Chapter 8

Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood

The Development of Self-Understanding   • Children increasingly describe themselves

with psychological characteristics and traits• They become more likely to recognize social

aspects of the self • More likely to distinguish themselves from

others in comparative rather than in absolute terms• Social comparison

• Example: “I’m a nerd…”

(Harter, 2006)

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept  

• Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image• Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality

• Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the self• Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives -- academic,

athletic, appearance

Social and Emotional Development

• Hierarchial structure of self-esteem• Academic competence• Social competence• Physical/athletic competence• Physical appearance

Self-Efficacy

• Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes • Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice

of activities• students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many

learning tasks, especially those that are challenging • high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks

Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement• Capacity in self-regulation is linked to

developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex

Erikson’s Stage: Industry/Competence Vs. Inferiority  

• Industry -- becoming interested in how things are made and how they work •When children are encouraged in their

efforts, their sense of industry (competence) increases • Parents who see their children’s efforts at

making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children

Developmental Changes in Emotion• Improved emotional understanding• Increased understanding that more than one

emotion can be experienced in a particular situation • Increased awareness of the events leading to

emotional reactions • Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional

reactions • The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting

feelings • A capacity for genuine empathy

Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping Strategies

• Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and security• Allow children to retell events and be patient in

listening to them• Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or

confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings • Protect children from re-exposure to frightening

situations and reminders of the trauma• Help children make sense of what happened

(Gurwitch & others, 2001)

Moral Development

• According to Piaget, older children: • consider the intentions of the individual • believe that rules are subject to change• are aware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing

• Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal

The Kohlberg Stages

• Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed were universal• Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good

and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments• Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain

standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government• Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize

alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code

Emotional Development• Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development• Preconventional morality

• Stage 1 – Avoid punishment• Stage 2 – Gain reward

• Conventional morality• Stage 3 – Gain social approval and care for others• Stage 4 – Uphold laws and rules

• Postconventional morality• Stage 5 – Morality affirms everyone’s agreed upon rights• Stage 6 – Reflects more abstract principles for all humanity

• Moral Reasoning• Moral Dilemma

Moral Dilemma • Three weeks before their developmental psychology term papers

are due, Jennifer and two classmates visit the campus library to conduct online literature searches on their topics. After 30 minutes of surfing the web, Blake announces that he has found a website that offers inexpensive term papers on a variety of subjects, including the topic of his paper.

• Jennifer, who has never cheated in her academic career, says nothing and maintains her concentration on her own research.

• Sharon, who is appalled by Blake’s intention to cheat, vows she will report Blake to the professor.

• In choosing their selected course of action, Blake, Sharon and Jennifer each made a moral decision. However, behavior alone does not indicate moral thinking. Give a justification that each of these students might use at each of Kohlberg’s stages.

Gender and the Care Perspective• The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s

theory has come from Carol Gilligan• She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects

a gender bias• Kohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract

principles above relationships and concern for others • In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a

care perspective

Prosocial Behavior  

• Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning• Study of prosocial moral behavior

emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development • sharing is one aspect of prosocial behavior• by the elementary school years, children express objective ideas

about fairness

(Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)

Gender Stereotypes and Gender Similarities and Differences• Gender stereotypes -- broad categories that

reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males • Similarities and differences between boys and

girls -- bear in mind…• the differences are averages • even when differences are reported, there is considerable gender

overlap • the differences may be due primarily to biological and/or sociocultural

factors

Physical Development  •Males grow to be 10 percent taller• Females have a longer life expectancy • Females are less likely to develop physical or

mental disorders •Males have twice the risk of coronary disease • Researchers have found some differences in

the brains of males and females

Cognitive Development   • Males have better math and visuospatial skills, whereas

females have better verbal abilities• Gender difference in visuospatial skills may be small

Socioemotional Development   • Boys are more physically aggressive than girls • girls tend to be more verbally aggressive• there are no definitive findings on relational aggression --

behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry

• Girls are more likely to express their emotions openly and intensely than boys• Girls are better at reading others’ emotions and

more likely to show empathy• Males usually show less self-regulation of emotion

than females• May lead to behavioral problems

Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior • Females view themselves as more

prosocial and empathic • Across childhood and adolescence,

females engage in more prosocial behavior • The biggest gender difference occurs for

kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing

(Eisenberg & Morris, 2004; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)

Gender-Role Classification; Gender in Context• Androgyny -- the presence of positive

masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person• androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally

healthy • The importance of considering gender in

context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world

(Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)

Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships• In middle and late childhood years, parents

spend considerably less time with children• Parents continue to be important • Parents support and stimulate academic

achievement • Children receive less physical discipline than

they did as preschoolers• Children in grade school use more self-

regulation

(Huston & Ripke, 2006)

Stepfamilies• About half of all children whose parents divorce will

have a stepparent within four years of the separation• Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult

in a stepfamily

• Three common types of stepfamily structure• Stepfather; stepmother; or blended/complex

• Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents • Simple families show better adjustment than

complex (blended) families

Types of Stepfamilies

• Three common types of stepfamily structure are: • stepfather• mother typically had custody of the children and

remarried• stepmother• father usually had custody and remarried

• blended or complex• In a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents

bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily

Developmental Changes

• Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges • As children move through middle and late childhood,

the amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases • Size of their peer group increases• Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults • Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)

Peer Status

• Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group

• Popular children• Average children • Neglected children • Rejected children• Aggressive-rejected• Withdrawn-rejected

• Controversial children

Being Popular• Popular children • give out reinforcements• listen carefully• maintain open lines of communication with peers• are happy and control their negative emotions• show enthusiasm and concern for others• are self-confident without being conceited

Social Cognition

• Social cognition -- thinking about social matters• important for understanding peer relationships

• 5 steps in processing information about the social world • decode social cues• interpret• search for a response• select an optimal response• enact

(Dodge, 1983)

Bullying•Bullying has been defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful•Boys are more likely than girls to be bullies

Discussion• What do you think causes bullying?• How do girls and boys differ in bullying behavior?• What are some of the emotional consequences

of being bullied?• How might psychologists working from a

sociocultural perspective explain sex differences in bullying?• Psychoanalytic?

Bullying• Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making

friends• Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because

they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate • Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is

irritating to bullies

Bullying• Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor

academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol• Victims of bullies had

• Suicidal ideation and depression• Higher incidence of headaches • Dizziness • Sleeping problems• Anxiety

Functions of Friendships

• Children’s friendships can serve six functions • companionship • stimulation• physical support• ego support• social comparison• affection and intimacy • Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-

disclosure and sharing private thoughtsGottman & Parker, 1987; Berndt & Perry, 1990)

Constructivist and Direct Instruction Approaches• Constructivist approach -- learner-centered

approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher• children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover

knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher

(Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2011)

Direct Instruction Approach• Direct instruction approach -- structured,

teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum• Important goal: maximizing student

learning

Constructivist Versus Direct Instruction Approach• Constructivists argue that direct

instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively • Direct instructions say that constructivists

do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague

(Duffy & Kirkley, 2004)

Accountability

• Demands for accountability include• State-mandated tests to measure just what students

have or have not learned • High expectations and high standards for students• Became national policy in 2002 when the No Child Left

Behind (NCLB) legislation was signed into law• Criticisms of NCLB• Single tests• Teaching to the test• Tests are too narrow -- don’t focus on other aspects such as

creativity, motivation, and social skills• Standards vary per state

Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture• Schools in low-income areas are more likely

to: • have more students with low achievement test scores • have low graduation rates • have small percentages of students going to college • have young teachers with less experience• encourage rote learning• have buildings and classrooms that are old and crumbling

Ethnicity in Schools

•Many inner-city schools are still segregated, grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate opportunities for children to learn effectively• School segregation remains a factor in U.S.

education• The school experiences of students from

different ethnic groups vary considerably (Banks, 2010; Bennett, 2011)

Ethnicity in Schools

• African American and Latino students are much less likely to be enrolled in academic, college preparatory programs•Much more likely to be enrolled in remedial or

special education programs

Ethnicity in Schools

• Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students:• Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom• Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse

other students• Reduce bias• View the school and community as a team• Be a competent cultural mediator

Cross-Cultural Comparisons• Asian students do better in math than U.S.

students• Greater time spent on math instruction in Asian schools• Asian parents have higher expectations for their children’s

education and achievements• Asian parents believe that their children’s math

achievement was the consequence of effort and training• Asian students more likely to do math homework• Asian parents more likely to help children with math

homework

Cross-Cultural Comparisons• Mind-set is the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves• Fixed mind-set• Growth mind-set

• Dweck argues that individuals’ mind-sets influence whether they will be optimistic or pessimistic