Civil Tunnelling

Civil excavations and tunnelling– a practical guide

Ratan Tatiya

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

www.thomastelford.com

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First published 2005

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ISBN: 0 7277 3340 0

# Thomas Telford Limited 2005

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transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,

without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,

Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the state-

ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply

that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers.

While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions

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can be accepted in this respect by the author or publishers.

Typeset by Academic þ Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin

Dedication

To my mother ‘Rami-Shree’, and father ‘Jalam-Shree’

Contents

Preface ix

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction and site investigations 1

1.0 Introduction 11.1 Brief history – growth and development of civil

excavations 11.2 Site investigations – ground and rock characterization 51.3 Core drilling 71.4 Tomography 81.5 Lugeon test 81.6 Laboratory testing 91.7 Rock composition and ground types 111.8 Rock mass classification 121.9 Projection of geological model 14

References 18

2 Ground and rock fragmentation – drilling and blasting 21

2.0 Introduction 212.1 Drilling 212.2 Chipping hammers/pneumatic breakers 322.3 Explosives 342.4 Blasting 422.5 Blasting accessories 512.6 Properties of explosives 562.7 Blasting cost 592.8 Safety 592.9 Terminology 60

References 63

v

3 Earth movers, excavators and open-cut excavations 65

3.0 Introduction 653.1 Classification – earth excavation, loading and casting

units 663.2 Equipment details 663.3 Haulage system 863.4 Some developments 883.5 Equipment selection 893.6 Benching 943.7 Channelling/canal construction 1003.8 Uprooting or blasting stumps 1013.9 Excavation for foundations 1013.10 Smooth blasting 1023.11 Road construction and laying sewage lines 1023.12 Landfill 103

References 103

4 Tunnelling by conventional methods 105

4.0 Introduction – function of drives and tunnels 1054.1 Pre-cursor or prior to driving civil tunnels 1054.2 Tunnelling techniques 1074.3 Drilling – drivage techniques with the aid of explosives 1094.4 Blasting – charging and firing rounds 1204.5 Muck handling and disposal at the subsurface locale 1234.6 Ventilation 1314.7 Driving large-sized drives/tunnels in tough rocks 1334.8 Tunnelling through soft ground and rocks – conventional

methods 1364.9 Supports for tunnels 1374.10 Past, present and future of tunnelling technology 1404.11 Over-break and scaling – some innovations 142

References 143

5 Mechanized tunnelling 145

5.0 Introduction 1455.1 Classification 1475.2 Partial-face heading machines 1485.3 Full-face boring machines 1565.4 Backup system 1675.5 Boring system 1685.6 Rock cutting tools and their types 1725.7 Cutting head configuration 173

Civil excavations and tunnelling

vi

5.8 Some developments 173References 174

6 Shield tunnelling in soft ground 177

6.0 Introduction 1776.1 Function of the shield 1786.2 Shield tunnelling – classification 1786.3 Open shield 1796.4 Partial-face extraction units 1816.5 Compressed air shields 1826.6 Slurry shield 1846.7 Slurry and mix-shield 1876.8 Earth-pressure-balance (EPB) shield 1896.9 Combined shield 1916.10 Excavation tools 1926.11 Excavation procedure 1926.12 Excavation and transportation techniques 1936.13 Supports/linings 1946.14 Health, safety and environment (HSE) 1946.15 Selection of the shield 1956.16 Ground settlement/displacement 1976.17 Terminology 199

References 200

7 Special methods 201

7.0 New Austrian tunnelling method (NATM) 2017.1 NATM case studies 2077.2 Lee’s Tunnelling Method (LTM) 2097.3 Semi-mechanized methods 2127.4 Barrel vault method 2147.5 Ground improvement 2157.6 Use of shotcrete during tunnelling 2167.7 Cut and cover tunnelling 2177.8 Submerged (immersed) tubes/tunnels 217

References 218

8 Microtunnelling 221

8.0 Introduction 2218.1 Pipe jacking 2228.2 Pilot method 2238.3 Thrust boring 2238.4 Slurry microtunnelling machines 225

Contents

vii

8.5 Iseki (Unclemole) 2268.6 Herrenknecht microtunnelling system 2268.7 Developments and challenges in microtunnelling 2288.8 Some experience of microtunnelling in North America 2328.9 The future 2338.10 Terminology 233

References 234

9 Raising, sinking and large subsurface excavations 237

9.0 Introduction 2379.1 Raising 2389.2 Shaft sinking 2479.3 Subsurface excavations 2549.4 Equipment and services selection 265

References 271

10 Hazards, safety and the environment 273

10.0 Introduction 27310.1 Hazards 27410.2 Potential hazards 27410.3 Mechanization and automation 28110.4 Fires, rescue and escape 28510.5 Occupational hazards (health and physique) 28610.6 Legislation, guidance and norms 28710.7 Safety and accidents 28810.8 Conceptual planning, detailed design and evaluation 29310.9 Risk analysis 29410.10 Environment 29510.11 Environment management 30110.12 Sustainable development 30110.13 Emergency measures/preparedness 305

References 305

11 Conversion tables 307

Index 311


viii

Preface

Excavation means dislodging the rock or ground from in situ and dis-posing of it from there and, thereby, creating an opening. This opening,when exposed to the sun and atmosphere, is known as an open cut orsurface opening, and when the same is created beneath the ground and isnot exposed to the atmosphere, it is known as an underground or subsurfaceopening. Civil excavations mean those excavations that are usually underthe purview of civil and construction engineering disciplines, in terms oftheir planning, design, execution and construction.

Excavation activities began with ancient civilizations; naturally, menmust have made excavations for their shelter using ancient and primitivetools. During the 19th and 20th centuries civil excavations gained momen-tum around the world. Many prominent highways, rail routes, buildingconstructions, hydro-electric projects and tunnelling projects have beenundertaken, and are still ongoing. This has been made possible with theadvancement in the techniques, methods and equipment required toaccomplish this task. Today, civil excavations are no more an art but thetasks of engineering. Tunnelling is opening up the future. It is shorteningdistances by passing through the most difficult ground and hazardousconditions. Present technology can meet this challenge.

The relationship between mining and excavation technology as applic-able to civil and construction engineering is very close and very old.This is due to the fact that mostly the methods, techniques and equipmentused in them are common. Approaches to driving through varying groundconditions such as soft and unstable ground, watery strata and hard rocksare similar to a great extent. However, an important distinction betweenthem should be understood due to the fact that a mine’s life is limited tothe extent that the mineral deposit is depleted, whereas a civil excavation’slife is until its purpose is served, and can be almost unlimited. It is a costlyaffair but once built and created, it should prove trouble free.

Surface excavations include benching, trenching, channelling, pitting,demolishing, road construction and constructions related to civil and

ix

construction projects. Muck is material that is produced as a result ofthese operations. Removing this muck from its place of generation isknown as mucking or loading. The equipment used for this purposeis known as mucker, loader or excavator. These sets of equipment are alsoknown as earth-moving machinery. They are used for mucking, scraping,digging, casting, pushing, shifting, ripping, dozing, levelling and draggingthe earth material. Their use is multiple in terms of utility as they meet therequirement of many industries and tasks of public utilities.

The use of underground space in urban areas is becoming mostimportant due to scarcity of land in the densely populated/inhabitedareas and environment concerns. During the last 50 years, the advancesin rock mechanics to evaluate ground conditions together with thedevelopments in ground consolidation and support techniques haveenabled us to create large underground excavations. Method, techniquesand equipment are available to excavate a large volume of rocks beneaththe surface efficiently. This is the reason that these large excavations,which are known as caverns, are created for many purposes, such as civilworks, storage facilities, defence installations, hydro-electric powerplants, recreation facilities, etc.

Thus, the excavation activities for civil and construction industries arevital, and generate billions of cubic metres of earth-material daily, leavingapart those generated by mining activities the world over. This is thereason why many multinational companies are in the arena to produceexplosives and their accessories; earth-moving, rock-drilling and cutting,and tunnelling machines.

In summary, the book is a comprehensive text on civil excavations at thesurface as well as subsurface locales including tunnels, that could be createdwith or without the aid of explosives using latest methods, equipmentand techniques with due consideration to safety and environment. Theten chapters cover some of the following features:

. It covers unit operations such as: drilling and blasting (Chapter 2);cutting and boring (Chapter 5); sinking and raising (Chapter 9); muck-ing/loading, earth-moving, dozing, scraping, hauling (transportation)and supporting (Chapters 3 and 4). It deals with equipment used tocarry out these operations such as rock drills, multi-boom jumbos,excavators, loaders, earth movers, trucks, locomotives, conveyors,tunnel borers, raise borers, shields, roadheaders and a few others.

. The text gives fair treatment to explosives, blasting accessories andcontrolled blasting (Chapters 2, 3 and 4). Chipping hammers andpneumatic breakers used by the construction industry have beenincluded in Chapter 2.


x

. Criteria to select equipment have been demonstrated through a casestudy giving due consideration to factors related to environment,safety, ergonomics, economy and technical (Chapter 3).

. An attempt has beenmade in Chapter 5 to give comprehensive treatmentto modern partial-face borers, full-face tunnel borers, multi-tool miner(MTM) attachments and impact hammers.

. Chapter 7 has been devoted to describing tunnelling methods notcovered in Chapters 4 to 6. These include: new Austrian tunnellingmethod (NATM); Lee’s Tunnelling Method (LTM); pre-vault method;mechanical pre-cutting tunnelling method (MPTM), etc.

. In general, the term microtunnelling refers to driving of subsurfacesmall-sized openings or trenches to lay down the pipelines for waterand gas, cables for power and telecom, and sewer lines. This is alsoknown as trenchless technology, as described in Chapter 8. It has hugepotential.

. A network of vertical, inclined and horizontal openings (excavations)that is required while constructing caverns for different purposes suchas repository, oil storage, power generation and recreation facilities forthe general public has been described in Chapter 9. Applications ofvarious techniques and unit operations that are required to execute orundertake the excavations of various types have been tabulated at theend of this chapter.

. While creating excavations of any kind at any locale surface or under-ground, damage to the environment (pollution) and accidents areunavoidable. They cannot be eliminated but efforts could be made tominimize them. These aspects have been covered in Chapter 10 onhazards, safety and environment.

The foregoing discussion reveals that locales for the subject areas chosenfor this book are many, and they are vital. It is the author’s 34 years back-ground of working in excavation-related disciplines, initially for a decadein the field and then as university professor and industrial consultant, thatinspired him to write this book. Excavation is a multi-disciplined activityinvolving civil, construction and mining engineers, earth-scientists andgeologists. Hence, this book is likely to be used by the students, officialsand engineers of these disciplines.

This book is intended to serve students of undergraduate level and thefirst year of graduate level at schools or institutes teaching any of theabove-mentioned disciplines.

In the end, this book is a result of appreciation from students andcolleagues, support from my family members and cooperation fromprofessional societies (SME and IOM3) and academic institutes including

Preface

xi

Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. Companies such as: Robbins, USA;Herrenknecht GmbH, Schwanau, Germany; Sandvik-Tamrock, Finland;and Atlas Copco, Sweden, have encouraged me to prepare this book byproviding valuable information promptly, as and when I requested. Iwish to express my sincere gratitude to them, and to all those whohelped me directly or indirectly in this endeavour.

Ratan Tatiya

May, 2004


xii

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the followingeducational institutes, professional societies, manufacturing companies,publishers, mining companies and other institutes for their permission,facilities and release of technical literature, data, information and material.

AIME (American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical andPetroleum Engineers), USA

AITES, ITA, AustraliaAlimak Company, SwedenAtlas Copco, SwedenCaterpillar, USADitch Witch Company, USAFiat Hitachi, JapanGIA Industries, SwedenHerrenknecht GmbH, Schwanau, GermanyInstitute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3) UKKomatsu, JapanLTM Corporation, Seoul, KoreaNitro Nobel, SwedenRobbins, USASandvik-Tamrock, FinlandSME (Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration), USASultan Qaboos University, OmanWirth Company, Erkelenz, Germany

xiii

Chapter 3

Earth movers, excavators and open-cutexcavations

Proper match of equipment, methods, techniques and layouts bringsoptimum results. In a properly designed and executed blast only 20% of theenergy does useful work, and the other 80% gets converted into groundvibrations, air blast, etc.5

3.0 Introduction

Civil excavations, as outlined in Fig. 1.1, and the excavations that areneeded to produce minerals at mines are producing rock material ormaterial from the Earth’s crust that amount to millions of tons everyday. To cope with these production targets, the equipment known as abucket wheel excavator, which is capable of breaking up ground up to10 000m3 per hour, is considered to be the largest man-made equipmenton Earth. Off-highway trucks up to 320 tons capacity and bucket excava-tors such as draglines, dipper shovels and hydraulic excavators are theresult of a growing demand for a highly productive equipment fleet inthis specialized field. This is the reason that the excavation industry isbooming.

Muck is material that is produced after digging, excavating or frag-menting in situ rock mass or ground, with or without the aid ofexplosives. Removing this muck from its place of generation is known asmucking, or loading. The equipment used for this purpose is known as amucker, loader, or excavator. Other nomenclature is also used to designatedifferent equipment that are meant for this operation, and will bediscussed in the following paragraphs. These sets of equipment are alsoknown as earthmoving machinery. They are used for mucking, scraping,digging, casting, pushing, shifting, ripping, dozing, levelling and draggingthe earth material. Their multiple uses are shown in Table 3.1.14 Theymeet the requirements of many industries as well as the tasks of publicutilities.

65

3.1 Classification – earth excavation, loading and castingunits

In Fig. 3.1, classification of these earthmovers has been shown based on theirutility, or the operation/s they undertake. Table 3.1: column 1 lists commonactivities pertaining to various construction and civil projects, and columns2–14 describe the suitability of common earthmovers to accomplish theseactivities. Section 3.2 briefly describes these earthmoving units.

3.2 Equipment details

This section briefly describes various earthmovers such as scrapers,rippers, dozers, loaders, trenchers, graders and excavators. Scraping,ripping and digging are the techniques commonly used for removingsoft and weak material such as clay, silt, sand, shale, weathered rockand topsoil. Such equipment works best in ground that has a seismicvelocity lower than 1000m/s.6 Figure 3.6 can be used as a guide for theapplication of such units. Knowledge of the parameters such as spacingof fractures and other discontinuities – their continuity and orientation –and the in situ seismic velocity of the ground, etc., could be used to indicatethe ease with which a rock or soil may be excavated.

3.2.1 Bulldozer10

This equipment is a crawler-mounted or wheeled tractor unit fitted with ablade. It is capable of excavating, moving and stockpiling the earth–rock

Figure 3.1 Classification of excavating, digging, cutting, loading, mucking and casting units


66

Table 3.1 Various activities undertaken by the different earthmovers used in construction and civil projects (Courtesy: Komatsu, Japan)

Activities Hydraulicexcavator

MiniHE

Bull-dozer

Dozershovel

Wheelloader

MiniWL

Dumptruck

Crawlercarrier

Motorgradercrane

Trashcomp.

Back-hoe

Skidsteerloader

RCequip.

River maintenance g h h h h h h h h

Road construction g g g h h g g h g g g h

Harbour and airportconstruction

g h g h h g h g h h

Building and demolition g h h h h h h h h g

Earth moving g h g h h h g g h h h g

Water main and sewercontruction

g g h g h g h h

Landscaping h g h h h g h h g h

Agricultural engineering g h g h h g h h h h

Livestock raising h h g h h g g h

Lumber and forestry g h h g g g h h h g

Cargo industry h h h g h h h h

Mining and quarrying g g h g h g h h g

Waste management g g h h h h g g g

Tunnel construction g g g h h

g – used as main equipment; h – used to some extent; RC – recycling; HE – hydraulic excavator; WL – wheel loader; comp. – compactor.

Earth

movers,

excav

atorsandopen-cu

texcav

ations

67

(ground). Based on the duties this unit can perform, it is usually classified as:

. extra heavy-duty (over 300 hp)

. heavy-duty (150–300 hp)

. medium-duty (100–150 hp)

. light-duty (20–80 hp).

The operating cycle of a bulldozer consists of cutting off a horizontal orinclined slice from the ground, formation of a dragging prism, movingthe latter and dumping.

When selecting this unit, a proper match between tractor (in terms of itspower andweight) and the type of blade should be considered. Selection ofthe blade (Fig. 3.2) will depend upon the type of material to be moved.Most materials are dozeable. However, dozer performance will varywith the material characteristics such as particle size and shape, presence of

voids and water content.10 Given below is a brief description of prominentblades that could be attached to a dozer.

. U – Universal blade: suitable for moving big loads over long distances asin land reclamation, stockpiling, charging hoppers and trapping forloaders.

. SU – Semi-U blade: suitable for working in tightly packed materials andfor handling a wide variety of materials in production-oriented applica-tions.

. CD – Carry dozer blade: its shape is like a bucket and that allows it tocarry several cubic metres of material in the bucket.

. S – Straight blade: this blade is most suitable for heavy loads. It providesexcellent versatility. It is smaller than SU or U blades which allows it tohandle a variety of materials.

Figure 3.2 Classification of dozing tools10


68

Index

abrasiveness 9, 28, 169, 277accessories 26�8, 29, 51�6, 265�70accidents 274, 291�3

causes 291�2costs 292equipment selection 91see also hazards

acid rain 296active safety 289adjustable parallelogram rippers 74�5advance rates 169AEC Alpine see Alpine Equipment

Corporationaerial photography sets 6Aguamilpa powerhouse caverns 259�60air conditioning 270air consumption 183air deck pre-splitting 99�100air pollutants 296�8air pressure 182�3air-blast 45�6airlocks 285Ajmi’s formula 97�8alarm systems 286alignment 3, 17, 18Alimak raise climbers 239�41, 242Alpine Equipment Corporation (AEC Alpine)

152�3aluminium powder 42ammonium nitrate (AN) 40ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) mixture

blasting accessories 54equipment/services selection 267explosive ingredients 35fragmentation 35, 39�42, 46, 54rock throw 46tunnel blasting 123

anchoring 270ANFO see ammonium nitrate fuel oilangled cuts 111, 117�19angling blades 69anisotropy 169Anodets 54appliance safety 290�1aquifers 262arm loaders 124, 268asbestosis 286Atlas Copco�Robbins raise borers 245�7augers 72, 151, 223�5Austrian tunnelling method 153, 201�9autoloaders 124�6, 269

automatic guidance 195, 199automatic tunnelling machines 199, 226�8automation hazards 281�5Automatische vortriebmaschine (AVN) 199,

226�8automobiles 86�7

see also transportationauxiliary operations 250�2, 270avalanches 17, 18AVN see Automatische vortriebmaschine

backhoes 66, 67, 77�9, 83�4backup systems 167�8barrel vault method 214�15Barrow-upon-Soar gypsum mine 208�9baseline information 299�301bedding 169belt conveyors 47, 87�8, 190, 269benching 94�100

bench angles 95bench blasting 48�9, 96�9bench heights 45, 94�5bench widths 95�6blasting 48�9, 96�100drilling 99�100drives/tunnels 133, 135�6shaft sinking 251

bentonite 184, 186�8, 199Bickford, William 62bits 26�8, 29black powder 34�5, 36, 60blade shields 199blades 68�9blast-holes

conventional tunnelling 117, 120definition 63diameters 45, 96�8fragmentation 21parallel hole cuts 117raising 241�3

blaster’s tools/appliances 55�6blasting 42�56

accessories 51�6, 265�70agents 39, 60, 61, 267benching 48�9, 96�100caps 51�5contour blasting 47�51conventional tunnelling 111, 116, 120�3costs 59equipment/services selection 268explosives 39, 268

311

blasting (continued)fragmentation 21, 42�56gelatines 39mechanism 42�3parallel hole cuts 116safety 59�60shaft sinking 249site investigations 17, 18of the solid 111terminology 60�3tree stumps 101trenching 80�2

blind face shield tunnelling 180blind headings 131block separation 50�1bolting 142, 260, 261, 270boom miners 148�51, 265

see also roadheadersboosters 55bore diameters 58, 170�2borehole pressure 56�7boring 148�9, 156�74

conventional tunnelling 109cutter heads 172�3cycles 157, 159disk diameter 171fragmentation 21full-face borers 109, 133�4, 148�9, 156�66,

268microtunnelling 228�31raising 244�7shaft machines 149, 156, 165, 253�4see also tunnel boring machines

boulders 21boxhole boring 246breakers 31�4, 153�5, 269breaking in holes 111, 117British Standard BS 6164 288brittleness 30, 169Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard 177, 178bubble energy 46buckets 65, 85�6, 156buffer blasting 50bulldozers 66�71burden 45, 60, 96�9, 114�17burn cuts 111, 113, 118button bits 26�8, 29

cables 81cages 241cake 184California switching system 212canal construction 100�1caps 51�5carbon dioxide 283carbon monoxide 282, 286carry dozer blades 68casting 65�6caverns 3�4, 255�65, 270CEN (Comite Europeen de Normalisation) 284centering devices 47, 252centrifugally-spun fibreglass pipes 231Cerchar tests 9CERN 264�5Channel Tunnel construction 177, 191

channelling 100�1charging

charge density 121charge depths 242�3charge weight/delay 44, 243charging, blasting accessories 54, 55�6contour holes 99�100conventional tunnelling 114�16, 120�3, 141parallel hole cuts 114�16

chemical products, storage 262chipping hammers 31, 32�4City�South subway, London 182civil excavations 1�4civil tunnels 145classification

air pollutants 298civil excavations 1�2dozing tools 68earth movers 66, 67, 74�5explosives 36�42, 51�2ground types 11�12, 13�15hazards 303mechanized tunnelling 145, 146, 147�8, 149microtunnelling 223raising 240rippers 74�5roadheaders 149rock drills 22�6rock mass 12, 14�15, 18, 139, 140shield tunnelling 178�9, 186tunnel supports 137�8tunnelling methods 145, 146

clay 184�6climate 237coal dust 285codes of practice 288collapses 275�8collars 17, 18, 62combined shields 191�2Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN) 284commercial/industrial explosives 37�40communication technology 32compact trenchers 79compactors 66, 67compressed air 168, 182�3, 200, 288compressive strength 168, 171, 205�6computers 32, 228�9conceptual planning 293�4concrete casts 270concrete pipes 231cone crushers 199cone of depression 260consequence ranking 295construction

civil projects 67regulations 288site investigations 14, 17�18subsurface excavations 257�8

continuous conveyors 167�8continuous miners see roadheaderscontinuous support 222contour blasting 47�51, 100control/contour blasting 47�51, 100conventional tunnelling 105�43

blasting 111, 116, 120�3


312

charging 114�16, 120�3, 141developments 140�2drilling 141driving 133�6explosives 109�20historical overviews 140�2mucking 123�31, 141overbreak 142�3rough rocks 133�6scaling 141, 142�3shotcrete supports 141site investigations 105�7soft ground/rocks 136�7supports 137�40, 141techniques 107�20transportation 123�8, 130�1ventilation 131�3, 141

conveyors 167�8belts 47, 87�8, 190, 269

Copco�Robbins raise borers 245�7core drilling 7�8coromant cuts 111, 118costs

accidents 292blasting 59equipment selection 92�3explosive properties 56�7fragmentation 56�7, 59site investigations 14storage 262water effects 279

coupling sleeves 29crater theory 241�3crawlers 66, 67, 71�2critical angles 75critical diameters 58cross-hole tomography 8, 10cross-passages 3, 255cross-sections 77, 106�7, 212�14crude oil/gas storage 261�2crushers 21, 25�6, 199, 226cushion blades 69cushion blasting 48, 49�50cut and cover 217cut design 112�13cut-hole areas 113�17cut-hole charge density 121cutters

cutter heads 153, 168, 172�3, 199, 230�1cutting 268cutting wheels 186, 199equipment/services selection 268fragmentation 21Herrenknecht’s hard rock TBMs 162mechanized tunnelling 172�3microtunnelling 230rock drills 26shield tunnelling 186, 192�3, 199specifications 159�60, 162

cycle times 142cylindrical cuts 111, 113�17, 118

dangers see hazardsDAUB 195�6DC see detonating fuse/cords

decay minimization 281decision-tree structures 16�18deck charging 45, 60, 99�100decompression 136decoupling 47, 60deflagration 36, 60degree of siesmocity 74delay periods 44, 45, 243density 56�7, 121depth of charge 242�3depth of round/hole 121dermatitis 287design 293�4

benching 94�9blasting 96�9shield tunnelling 197site investigations 17, 18

detailed design 293�4detonating fuse/cords (DC) 54�5, 61detonation 36�7, 56�7, 61detonators 51�5, 61Deutscher Ausschuss fur Unterirdisches Bauen

(DAUB) 195�6developments

civil excavations 1�2tunnelling 140�2, 173�4, 228�32

dewatering 248, 250�2diameter ranges 45, 58, 96�8, 170�2, 232diesel haulage units 281digging earth movers 65�6digital control 228�9dipper shovels 268direct initiation 61, 120discharge pipes 199discontinuities 276disk diameters 171�2disposal, radioactive waste 262�3distance from blast 45ditchers 77�82double gripper machines 162double shield TBMs 157, 160�2, 165double-track backup systems 167�8down-the-hole (DTH) drills 22�5, 243, 266dozer production 69�71dozers 66�71drag cuts 119draglines 85�6DRI see drilling rate indexdrifting 6, 30�1, 61, 265�7drilling

accessories 26�8, 29benching 99�100conventional tunnelling 116, 141drilling rate index (DRI) 170equipment/services selection 266�7fragmentation 21�34Lee’s Tunnelling Method 211parallel hole cuts 116performance 28�30rock behaviour data sets 6shaft sinking 248�9, 251, 253terminology 60�3

drillsdrill rods/pipes 26, 28, 29drill steels 26, 29

Index

313

drills (continued)jumbo 31, 207�8, 211, 249, 265�7rock 21�6, 30�1, 34, 265

driving 107�20, 133�6definition 61drivage 107, 109�20drive lengths 232equipment/services selection 266function 105mechanized tunnelling 145new Austrian tunnelling 205raising 239, 240

drop raising 243dry blasting agents 39, 40�2, 61, 267DTH see down-the-holeducting 131�3dump/dumper trucks 66, 67, 87DuPont guidelines 48, 49dust inhalation 286�7dynamites 35, 37�9, 61

earth excavation 66earth movers 65�103

backhoes 66, 67, 77�9, 83�4bulldozers 66�71classification 66, 67, 74�5compactors 66, 67crawler carriers 66, 67, 71�2developments 88�9ditchers 77�82dozer shovels 66�71dump trucks 66, 67, 87hydraulic 66�7, 84, 88, 129, 130hydraulic excavators 66, 67motor grader cranes 66, 67recycling equipment 66, 67rippers 74�7road construction 102�3scrapers 71�4sewage lines 102�3skid steer loaders 66, 67trenchers 77�82wheel loaders 66, 67

earth-pressure-balance (EPB) shields 189�91earthquakes 237EC Framework Directives 288economic factors 92�3

see also costsEED see electric explosive deviceselasticity 30electric detonators 53, 54electric explosive devices (EED) 37electric LHDs 93�4electrical hazards/safety 284�5, 286electrical power 167, 284�5, 286electromagnetic methods 10electronic detonators 53, 54�5electronic laser system (ELS) 233�4elevating scrapers 72ELS see electronic laser systememergency access/exits 3, 195, 255, 285�6emergency plans 195, 304, 305empty holes 112, 113, 120emulsion explosives 35, 39, 40, 61, 249,

267

EN 815 284�5energy 22�4, 46�7, 92�3engineering rock mass classification 12, 14�15,

18, 139, 140environment 295�301

equipment selection 89�91impact assessments 299�301management 299�301pre-vault tunnelling 213�14see also health, safety and the environment

EPB see earth-pressure-balanceequipment/services selection 66�86, 89�94,

143, 265�70ergonomic factors 91�2escape 3, 195, 255, 285�6European Community Directive, 1998 284European Organization for Nuclear Research

264�5European standards bodies 284�5evaluations 293�4excavation

foundations 101�2mechanized tunnelling 168�72new Austrian tunnelling 205�6shield tunnelling 192�3, 195slurry microtunnelling 225stability 17, 18subsurface 257�8

excavators 65�103applications 89, 90backhoes 66, 67, 77�9, 83�4buckets 65, 85�6, 156developments 88�9draglines 85�6front-end loaders 82�4hydraulic 66�7, 84, 88, 129, 130mounted cutter heads 153partial-face shields 180�1scrapers 71�4shovels 84�5strip shovels 85wheel loaders 82�4

exhaust fans 270exhaust gases 285exhibition halls 263�4exploration 5�18, 21explosions 285explosives 21, 34�47, 56�60

adverse impacts 43�7bench blasting 98�9blast-hole raising 241�3blasting accessories 51�6classification 36�42, 57conventional tunnelling 109�20definitions 60�3equipment/services selection 267�8ingredients 35�6, 41�2safety 59�60selection 265�70shaft sinking 249terminology 60�3trenching 80�2vibration impacts 45

extension rods 26, 29extinguishers 194�5, 286


314

face support 195, 226fan cuts 118fan drilling jumbos 267fans 131�3, 270faults 276FEL see front-end loadersfertilizers 40fibreglass-reinforced polymer pipes 231fill factor 69filter cake 184fire-fighting 194�5fires, hazards/safety 194�5, 281, 285�6fireworks 36firing devices 51�2, 55�6, 120�3firm ground site investigations 13fissured hydraulic limestone 208�9fitness 287fixed lighting 270fixed parallelogram rippers 74flooding 278�9floodwaters 237flowing ground 13folds 276foliation 169forcing fans 270fore-polling 136fork-lift attachments 83�4foundations 101�2fracture toughness 9fragmentation 21�63

blasting 42�56, 59chipping hammers 32�4conventional tunnelling 109costs 56�7, 59drilling 21�34explosives 21, 34�42, 43�7pneumatic breakers 32�4raising 240terminology 60�3

Frankfurt Metro Tunnel 207�9freezing cuts 114front-end loaders (FEL) 82�4, 129, 269fuels, explosive ingredients 35full-face machines

borers 109, 133�4, 148�9, 156�66, 268drivers 133, 134mechanical excavation 193rotating disk cutters 180�1TBMs 149, 266

fumes 57, 58, 62, 282fuse heads 37future developments 140�2

gantry mounted hammers 154gases

expansion 42�3explosive ingredients 36hazards/safety 280�1, 282�3, 285�6ingress 280mines 280�1, 282�3pollution 296raising 241site investigations 17, 18storage 261�2

geo-electric methods 10

geological aspectsdecision-tree structures 16�18geological model projection 14�18pre-vault tunnelling 213rock behaviour data sets 6shield tunnelling 188site investigations 10, 14, 16

geomechanical aspects 256�7geophysical methods 10geotechnical aspects 14, 263German Tunnelling Committee 195�6Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 32gouge 276governing factors, rock behaviour 7GPS see Global Positioning Systemsgrading curves 187�8, 196granite 157, 158gravitational methods 10gripper machines 162�4ground

categories 11�12, 13�15, 203, 205�6characterization 5�7, 16�18classification 11�12, 13�15, 203, 205�6collapses 275�8conditions 252, 274, 275�8control 213�14displacement 197�8disturbance 232fragmentation 21�34, 42�56, 59improvement 215�16pressure 183settlement 197�8subsidence 197�8support 168types 13vibrations 43�5

groundwater 10, 178, 216grouting 162, 214, 216, 270growth, civil excavations 1�2guidance

equipment selection 89�94hazards/safety 287�8systems 195, 222, 226, 229, 233�4tunnelling safety 288

guniting 216�17, 270gunpowder 34�5, 36, 60gypsum mines 208�9

Hagg loaders 269hammers 153�6

impact hammers 21, 153�5jackhammers 30, 266mounting alternatives 154�5shaft sinker hammers 154, 155�6top-hammer rock drills 22�4

handheld rock drills 34handling explosives 58, 59�60hard and abrasive rocks 157�66, 173, 277hardness 28haulage 86�8, 89�94, 269, 281Haupt, Herman 157hazards 273�81

automation 281�5classification 303equipment selection 91

Index

315

hazards (continued)HAZAN 294HAZOP 294mechanization 281�5occupational hazards 286�7and operability problems 294and their potential consequences 294

HDD see horizontal direction drillingheading techniques 131, 133, 134�6, 147�56health and physique 286�7Health and Safety 183, 194�5health, safety and the environment (HSE)

194�5, 273hearing impairment 287heat 280�1heat strain/heat strokes 287heavy ANFO 39, 40heavy-duty trenchers 79Hercudet detonators 54Herrenknecht, Germany 162�5, 182, 226�8high explosives 36, 37, 61highway tunnels 3�4historical overviews

civil excavations 1�2conventional tunnelling 140�2drilling 21�2, 25explosives 34�5shield tunnelling 177subsurface excavations 255TBMs 157

hoe scrapers 73backhoe 66, 67, 77�9, 83�4

hoisting 269hole patterns 110�11horizontal benching 135�6horizontal direction drilling (HDD) 223HSE see health, safety and the environmenthumidity 279, 280�1hydraulic units

breakers 31, 33�4, 153�5earth movers/excavators 66�7, 84, 88, 129,

130fluids 286jet scaling 143jumbos 265muck disposal 129, 130shovels 84transportation 269

hydro-electro projects 238hydro-power plants 259�60hydrogen sulfide 283Hydrojet shields 184, 185, 186hydrological factors 17, 18Hydroshields 184, 185, 186hydrostatic pressure 203

illumination 3, 252, 255, 270immersed tubes/tunnels 217�18impact assessments 299�301impact hammers 21, 153�5impaired hearing 287in-the-hole (ITH) rock drills 22�3incline 61inclined raising 245indention tests 9

indirect initiation 61, 120industrial explosives 37�40industrial pollution 295�301infiltration 3ingredients, explosives 35�6, 41�2ingress of gas 280inherent safety 288, 289initiating explosives 37insert bits 26�8, 29instrumentation 205integral steels 26, 29intermediate jacking stations 234investigations see site investigationsIseki (Unclemole), Japan 226ITA publications 288ITH see in-the-hole

J-values 9jackhammers 30, 266jacking stations 234jacklegs drills 30jet grouting 214jointing 169, 276, 277jumbo drills 31, 207�8, 211, 249, 265�7

karstification 17, 18Karwanken Tunnel 208kerfs 110�11, 169, 268kerosene storage 262

laboratory testing 6, 9�11ladder trenchers 77land pollution 296�7land vibrations 43�5landfill 103large sized drives/tunnels 133�6large subsurface excavations 237, 254�65laser guidance systems 195, 222, 226, 233�4laser measurements, drilling 32lashing 249�50launch shafts 183, 200, 223, 234laying sewage lines 102�3Lee’s Tunnelling Method (LTM) 209�12legislation 287�8LHDs see load, haul and dumping unitslife span 255life-cycle approach 294line drilling 50�1linear formulae 97linings 3

new Austrian tunnelling 201, 203potential hazards 279shaft sinking 250shield tunnelling 162, 188, 190, 194site investigations 17, 18

literature reviews 6load carrying arches/rings 201, 202load, haul and dumping units (LHDs)

equipment/services selection 93�4, 269muck handling 126scrapers 71�4trackless haulage 87

load imparting arches/rings 202loading units/loaders 66�7, 82�4, 123�6, 129,

249�50, 268


316

locations 105�6locomotives 86�7, 127�8, 269longitudinal roadheaders 151loosing zones 201low explosives 36low-profile transportation 87, 123�7, 128,

269LTM see Lee’s Tunnelling MethodLugeon tests 8�9lumber-fork attachments 83�4lung disease 281, 286�7

machine tunnelling 281magnetic methods 10main beam TBMs 157�61manganese poisoning 287manual excavation 179, 192mass balance system/equation 296�301mass wasting 17, 18match-heads 37material handling 17, 18measure distance method 77mechanical factors 17, 18mechanical pre-cutting tunnelling method

(MPTM) 212�14mechanical scaling 143mechanical strength tests 9mechanization hazards 281�5mechanized climbers 239�41, 242mechanized cuts 110�11mechanized drifting 265mechanized drilling 265mechanized excavation 193mechanized supports 180�1mechanized tunnelling 145�74

backup systems 167�8boring systems 148�9, 156�66, 168�74classification 147�8continuous conveyors 167�8cutting head configurations 173cutting tools 172�3developments 173�4excavation systems 168�72full-face boring 148, 156�66partial-face heading 147�56rock cutting tools 172�3TBMs 148�9, 156�66, 168�9, 172�4

medical pressure chambers 183methane 283microtunnelling 221�34

augering 223�5challenges 228�32developments 228�32future prospects 233Herrenknecht system 226�8Iseki (Unclemole), Japan 226North America 232�3pilot method 223pipe jacking 222�3slurry machines 225terminology 233�4thrust boring 223�5

military explosives 37�40milling roadheaders 151minerals 11�12, 30, 296

minescivil excavations 2drives 116gases 280�1, 282�3openings 108pollution 295�6tunnels 145

mini excavators 88mini-hole blasting 80�3miniature drill tests 9misfires 61Mitsubishi, Japan 183mix-shields 184, 185, 187�8mixed face conditions 230�1mixed ground conditions 277�8model parameters 196modern tools 32modular systems 182Mohs’ scale 62motor drills and breakers 31, 34motor grader cranes 66, 67motors 229�30mountings 24, 31, 33�4, 154�5MPTM 212�14MTM see multi-tool minersmucking

conventional tunnelling 123�31, 141disposal 128�31earth-pressure-balance shields 190equipment/services selection 89�94, 268�9excavators 65handling 123�31shaft sinking 249�50, 251shield tunnelling 190, 192�3subsurface locale 123�31units 65�6, 89�94, 123�6

multi-boom hydraulic jumbos 265multi-tool miners (MTM) 151�3multimember reinforcements 270musculoskeletal injuries 287

narrow trenches 81NATM 153, 201�9natural disasters 237natural gas storage 261�2new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM) 153,

201�9NG see nitroglycerineNitro Nobel guidelines 48, 49nitrogen/nitrous fumes 62, 282nitroglycerine (NG) explosives 35�9, 57, 267nitrous fumes 62, 282Nobel, Alfred 37, 39noise 4

contour blasting 48�9explosive impacts 43, 45�6, 48�9mechanized tunnelling 145

nomenclature 65Nonel detonators 53, 54norms 287�8North America 232�3noxious gases 62, 282

occupational hazards 286�7oil storage caverns 260�1

Index

317

open beam TBM 157, 158open raising 239open shields 179�80open-cut excavations 1, 65�103

see also earth movers; excavatorsoperating efficiency 69operation of equipment 90�4operation life 3ores 62orientation 106�7outcrops 62overbreak 43, 142�3, 145overhead loaders 268overshot loaders 124oxidisers 35oxygen balance 58oxygen hazards 282, 286oxygen self-rescuers 286

parallel hole cuts 111�17, 118parallelogram rippers 74�5partial-face extraction 180�2, 192partial-face heading 147�56partially-closed shield tunnelling 180particle physics centre 264�5particle velocity 44passive safety 288, 289pattern of holes 110�11peak particle velocity 44pedestrian trenchers 79penetration rates 168, 170performance

conventional tunnelling 140�2dozers 68�71indicators 165TBMs 164, 169�70trenchers 80

Permalok 231permeability 183, 184, 196permitted explosives 62petrography 9PFM 149, 165photo-elastic technique 257pilot heading 133, 134�5pilot microtunnelling 223pipe jacking 222�3pipes 81, 231�2pit excavations 81�2plain detonators 54planning, site investigations 17, 18plaster shooting 21, 62plastic deformation 112pneumatic breakers 31, 32�4pneumatic jumbos 265pneumatic lighting 270point load indices 168pollution 89�91, 295�301poly-mineral rocks 30pop shooting 62portable equipment 270portal mounted hammers 154portals 17, 18, 62potential hazards 273, 274�81powder explosives 40�2, 61powder factor method 44�5, 98�9, 249

power formulae 97powerhouse caverns 258�60pre-cutting 212�14pre-lining 214pre-splitting 48�9, 99�100, 122pre-vault tunnelling 212�14precursors 105�7prEN 12110 284, 285prEN 12111 284�5prEN 12336 284�5preparatory works 107preparedness 304, 305pressure

air 182�3borehole 56�7chambers 183earth-pressure-balance 189�91ground 183hydrostatic 203support 186, 187�8, 189water 17, 18, 182, 189waves 45�6

preventing accidents 291Primadets 54primary explosives 37primers 55, 120probability ranking 295procedural safety 289production drilling 21projection of geological model 14�18properties of explosives 56�8prospecting 5�18pumping 229�30, 231, 270punch penetration tests 9push-loaded scrapers 73�4pusher tractors 73pushplate dumpers 127pyramid cuts 119, 248pyrophoric metals 37pyrotechnic compositions 37

quality of air 280�1

radioactivity 262�3, 281, 283radon 283rail transit tunnels 3�4rail transport 86, 127�8raising 237, 238�47

equipment/services selection 266raise boring machines (RBM) 156, 244�7rock drills 30, 61

rate of advance 17, 18ravelling 13RBM see raise boring machinesreaction completion 58reception shafts 223recycling equipment 66, 67refined oil products 261reinforced pipes 231reinforcement, ground 215�16relative bulk strength 56�7relative weight strength 56�7relief holes 21, 63, 112, 113, 120remedial measures 292�3remote control 153, 222


318

repositories 262�3rescue 285�6rescue-training 286reserve stations 62resilience 30respiratory problems 287rig-mounted hydraulic breakers 31, 33�4ring drilling jumbos 267ripping 21, 76�8, 269

rippers 74�7, 150�1risk analysis 294�5, 302

see also hazardsRiver Thames, London 177road construction 102�3roadheaders

conventional tunnelling 109, 143equipment/services selection 143, 266mechanized tunnelling 148�51, 153, 155�6new Austrian tunnelling 207�8partial-face shields 181scaling 143

roadways 62Robbins Company 157�62Robbins raise borers 245�7rock 11�12, 30, 296

behaviour data sets 5�7bolting 260, 261, 270characterization 5�7composition 11�12compression 42cutters 230cutting tests 9cutting tools 172�3drills 21�6, 30�1, 34, 265excavations 230�1forming mineral assemblages 12fragmentation 21�56

blasting 21, 42�56, 59conventional tunnelling 109costs 59drilling 21�34explosives 21, 34�42, 43�7raising 240

ground collapses 276, 277impacts 28�30loads 15mass classification 12, 14�15, 18, 139, 140mass factors 169�70mass quality 15mass rating 15, 140microscopic features 10minerals 11�12, 30, 296new Austrian tunnelling 205�6pre-vault tunnelling 213reinforcement supports 270rock quality designation (RQD) 15, 139rock structure rating (RSR) 15shaft sinking 248strength 170�1stresses 10texture 29throw 46�7

rolling cone bits 28roof span time 138rope haulage 269

rotary tools 22�6, 31, 226, 266rough rocks 133�6rounds 62, 121, 141routes 106�7routing 17, 18RQD see rock quality designationRSR see rock structure ratingrules, hazards/safety 287�8running ground 13

safe practices 289�90safe working conditions 290safety 273, 288�93

berms 96explosives 59�60fuses 54, 55, 62safety wear 290�1see also health, safety and the environment

safety-guard/covers see shield tunnellingsalt cavities 261�2sand 47, 184SBM see shaft boring machinesscaling 62, 141, 142�3schistosity 169scrapers 65�6, 71�4screens 47screw conveyor transfers 190sealing 162secondary explosives 37, 62seepage 278�9segment build areas 281seismology 74�5

ground collapses 277imaging 8, 9, 10reflection 10refraction 10velocity charts 74�5

self centering devices 47self-loaded scrapers 73�4self-oxidation 285self-rescuers 286self-supported manual excavation 179self-transporting trenchers 79semi-mechanized methods 180�1, 212�14sensitivity 58sensitizers 35separators 50�1, 195, 200service drilling 21services see equipment/services selectionsewage lines 102�3shafts

boring 149, 156, 165, 253�4centering 252definition 63drilling 253equipment 270hammers 154, 155�6jumbo drills 266launch 183, 200, 223, 234microtunnelling 223shaft boring machines (SBM) 149, 156, 165,

253�4sinking 63, 154�6, 237�8, 247�54

shank adapters 29shape charges 55

Index

319

shield tunnelling 177�200blind face 180classification 178�9, 186combined shields 191�2compressed air 182�3, 200cutters 186, 192�3, 199earth-pressure-balance 189�91excavation 192�3full-face mechanical excavation 193function 178ground displacement 197�8ground improvement 215�16ground settlement 197�8groundwater 178Health Safety and Environment 194�5linings 188, 190, 194manual excavation 179, 192mechanical excavation 193mix-shields 184, 185, 187�8mucking 192�3open shields 179�80partial-face extraction units 180�2, 192Robbins TBMs 161�2selecting 195�7semi-mechanized methods 180�1shield selection 195�7slurry shields 184�8subsidence 197�8supports 178, 180�1, 186�9, 194, 195TBMs 157, 160�2, 165, 190, 194terminology 199�200transportation 193

shock waves 42, 43�4shooting 21, 62, 63shopping malls 263�4shotcreting 141, 216�17, 270shotholes 21, 63, 112, 113, 120shovels 268

dozer 66�71excavators 84�5muck disposal 129, 130

shuttle cars 87Siever’s J-value 9silicosis 281, 286�7silt 184single engine scrapers 72single gripper machines 162�4single shield TBMs 157, 160�1, 165single-track backup systems 167sinking 154�6, 237�8, 247�54

definition 61, 63equipment/services selection 266mechanized tunnelling 154, 155�6rock drills 30sinkers 30, 154, 155�6

site investigations 1, 5�18conventional tunnelling 105�7core drilling 7�8geological model projection 14�18ground characterization 5�7ground classification 11�12, 13�15laboratory testing 6, 9�11Lugeon tests 8�9projection of geological model 14�18rock characterization 5�7

rock composition 11�12rock mass classification 12, 14�15, 18, 139,

140tomography 8, 9, 10

size issues 133�6sizes issues 17, 18, 79, 106�7, 133�6skid steer loaders 66, 67skin problems 287skin-to-skin drilling 50�1slashing 49slope formation 95slurry

explosives 35, 39�40, 267lubrication 231microtunnelling 225, 231�2mix-shields 184, 185, 187�8pumps 231shields 184�8

smoke, hazards/safety 286smooth blasting 50, 102, 121�2, 268soft ground tunnelling 177�200

combined shields 191�2compressed air shields 182�3conventional tunnelling 136�7earth-pressure-balance shields 189�91ground displacement 197�8ground settlement 197�8microtunnelling 222�3mix-shields 184, 185, 187�8new Austrian tunnelling 203open shields 179�80partial-face extraction units 180�2slurry shields 184�8

soil 182�3, 187�8, 205�6soundness aspects 44spacing 45, 48, 50, 63, 116special methods 201�18

barrel vault 214�15cut and cover tunnelling 217ground improvement 215�16guniting 216�17immersed tubes/tunnels 217�18Lee’s Tunnelling Method 209�12mechanical pre-cutting tunnelling 212�14microtunnelling 221�34new Austrian tunnelling 201�9pre-vault tunnelling 212�14semi-mechanized methods 212�14shaft sinking 252�4shotcreting 216�17submerged tubes/tunnels 217�18

specific gravity 57spiral burn cuts 118split 63spoil 65, 123�31, 190spot coolers 270squeezing 13, 277squibs 37stand-up time 138standing orders 195steel pipes 231steel-reinforced concrete linings 188, 190stemming 45, 46, 116, 121stemming plugs 99step cuts 248


320

stink damp 283stopers 31stopes 54storage 58, 59�60, 260�3straight blades 68strain 46, 287stratigraphic factors 17, 18, 208�9, 278strength 9, 56�7, 168, 170�1, 205�6stress 10, 42, 256�7strip shovels 85stroke 163strong rock 30structuring techniques 16�18subgrade drilling 45submerged tubes/tunnels 217�18subsidence 197�8subsurfaces

excavations/openings 1, 237, 254�65gases 282�3layouts 227locale 123�31openings 1, 237, 254�65water 275, 278�9

sulphide formations 279sulphide ores 285sulphur dioxide 283sulphurous gases 280�1, 283support pressure 186, 187�8, 189supporting fluids 186supports 137�40, 141

equipment/services selection 270ground collapses 277hazards 281microtunnelling 226new Austrian tunnelling 201, 203�5shaft sinking 250, 251shield tunnelling 178, 180�1, 186�9, 194, 195subsurface excavations 255, 256

surface ground-lines 197�8surface hardness tests 9surface layouts 227surface openings 1surveying 142sustainable development 296, 301, 305Swedish relation cuts 117swelling 13, 69, 277switching systems 212

tail-skin 200tandem power scrapers 72Tatiya’s formula 97�8TBMs see tunnel boring machinestechnical factors 92technology overbreak 43, 142�3, 145tectonic factors 17, 18telescopic dumpers 127telescopic shields 165temperature 237, 281, 285tensile strength 168tensile stress waves 42terminology 60�3, 199�200, 233�4test pits 6Thixshields 184, 185, 186throw 43, 46�7thrust boring 168, 223�5

time lost 142time studies 76tip dumpers 127tomography 8, 9, 10tooth penetration 74top-hammer rock drills 22�4toughness 9, 29towed scrapers 71�2tracked transportation 63, 86�7, 127�8, 130�1trackless transportation 63, 87, 269tractor rippers 75�6transportation

equipment/services selection 89�94, 268,269

explosive safety 59�60haulage 86�8, 89�94, 269, 281hazards/safety 285Lee’s Tunnelling Method 211loading units/loaders 66�7, 82�4, 123�6,

129, 249�50, 268muck disposal/handling 123�8, 130�1self-transporting trenchers 79shield tunnelling 193tracked 63, 86�7, 127�8, 130�1trackless 63, 87, 269underground trucks 87, 123�7, 128, 269

transverse roadheaders 150�1trenchers 77�82trenching 77�9, 80�2, 221trenchless tunnelling see microtunnellingtrim blasting 49truck haulage 66�7, 86�7, 123�8, 269tubing reinforcements 270tunnel boring machines (TBMs)

earth-pressure-balance shields 190equipment/services selection 266full-face boring 156�66Health Safety and Environment 194historical overviews 157laboratory testing 9�11Lee’s Tunnelling Method 209�12mechanized tunnelling 148�9, 156�66,

168�9, 172�4microtunnelling 226Robbins Company 157�62shield tunnelling 157, 160�2, 190, 194

tunnellingclassification 145, 146equipment/services selection 265, 266mechanical pre-cutting 212�14new Austrian tunnelling 205�6pre-vault 212�14raising 239rock drills 30, 31site investigations 17, 18water bodies 217�18see also conventional tunnelling; mechanized

tunnelling; microtunnelling; shieldtunnelling; soft ground tunnelling

tunnelsdiameters 58, 170�2function 105lengths 213shape 17, 18, 203sizes 17, 18

Index

321

tunnels (continued)supports 139�40

two-dimensional photo-elastic technique257

tyred haulage systems 87

UCS see uniaxial compressive strengthUK see United KingdomUnclemole, Japan, microtunnelling 226underbreak 43, 142, 145underground chambers 3�4, 255�6, 258�63,

265underground exhibition halls 263�4underground mucking units 123�6underground openings 1underground trucks 87, 123�7, 128, 269uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) 168, 171,

205�6United Kingdom (UK) hazards/safety

legislation 288United Nations World Commission on

Environment and Development 296universal blades 68, 69unlined caverns 260�1unsafe acts 289�90uprooting tree stumps 101uranium 281urban areas 237

V cuts 119V moles 254variable radius blades 69VCR concept 241�3velocity 44, 56�7ventilation

conventional tunnelling 131�3, 141equipment/services selection 270Lee’s Tunnelling Method 211mechanized tunnelling 167operational phase 3potential hazards 280�1shaft sinking 252shield tunnelling 195subsurface excavations 255

versatility 88vertical benching 258vertical crater retreat (VCR) 241�3vertical raising 244

very strong rock 30vibration 4

explosive impacts 43�5mechanized tunnelling 145syndrome 287

Vickers hardness 9

walls 255Washington Metropolitan Area Transit

Authority (WMATA) 203waste disposal 262�3waste-water shafts 239water

body tunnelling methods 217�18gel explosives 39ground collapses 276groundwater 10, 178, 216inflows 17, 18, 275, 278�9injection tests 8�9jets 230mechanized tunnelling 168permeability 183, 184, 196pollution 296�7pressure 17, 18, 182, 189regime status 6resistant explosives 57, 58, 249subsurfaces 275, 278�9supplies, raising 239supply tunnels 3�4water-bearing strata 208�9, 278water-tables 213, 216, 279

waterproofing 203, 204weather 237weathered ground 276wedge cuts 119, 248�9wet blasting agents 39�40, 267wheeled vehicles

loaders 66, 67, 82�4, 129scrapers 71�3tractors 71�3trenchers 77

white damp 282winders 269winzes/winzing 61, 63, 238, 266, 269�70wire mesh requirements 139WMATA 203working air 200working conditions 290


322

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Civil Tunnelling