Chapter 7Developmental Psychology

2 of 42

What is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental Psychology: the scientific study of biological, social, and personality development across the life span.

Development: progressive changes in behavior and abilities.

1. Change may be qualitative (different kinds of abilities) or quantitative (different amounts or levels of an ability)

2. Changes in functioning may be physical (body size & shape; brain anatomy and physiology, hormones, etc.) or psychological (cognitive or socioemotional)

3. Developmental changes are tied to age and are generally permanent.

3 of 42

Nature vs. Nurture

• The fundamental question: what causes development, nature or nurture?

• Nature: Development is programmed in genetically and follows a biological blueprint.

• Nurture: Development is determined by how the child is raised, thus by the environment

4 of 42

Stages in Developmental Theories

• Most developmental theories are stage theories.

• In stage theories, the child’s capabilities differ significantly from one stage to another.

• Major changes occur between stages, rather than small, continuous changes

5 of 42

Typical Stages in Developmental Theories

6 of 42

Topics to Explore

1. Prenatal Development & Infancy

2. Cognitive Development

3. Moral & Social Development

Part 1Prenatal Development & Infancy

8 of 42

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure, shaped

like a double helix that contains coded genetic information

• Genes: Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry

hereditary information. Genes are segments of

chromosomes located in each cell nucleus

• The sperm and ovum (egg cell) each contain 23

chromosomes.

• When a sperm cell and ovum unite, they form a single cell

called a zygote, which contains 46 chromosomes.

•All cells in the body develop from this original cell, and

contain the same 46 chromosomes.

Heredity & Genetics

9 of 42

Graphic: DNA

10 of 42

Graphic: Genetic Transmission

11 of 42

Temperament: The physical “core” of personality

Temperamental Types:

• Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable

• Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily angered

• Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained,

unexpressive, shy

• Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific category

Example of Heredity: Temperament

12 of 42

Twins

• Monozygotic (identical) twins: One ovum is fertilized by one sperm to form one zygote. Early in development, the zygote splits entirely in half, forming two identical zygotes that develop into two identical babies. The genes of identical twins are identical.

• Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: Two ova are fertilized by two different sperm to form two zygotes, which develop into two non-identical babies. The genes of fraternal twins are no more alike than any pair of siblings.

13 of 42

Stages in Prenatal Development

• Zygotic: from conception through 2nd week, major task = cell division and implantation

• Embryonic: from 3rd through 8th week; major task = developmental of most body systems

• Fetal: from 9th through 40th week; major task = growth

14 of 42

• Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that

affect development

• Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to

environmental influences; also, a time when certain

events must occur for normal development to take place

• Teratogen: an environmental agent (e.g., drugs or

viruses), diseases (e.g., diabetes), or physical condition

(e.g., malnutrition) that impairs prenatal development

Environmental Influence

15 of 42

• Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition,

comfort, or love

• Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately

made more complex and intellectually stimulating

Deprivation & Enrichment

16 of 42

Growth of Brain Synapses

17 of 42

• Rauscher & Shaw (1998) claimed that after college

students listened to Mozart they scored higher on a spatial

reasoning test

• Original experiment done with adults; tells us nothing about

children

• What effect would listening to other styles of music have?

• Most researchers unable to duplicate the effect

• Conclusion: Those who listened to Mozart were just more

alert or in a better mood

The Mozart Effect?

18 of 42

• Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s palm,

she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses;

i.e., they come from nature, not nurture).

• Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn

toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find nipple or

food.

• Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s

mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements.

• Moro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is

startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion.

Neonatal Reflexes

19 of 42

Motor Development

20 of 42

Motor Homunculus

“homunculus” = “a diminutive human being”

Part 2Cognitive Development

22 of 42

• Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants

• Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds

(e.g., babababa)

• Holophrases: child expresses a complete thought in

single words.

• Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that

communicate a single idea (e.g., Want yogurt)

• Overextension (extending word beyond adult definition)

and underextension (restricting word to less than adult

definition)

Language Acquisition

23 of 42

Communication in Infancy

• Parents and infants develop system of shared signals, including touching, vocalizing, and smiling.

• Signals establish a pattern of communication turn-taking, sending and receiving messages.

• Infants gradually develop ability to initiate activities, including communication.

• Before infants learn verbal words, they learn to use gestures as communication.

24 of 42

Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech used when talking

to infants

Characterized by:• raised voice (higher pitch)• short, simple sentences • repetition• slow rate of speech• exaggerated voice inflections

Parentese found in parents speaking all languages. It helps

parents get babies’ attention and functions to help them learn

language.

Parentese

25 of 42

• Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series

of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he

was a Stage Theorist.

• Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new

situations.

• Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to

accommodate new information or experiences.

Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development

26 of 42

Jean Piaget

27 of 42

Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor

responses are coordinated; infants learn to coordinate their

actions to what they see, hear, touch.

• Infants develop simple understanding of cause-effect.

• Infants develop concept of objects, understanding of what

objects can do and relationships between objects.

• Object Permanence: Concept that objects still exist when

they are out of sight.

• Intellectual development in this stage is largely nonverbal.

Stage 1: Sensory-Motor Period

28 of 42

Graphic: Object Permanence

29 of 42

Preoperations (2-7 Years): Children begin to use language and

think symbolically, BUT their thinking is still intuitive and

egocentric.

• From 2 to 4 years, preoperational children begin

developing concepts (e.g., time, space, relationships,

colors)

• Egocentric: Child is able to consider only one point of

view at a time. Usually children consider their own

viewpoint, and cannot incorporate the viewpoints of others.

• Beginning at 4 years, children have very primitive logic

relating two factors at a time (functional logic)

Stage 2: Preoperational Period

30 of 42

Concrete Operations (7-11 years): Children become able to use

concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that

remain simplified and concrete, not abstract.

• Conservation: Understanding that mass, weight, and volume (and other dimensions) remain unchanged when the shape or appearance of objects changes

• Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed.

• Other logical abilities: classification, measurement, seriation

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period

31 of 42

Formal Operations (11 Years and Up): Thinking now includes

abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas.

• Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples removed from specific examples and concrete situations.

• Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or projections.

• Deductive reasoning: Teenagers can make deductive conclusions based on relationship between variables.

Stage 4: Formal Operational Period

Part 3Moral & Social Development

33 of 42Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory

Preconventional

morality

Right and wrong determined by consequences

Comply with rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards

Conventional

morality

Right and wrong determined by authority

Comply with rules to gain approval or to do duty to uphold laws

Postconventional

Morality

Right and wrong determined by ethics & enforced by social contract

Comply with rules to maintain social order, unless rules violate universal ethics

34 of 42

Development of Emotions

35 of 42

Emotional Expressions

36 of 42

Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left

alone or with a stranger; appears around 8-12 months

Contact Comfort: Pleasant and reassuring feeling babies get

from touching something warm and soft, such as their mother

Quality of Attachment

• Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond• Insecure-Avoidant: Tendency to avoid reunion with parent

or caregiver• Insecure-Ambivalent: High resistance to being separated

from parent; unwilling to leave parent• Insecure-Disoriented: inconsistent reaction to parent’s

absence and return

Attachment

37 of 42

Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian: demanding; expect unquestioned obedience; communicate poorly with children

• Permissive: make few demands on child; overly respon-sive to child’s desires

• Authoritarian: demanding in setting high expectations; responsive to child’s desires; communicates well with children

• Uninvolved: spend little time with children and minimize their emotional involvement

38 of 42

Erik Erikson

39 of 42

Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust: (birth to 1 year)

• Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth,

touching, love, and physical care

• Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and

by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 to 2

years)

• Autonomy: Doing things for themselves, making choices

• Shame & Doubt: Children who are not allowed to make

their own choices begin to doubt themselves

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

40 of 42

Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (preschool years)

• Initiative: Children learn to choose their own activities, to

initiate activities (but not necessarily complete them!)

• Guilt: If parents don’t allow children to initiate activities,

children develop sense of guilt when they do

Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (elementary school

years)

• Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive

activities

• Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy

or inadequate

Psychosocial Development, continued

41 of 42

Stage Five: Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence)

• Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, “Who

am I?”

• Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure

of where they are going

Stage Six: Intimacy versus Isolation (Early Adulthood)

• Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share

experiences with them

• Isolation: Being alone and uncared for in life

Psychosocial Development, continued

42 of 42

Stage Seven: Generativity versus Stagnation (Mid-

Adulthood)

• Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation

•Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own

needs and comforts

Stage Eight: Integrity versus Despair (Old Age)

• Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have

lived richly and responsibly:

• Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed

with regret; experiences heartache and remorse

Psychosocial Development, continued