CHAPTER EIGHTEEN SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc. 18 - 1

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD


I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

• Changes in roles and relationships are perhaps just as significant as physical ones

• For many older adults, these changes are not perceived as losses but as opportunities to create new roles and to make old age a time of personal and social gains


A. Erikson's Stage of Ego Integrity versus Despair

• Ego integrity versus despair stage: the last of Erikson’s psychosocial stages, in which older adults must achieve a sense of satisfaction with their lives

• Ego integrity: the feeling that one’s life has been worthwhile

• Reminiscence: reflecting on past experience; is a positive emotional experience for older adults, that is often seen as a way of communicating their experiences to younger individuals

• Life review: an evaluative process in which elders make judgments about past behaviour


B. Other Theories of Late-Life Psychosocial Functioning

• Older adults maintain high levels of performance by focusing on their strengths, and compensating for weaknesses

• Activity theory: the idea that it is normal and healthy for older adults to try to remain as active as possible for as long as possible– The most active adults have the most life satisfaction, are

healthiest and have the highest morale• Disengagement theory: the theory that it is normal

and healthy for older adults to scale down their social lives and to separate themselves from others to a certain degree

(continued)


Other Theories of Late-Life Psychosocial Functioning (continued)

• Disengagement theory has three aspects:– Shrinkage of life space – Increased individuality– Acceptance of these changes

• The third aspect of disengagement theory is controversial, since it implies a personality change

• Most elders continue to have social involvement• Continuity theory: the idea that older adults adapt life-

long interests and activities to the limitations imposed on them by physical aging


II. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

• Individual differences continue to make substantial contributions to the experiences of older men and women

• Research suggests that differences in a variety of behaviours are related to overall quality of life as well as to longevity

• Individual differences in reliance on religious beliefs and institutions as sources of support are also correlated with well-being in late adulthood


A. The Successful Aging Paradigm

• Successful aging has three components:– Good physical health– The retention of mental abilities– A continuing engagement in social and productive

activities• An additional aspect of successful aging is an

individual's subjective sense of life satisfaction• The concept of successful aging is referred to as a

paradigm because it presents patterns for or examples of such aging

(continued)


The Components of Successful Aging


The Successful Aging Paradigm (continued)

• Staying Healthy and Able:– Older people reap the consequences of behavioural

choices they made when younger– When an older adult suffers a stroke or fractures a

bone, his willingness to engage in the sometimes painful process of rehabilitation significantly affects his degree of recovery

– Those who believe they can achieve rehabilitation goals are most motivated to participate, and most likely to succeed

(continued)



• Retaining Cognitive Abilities:– The best educated show the least cognitive decline– Verbal intelligence and education are related to

physical health and social engagement– Avoidance of learning may actually contribute to

cognitive decline– New learning helps to establish new connections

between neurons, connections that may protect the aging brain against deterioration

– Cognitive adventurousness, a willingness to learn new things, contributes to successful aging

(continued)



• Social Engagement:– Higher life satisfaction is reported by those who have

greater contact with family and friends

– Social engagement contributes to successful aging because it provides opportunities for older adults to give support as well as to receive it

– Even when elderly adults have significant disabilities, many are still oriented toward helping others and feel more satisfied with their lives when they can do so

(continued)



• Productivity:– People who volunteer, especially with helping others,

are happier and healthier in their elder years– Canadians aged 65 to 74 clocked the highest number

of annual volunteer hours of any age group, with those over 75 a close second

• Other types of productivity (art and music lessons, academic classes etc.) add purpose to life, improve interaction with peers, provide a sense of competence; all of which help elders stay healthy

(continued)



• Life satisfaction:– A sense of personal well-being is an important

component of successful aging

– Perceived adequacy of social support and perceived adequacy of income are critical, and are more important than objective measures of the same things

– Self-ratings of health may be the most significant predictors of life satisfaction and morale

– An important self-protective psychological device is the tendency to see others as worse off

(continued)



• Criticisms of the Successful Aging Paradigm:– It can give the erroneous impression that all the

effects of aging are under one's control– An emphasis on successful aging may cause public

and institutional support for disease-related research to decline

– Critics concede its influence has been largely positive but suggest there is a need to balance the optimism of the successful aging paradigm against the realities of life in late adulthood


B. Religious Coping• Religious coping is often cited as the primary

means of managing stress• Sex Differences:– Canadian women make more use of religious coping

than men do, but the effects seem to be the same for men and women

• Religious Beliefs:– Seniors who place a great deal of emphasis on religious

faith worry much less than those who do not– Religious seniors are more likely than their nonreligious

peers to view old age as a chapter in an ongoing story rather than as a period of loss of capacities

(continued)


Religious Coping (continued)

• Attendance at Religious Services:– Across all ages, adult women attend religious services more

regularly than men– Religious attendance is highest among seniors– Canadian adults who regularly attend such services are:

• more optimistic, physically healthier, live longer• very satisfied with their lives• less stressed than their non-attending peers

– There is a connection between the sense of belonging and the sense of well-being

– Mortality is lowest among religious participants– Participation has many benefits including opportunity to

help others and intergenerational involvement(continued)


Religious Coping (continued)

• Alternative Explanations:– Selection effects may explain some of the benefits– Extroversion, likely present in those who are active

religious participants, is linked to successful aging– The intensity and personal nature of the beliefs

(whether or not they have a religious focus) or the sense of continuity of identity may explain the correlations

– The research evidence suggests that supporting the spiritual needs of the elderly may be just as important to maintaining their health and functioning as meeting their physical and material needs


III. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

• Consistency and change characterize social relationships during this period


A. Social Roles• Physical and cognitive changes are responsible for many of

the inevitable role changes in old age• Some role changes are the result of ageism• Appearance cues are often the basis for judgments about

the competence of older people. The older people look, the more negatively others stereotype them which may result in being unjustly forced out of roles by younger adults

• The loss of role definition can result in isolation or alienation but it can also result in a greater “license for eccentricity”

• Older adults feel far freer to express their own individuality


B. Living Arrangements

• Only about 9% of women and 5% of men over age 65 live in long-term care institutions

• Most married men will have a spouse until they die, but most married women will live alone for many years

• The percentage of married adults clearly drops in late adulthood, and this change is vastly larger and more rapid for women than for men

• In Canada, living alone is the most common choice among unmarried elders

(continued)


Living Arrangements (continued)

• Predictability factors that a single older adult in Canada will live with a child or with other relatives include:– Health– Income – Adult children’s characteristics– Public home care and social support services


Marital Status of Canadian Seniors


Living Arrangements of Canadian Seniors


Research Report: Elder Abuse in CanadaA hidden, but growing problem:• Recently, 7% of Canadian elders reported emotional abuse, such

as yelling, insulting, threatening, or ignoring; 1% reported financial exploitation and 1% reported being physically or sexually violated

• Male abusers are more likely to commit physical abuse, whereas female abusers are more likely to fail to provide needed aid (neglect)

• Just over two-thirds of all the reported instances of elder abuse involve a non-family member or an unknown person

• The remaining 28% of abuse cases entail family violence and of these cases, 43% of elderly men reported abuse by their adult children and elderly women reported being victimized equally often by their adult children (37%) as by their spouse (36%)

(continued)


Research Report: Elder Abuse in Canada (continued)

• Risk factors for abuse include the following:– Mental illness or alcoholism in the abuser– Financial dependency of the abuser on the victim– Social isolation– External stresses

• In couples where the husband has physically abused his wife throughout their adult lives, the husband is likely to continue the abuse into old age


C. Partnerships • Marital satisfaction is higher in the late years, but is

based more on loyalty, familiarity, and mutual investment in the relationship

• Higher levels of pleasure and lower levels of conflict are reported

• Spend more time with each other than with family or friends, and many provide a remarkable degree of care and assistance to their spouses

• Similar characteristics and effects are found in long-term gay and lesbian relationships

(continued)


Partnerships (continued)

• Rates of remarriage are higher for older men than for women

• Older unmarried men are also more likely to date and more likely to cohabit

• Married older adults have higher life satisfaction, better health, and lower rates of institutionalization

• The advantages are generally greater for married older men than for married older women

• The protective nature of marriage for older adults is supported by research showing that single adults over 65 have higher mortality rates, even when factors such as poverty are controlled


D. Family Relationships

• Contacts with Older Children:– Canadian studies show that between two-thirds and

three-quarters of older parents said their children see them at least once a week

– Close family ties are maintained with telephone calls, letters, and e-mail

– Aging parents are most likely to need support with activities that involve physical activity (e.g., lifting, bending)

(continued)


Family Relationships (continued)

• Effects of Relationships with Adult Children:– Good relationships and regular contact with adult

children can add to an elderly adult's quality of life, but are not necessary for it

– Childless elders are just as happy and well-adjusted as those who have children

– Friendships provide more opportunity to “be yourself”

– Relationships with children involve roles and expectations that may add stress to a senior’s life

(continued)


Family Relationships (continued)

• Grandchildren and Siblings– Interactions between grandchildren and grandparents

are beneficial to both– In late adulthood, contact between grandchildren and

grandparents declines as the grandchildren become adults themselves

– Relationships with siblings may become more important in late adulthood, especially after both parents have died


E. Friendships

• Friendships gain importance in the lives of elders, even as they diminish in number

• Contact with friends has a significant impact on life satisfaction, self-esteem and loneliness

• Relationships with friends are likely to be more reciprocal or equitable, and such equitable relationships are more valued and less stressful than relationships with family members

• Friends also provide assistance with daily tasks


F. Gender Differences in Social Networks

• Women and men appear to form different kinds of social networks, with men's friendships involving less disclosure and less intimacy than is true among women

• Older women's networks tend to be larger and closer than those of older men

• Men's social networks are just as important to them and provide them with the same kinds of emotional support as women's networks do, even though men's networks tend to be smaller


IV. CAREER ISSUES IN LATE LIFE

• A remarkable capacity for adaptation marks the transition from work to retirement


A. Timing of Retirement

• Until a few years ago, the normal retirement age was 65 in Canada; with few exceptions, mandatory retirement has been eliminated across the country

• As of 2004, only 18% of employed Canadians under the age of 40 were willing to postpone their retirement and this trend is echoed more recently by those nearing retirement age (aged 45 to 59)

• The average retirement age dropped from age 64.9 in 1982 to 61 years of age by the year 2000

• The trend is reversing and the retirement age is creeping back up; it rose to 62 years of age in 2007


B. Reasons for Retirement• Age: – If a person's "expected life history" includes

retirement at age 55 or 65, he or she is strongly inclined to retire at that age, regardless of other factors

• Health: – Poor health creates a particularly strong push toward

early retirement• Family Considerations: – Those who are still supporting minor children retire

later than do those in the post-parental stage(continued)


Reasons for Retirement (continued)• Financial Support:

– Those who anticipate pension support in addition to Canada Pension Plan (CPP) or Quebec Pension Plan (QPP), or who have personal savings to draw upon, retire earlier than do those who have no such financial backup

• Work Characteristics: – Those who like their work and are highly work-committed,

including many self-employed adults, retire later than do those who are less gratified by their work

• Sex Differences: – The median age at which Canadian women retire is about 2 years

younger than the age at which men retire– The lure of higher earnings that will augment the woman's future

pension benefits keeps some working


C. Effects of Retirement• Income:– Retired adults have several potential sources of

income: government pensions, such as Old Age Security (OAS) and the Canada and Quebec Pension Plans (C/QPP); other pensions, such as those offered through an employer; income from savings, such as Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs), or other assets; and earnings from continued work

– Non-government sources now provide the largest portion of retirement income

– On average, retired adults in most developed countries have incomes that are equivalent to 85-100% of pre-retirement levels

(continued)


Effects of Retirement (continued)

• Poverty:– After adjusting for inflation, Canadian senior men’s

income rose 21% and senior women’s by 22% between 1981 and 1998

– The incidence of seniors who were living below Statistics Canada’s Low Income Cut-offs (LICOs are a measure of poverty) has fallen sharply since the early 1980s

– Unattached older adults in particular continue to be more likely to be poor than their peers who live in families, and among the older unattached, women are more likely to be poor than men (48% versus 35%, respectively)

(continued)



• Health, Attitudes, and Emotions:– Retirement has essentially no impact on health– For those who do experience problems with retirement,

the most likely reasons are poor health, poor family finances, and marital problems

– Canadian research suggests that retirement can have a positive impact on overall life satisfaction

– Those who are forced to retire by poor health, or those who took special early retirement offers from their companies, are likely to report lower satisfaction and higher levels of stress

– Negative young people tend to be grumpy old people, and satisfied young adults find satisfaction in retirement as well

(continued)



• Geographic Mobility:– Only about 20% of seniors move within a 5-year period– Amenity move: post-retirement move away from kin to a

location that has some desirable feature, such as year-round warm weather

– Compensatory (kinship) migration: a move to a location near family or friends that happens when an elder requires frequent help because of a disability or disease

– Institutional migration: a move to an institution such as a nursing home that is necessitated by a disability


Development in the Real World: Deciding on Long-Term Care in Canada

• A long-term care home in Canada usually denotes either not-for-profit homes for the aged or both not-for-profit and for-profit nursing homes

• Care in Canada now costs anywhere from a minimum of about $1000 up to thousands of dollars per month

• To be eligible for government subsidies for such care, a person must first use all his own disposable assets, which may leave a surviving spouse in very difficult financial straits

• Supportive housing: where the older person can have an individual apartment and thus live independently but has nurses and meal services available in the building or complex

(continued)


Development in the Real World: Deciding on Long-Term Care in Canada (continued)

• Provincial and territorial agencies that serve older adults have suggested several criteria for evaluating a long-term care facility:– Facility should have required staff and equipment for your

elder’s physical needs– Check with authorities to see whether any complaints have

been filed and their resolution– Research the results of provincial/territorial inspections– Visit at different times to note how residents are cared for– Talk to family members of other residents– Ask about the facility’s policies regarding medical emergencies


D. Choosing Not to Retire• The small number of adults who continue working

past the typical retirement age includes:– Those who have never retired from their long-time

occupations– Those who retired from their regular occupations and

ventured into new lines of work, often part-time• Continuing in a Life-long Occupation:– Some men continue out of economic necessity– For others, work offers more satisfaction than

retirement would

(continued)


Choosing Not to Retire (continued)

• Learning New Job Skills:– Potential employers express concern about older

adults’ ability to learn new job skills– The learning process itself does not change with age– Learning new skills may be slower, but with

appropriately paced training, older adults can significantly improve their performance on many cognitive tasks that are relevant to the workplace

(continued)


Choosing Not to Retire (continued)

• Workplace Functioning:– For activities other than learning new job skills,

supervisors typically give older adults higher ratings than younger adults: they view older employees as more reliable, and state that the quality of work is better than that of younger adults

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD