different

localities. Bhangra, infact was a dance attributed to the harvesting season. Farmers

became so happy to see their production of corn that they came out of their dwellings to

enjoy and share their happiness with their kith and kins. They sang and dance in mirth

that who witnessed their performance couldn’t help but more with the rhythm such was

the beauty of the dance.222

Gidda

Just like that of Bhangra, Gidda was also a dance of swift movement of steps. It

was performed by the ladies only. They assembled at the decided site, a courtyard or a

large chamber, in their traditional dress, salwar, kameez and decorated duppata with

silver thread. Sometimes ghagra or shrara was there in place of salwar.

They arranged themselves in a circle and over the best of clapping and dholki, all

of them moved and sang a rhyme, popularly known as Boulian. After a round two

performers, one each from opposite direction, came forward and dance with their

movement the rhythm went on adding momentum and finally broke into normal sequence

and the main stanza was repeated followed by the performance of two other dancers but

in a different mode thus the sequence went on till all of them have not given their

performance. Gidda was performed during auspicious ceremonies of wedding at the time

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of new born baby. However, it was not limited to these occasions only, at any time, at

any happy occasion gidda could be performed on any occasion.223

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References.

1 Dash, K.N, Invitation to social and cultural anthropology, 2004, p.37

2 Kar, B. Parimal, Society A Study of Social Interaction,1994, p.80.

3 Davis, Kingsley, Human Society, 2000, p.7

4 Ibid.

5 Kar, B. Parimal, Op. cit., p.80-81.

6 Charak, S.D.S., History and Culture of Himalayan States Vol. VII, 1997, P.76.

7 Ibid.

8 Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of village Katli (Samba), 15-12-2013.

9 Jerath, Ashok, Duggar ka Sanskritic Itihaas (in Hindi), 1997, p.105.

10 Shastri, Bal Krishan., Dogri Lok Sahitya, ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da Sanskritic

Itihaas, 1985, p.409.

11 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, A socio-Religious Study of Visnudharmottra Purana, 1994,

p.45.

12 Goswami, Om, Dogri lok Varta (in Dogri), 1994, p.79.

13 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.409.

14 Ibid., p.409.

15 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.81.

16 Ibid., p.82.

17 Ibid., p.83.

18 Gandalgaal, Surinder pal. Duggar da lok Sangeet,(in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami,

Duggar da Sanskritic Itihaas, 1985, p.171.

19 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.410.

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20 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.89.

21 Ibid., p.90.

22 Ibid.

23 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi of village prithipur (Jammu), 20-1-2014.

24 Shastri, B.K, Op. cit., p.410.

25 Ibid., p.410.

26 Ibid., p.410.

27 Ibid., p.411.

28 Jerath, Ashok, Op. cit., p.109.

29 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.412.

30 Ibid., p.413.

31 Srivastva, Sahab lal, Folk Culture and oral tradition, 1974, p.11

32 Interview conducted with Kasturi Lal of village Sikanderpur,(Jammu),21-1-2014.

33 Charak, S.D.S, History and Culture of Himalayan States. Vol.IX, 2002,p.43

34 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.425

35 Charak,S.D.S, History and Culture of Himalayan States, vol. VII, 1997, p.424-425.

36 Charak ,S.D.S,vol.IX, Op. cit., p.423

37 Charak, S.D.S,vol, VII, Op. cit., p.115

38 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.416.

39 Ibid., p.417.

40 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu),20-1-2014.

41 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.118.

42 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Focus on Jammu and Kashmir, 2005, p.743.

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43 Sharma Champa, Duggar de Reeti-Rewaj (in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da

Sanskritic Itihaas (in Dogri), 1985, p.357.

44 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.743-744.

45 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.357.

46 Pandey, R.B. Hindu Samskaras, 1969, p.71.

47 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.743.

48 Charak,S.D.S, vol VII, Op. cit.,p.117.

49 Interview conducted with Kanchan Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.

50 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.36.

51 Ibid.

52 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.117.

53 Interview Vijay Kumari of village Nougran (Bishnah),20-1-2014.

54 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.358.

55 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.744.

56 Interview conducted with Kanchan sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.

57 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.36.

58 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.118.

59 Thomas, P. Hindu Religion, Customs and Manners, 1975, p.79.

60 Interview conducted with Pushpa devi of prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.

61 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.119.

62 Interview with Santosh Devi of village Malaal (Akhnur), 7-1-2014.

63 Interview with Shashi Bhau of village Lamah, (Palahwala), 8-1-2014

64 Charak,S.D.S,vol,VII, Op. cit.,p.120.

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65 Interview conducted with Kanchal Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.

66 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p. 37.

67 Kanchan Sambyal Op. cit.

68 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.122.

69 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.43.

70 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.366.

71 Interview conducted with pandit Ashish pande of Kotli Charaka (Bishnah),20-1-2014.

72 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.133.

73 Interview with pandit Ashish pande Op. cit.

74 Ibid.

75 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.85.

76 Interview conducted with Pandit Deep Raj of village Nougran (Bishnah),20-1-2014.

77 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.361.

78 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.

79 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.88.

80 Interview conducted with Puro devi of village Katli (Samba), 15-12-2013.

81 Jerath, Ashok, Folk Art of Duggar, vol. I, 1992, p.46.

82 Interview with Puro devi, Op. cit.

83 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.361.

84 Ibid.

85 Interview with Pandit Sushil Sharma of R.S.Pura, 5-1-2014.

86 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.361.

87 Sharma,Shyam lal , Dogra Khan-Laan, (in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da

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Sanskritic Itihaas(in Dogri),1985, p.284.

88 Interview conducted with Deep Raj Shrma of Nougran (Bishnah) 20-1-2014.

89 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.89.

90 Ibid., p.90.

91 Charak, S.D.S, vol, VII, Op. cit., p.134.

92 Interview conducted with Rano Devi of village Padyari. (Airwan), 7-1-2014.

93 Jerath, Ashok, vol. II, Op cit., p.108.

94 Interview conducted with Kajal Kiran of village Janglot (Kathua), 7-1-2014.

95 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., P.135

96 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.362

97 Interview conducted with Deep Raj Sharma Op. cit.

98 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit.,p.362.

99 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.135.

100 Jerath, Ashok, vol, I, Op. cit., p.47

101 Charak, S.D.S.vol, VII, Op. cit., p.135

102 Charak, S.D.S.vol, VII, Op. cit., p.135

103 Ibid., p.218-219

104 Ibid.

105 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.135

106 Interview conducted with Pt. Vimal Muni of Samba, 15-12-2013.

107 Interview conducted with Daya Banti of village prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.

108 Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.94.

109 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.363, Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.94-95.

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110 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.364

111 Ibid., p.365

112 Ibid.

113 Jerath, Ashok,vol .I, Op. cit.,p.50.

114 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.136-137

115 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi, Op. cit.

116 Ibid.

117 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.

118 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.144.

119 Mohan, Brij, Sarha Sahitya, 2008-10,p.330.

120 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.

121 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.145.

122 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.

123 Mohan Brij, Op. cit., p330.

124 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.367.

125 Charak, S.D.S, vol, VII, Op. cit., p.145.

126 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.367.

127 Ibid.

128 Mohan,Brij, Op. cit., p.330.

129 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.145, Sharma, Charma, Op. cit., p.367.

130 Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of Village Katli (Samba) 15-12-2013.

131 Charak, S.D.S.vol.VII, Op. cit., p.145-146.

132 Ibid., p.146.

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133 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit.,p.748.

134 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.367.

135 Ibid., p.368.

136 Ibid., p.369.

137 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.747.

138 Interview conducted with Nisha Sambyal of Gurha slathia (Vijaypur), 20-10-2013.

139 Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.104.

140 Interview with Meenu Cbib of Mishri Wala (Jammu),16-12-2013.

141 Kanchan Sambyal village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.

142 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Rajdarshani, eng. translation by Charak, S.D.S.,and Billawaria,

Anita,1991, p.65.

143 Drew, Fredric, Jummoo and Kashmir Territories, new Delhi, 1875, p.51.

144 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op cit., p.152.

145 Vaidya, C.V., History of Medieval Hindu India, 1979, p.97.

146 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, Op cit., p.153.

147 Jain, P.C., Hindu Society of North Western Province (1801-1856), 1986, p.138.

148 Ibid.

149 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, P.157.

150 Khajuria, Sanjit Kumar, Social Evils among Hindus in Jammu Region, M.Phill

Dessertation,(unpublished) submitted to the university of Jammu.

151 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, Op cit., P.157.

152 Ibid., p.158.

153 Kapoor, M.L.,Op cit., p.146-147.

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154 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Op. cit., p.171.

155 Drew, Fredric, Op. cit.,p.155.

156 Charak, S.D.S.,vol.VII,p.163.

157 Ibid., p.167.

158 Jasrotia, Deepti, “Some Aspects of Social History of Ancient Jammu’’ M.phill

Dessertation, (unpublished) submitted to the University of Jammu,2011.

159 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., P.168.

160 Thomass, P, Op. cit., p.82, Dr. Champa Sharma, Op. cit., p.375-376.

161 Kanchan Sambyal, Op cit.

162 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.371-372.

163 Ibid., p.373.

164 Interview. Conducted with Sudesh Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.

165 Charak, S.D.S., Vol .VII,Op cit., p.255.

166 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Op. cit.,p.168.

167 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi Op. cit.

168 Crooke, W. Op. cit., p. 230.

169 Ibid., p.233.

170 Ibid., p.223.

171 Sudesh Devi Op. cit.

172 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op cit., p.256.

173 Ibid., p.374-375.

174 Singh, Surjit, The great people of Jammu and Kashmir, 2009, p.12.

175 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.255.

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176 Ibid., p.256.

177 Crook, W. Op. cit., P.256.

178 Ibid.

179 Interview conducted with Kanchan Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur),8-12-2013.

180 Crooke, W. Op. cit., P.255.

181 Interview with Shivani Jamwal Of Raya Suchani,(Samba), 30-12-2013.

182 Pathik, Joteshwar, Cultural Heritage of Dogra, Op cit, 1980, p.136.

183 Jerath Ashok, Dogra legends of art and culture, 1998, p.17.

184 Pandit, S.N, Kashmir Hindu Samskaras, 2006, p.32.

185 Ibid.

186 Jerath, Ashok, vol I, Op. cit., p.48.

187 Hassnian, F.M, History of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and Kishtwar,1998, p.156.

188 Thomas, P., Op. cit., p.81.

189 Bhattacharya, N.N. Op. cit., P.162.

190 Ibid.

191 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi, Op cit.

192 Shastri, B.K., Devika Tat ki Sanskriti, Op cit., p.32.

193 Ibid.

194 Ibid.

195 Interview conducted with Raj Devi of Gagwal, 27-12-2013.

196 Sharma, Champa, Op cit., p.365.

197 Interview conducted with Ishro Devi of Basholi, 15-11-2013.

198 Pathik, Jyoteshwar, Op. cit., p.129.

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199 Sharma, Shyam lal, Op. cit., p.277.

200 Pathik, Jyoteshwar, Op. cit., p.129.

201 Interview conducted with Puro Devi, Op cit.

202 Kumar, Raj, Paintings and Lifestyles of Jammu Region, 2006, p.280.

203 Sharma, Neeru, Hamara Sahitya (Duggar Jivan: shelli wa shilp), (in Hindi), 2008- 09,

p.241.

204 Kumar, Raj, Op cit., p.258.

205 Ibid.

206 Ibid., p.258.

207 Ibid., p.255.

208 Ibid., p.260.

209 Ibid., p.269.

210 Ibid., p.283.

211 Ibid., p.293.

212 Ibid., p.298.

213 Ibid., p.297.

214 Ibid., p.306.

215 Ibid., p.256.

216 Ibid., p.256.

217 Jerath, Ashok,vol II, Op. cit., p.108-109.

218 Ibid., p.110.

219 Singh, Surjit, Op. cit., p.108-109.

220 Charak, S.D.S, vol. IX, Op. cit., p.154.

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221 Ibid.

222 Jerath, Ashok,vol,II. Op. cit., P.110-111.

223 Ibid., p.111-112.