CLASS A AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.pdf

7/25/2019 CLASS A AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.pdf

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AEROPLANES CLASS APERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

PERFORMANCE CLASS AAEROPLANES - JAR 25 CERTIFIED

JAR ATPL - 032 03

Version 0 / MAR 06

Predava:

Zlatko irac,[email protected]


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LIMITATIONS

Environmental

Envelope


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLIMITATIONS


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LIMITATIONS

Speeds


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

VMCG - minimum control speed on the ground

It is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run, at which, whenthe critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible tomaintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primaryaerodynamic controls alone (without the use of nose-wheelsteering) to enable the take-off to be safely continued using normalpiloting skill.

VMCA - minimum control speed in the air

It is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine issuddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the

aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straightflight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees.


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JAR 25 CERTIFIEDVMCL - Minimum control speed during approach and landing

It is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is

suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of theaeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straightflight with an angle of bank of not more than 5.

VMU

Minimum unstick speed

It is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane cansafely lift off the ground, and continue the take-off.

LIMITATIONS

Speeds


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Engine Failure Speed: VEFVEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail.VEF must be selected by the applicant, but may not be less than VMCG.

Decision Speed: V1

V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff,and is ensured to stop the aircraft within the limits of the runway.V1 may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the critical engineinoperative during the time interval between the instant at which the criticalengine is failed, and the instant at which the pilot recognises and reacts to theengine failure.The time which is considered between the critical engine failure atVEF, and the pilot recognition at V1, is 1 second.

TAKEOFF

VMCG VEF V1


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Speeds


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JAR 25 CERTIFIEDVR Rotation speed

The speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate

rate of about 3 per second in order to achieve V2 at 35ft.

VLOF Liftoff speed

The speed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.

V2 Takeoff safety speed

The minimum climb speed that must be reached at a height of 35feet above the runway surface, in case of an engine failure.

TAKEOFF

SpeedsVR 1.05 VMCA

VLOF 1.05 VMU (OEI)VLOF 1.10 VMU (AEO)

V2 1.13 VS1g (Fly-By-Wire aircraft)V2 1.2 VS (Classic types)

V2 1.1 VMCA


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JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMaximum Brake Energy Speed: VMBEThe Maximum speed at which the brakes will absorb aircraft kinetic

energy and stop aircraft safely.When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate theheat corresponding to the aircrafts kinetic energy at the decisionpoint.

Maximum Tire Speed: VTThe tire manufacturer specifies the maximum ground speed thatcan be reached, in order to limit the centrifugal forces and the heatelevation that may damage the tire structure.

TAKEOFF

Speeds

V1

VMBE

VLOF VTIRE


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Speeds

Takeoff speeds limitations summary


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TAKEOFF DISTANCES

TOD - Takeoff distance

Takeoff distance is the greater of the following values:

TODN-1 = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at whichthe aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above the takeoffsurface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF andrecognized at V1

1.15 TODN = 115% of the distance covered from brake release to apoint at which the aircraft is at 35 feet (15 feet on wet runway) above

the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating.

TOD = max of {TODN-1 , 1.15 TODN }

The takeoff distance on a wet runway may not be lower than on a dry one.


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TOD - Takeoff distance

35 ftVR

TOD1 E/O

All engines operative

35 ft

From BR to 35 ft above runway surface.

V2

One engine out at V1

+ 15%

TODAll engines

1 engine1 engine

outout

V1

TODOEI


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TOR - Takeoff run

The takeoff run is the greater of the following values :

TORN-1 = Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistantbetween the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which theaircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the

critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1,

1.15 TORN = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to apoint equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and thepoint at which the aircraft is 35(15) feet above the takeoff surface,assuming all engines operating.

TOR = max of {TORN-1 , 1.15 TORN }


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TOR - Takeoff run

+ 15%

TORAll engines


35 ftVR

From BR to middle point.

(between 35ft and LOF point)

TOR1 E/O

35 ftV2

One engine out at V1

1 engine out1 engine out

V1


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

ASD Accelerate-stop distance

The accelerate-stop distance is the greater of the following values:

ASDN-1 = Sum of the distances necessary to:- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,- Accelerate from VEF to V1, assuming the critical enginefails at VEF and the pilot takes the first action to reject thetakeoff at V1 (delay between VEF and V1 = 1 second)- Come to a full stop- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1

speed. ASDN = Sum of the distances necessary to:

- Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1,assuming the pilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff

at V1- With all engines still operating come to a full stop- Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1speed


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

ASD Accelerate-stop distance

V1 V=0

2 sAll engines idle

ASDall engines

V1 V=0

All engines2 s

1 E/O idle

ASD 1 E/O


1 Engine out


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TakeOff Run Available (TORA)

The length of runway which is declared available by the appropriate

authority and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.

TOR TORA

Takeoff Distance Available (TODA)The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of theclearway available.

TOD TODA


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway,

if such stopway is declared available by the appropriate Authority andis capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the prevailingoperating conditions.

ASD ASDA


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

TOR TORA

TOD TODA

ASD ASDA


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

Loss of Runway Length due to Alignment (Line-up distance)

JAR-OPS 1.490(c)(6): an operator must take account of the loss, if any,of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to takeoff.


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

Balanced field

Balanced field: TOD = ASD = RWY LENGTH

V1 = Balanced V1

MTOWFIELD MAX. VALUE


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

Influence of V1

V1 VRLow V1

Long TOD

Short ASD

V1VRHigh V1

Short TOD

Long ASD


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Distances

Influence of V2

Long TOD

High V2 = Long TOD and High Climb gradient

Short TOD

Low V2 = Short TOD and Low Climb gradient

V1 VR


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

RWY Conditions

Dry runway:A dry runway is one which is neither wet norcontaminated.

Damp runway:A runway is considered damp when the surfaceis not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shinyappearance.JAR-OPS 1.475 states that a damp runway is equivalent to adry one in terms of takeoff performance. In the future, a damp

runway may have to be considered as wet.

Wet runway:A runway is considered wet when the runwaysurface is covered with water or equivalent, with a depth less

than or equal to 3 mm, or when there is a sufficient moisture onthe runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but withoutsignificant areas of standing water.


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

Contaminated runway:A runway is considered to becontaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area

within the required length and width being used is covered by thefolowing:-surface water more than 3mm in deep-slush or loose snow equivalent to more than 3mm of water

Standing water: Caused by heavy rainfall and/orinsufficient runway drainage with a depth of more than3mm (0.125 in).

Slush: Water saturated with snow, which spatters when stepping

firmly on it.

Wet snow: If compacted by hand, snow will stick together andtend to form a snowball.

Dry snow: Snow can be blown if loose, or if compacted by hand,will fall apart again upon release.

Compacted snow: Snow has been compressed.

Ice : The friction coefficient is 0.05 or below.

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

Effect on Performance

There is a clear distinction of the effect of contaminants on aircraft

performance. Contaminants can be divided into hard and fluidcontaminants.

Hard contaminants are : Compacted snow and ice.They reduce friction forces.

Fluid contaminants are : Water, slush, and loose snow.They reduce friction forces, and cause precipitation dragand aquaplaning.

Precipitation drag causes following effects:Improve the deceleration rate: Positive effect, in case of a rejected

takeoff.Worsen the acceleration rate: Negative effect for takeoff.

So, the negative effect on the acceleration rate leads to limit thedepth of a fluid contaminant to a maximum value.

On the other hand, with a hard contaminant covering the runwaysurface, only the friction coefficient is affected, and the depth of

contaminant therefore has no influence on takeoff performance.

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

Aquaplaning PhenomenonThe presence of water on the runway creates an intervening water

film between the tire and the runway, leading to a reduction of the dryarea. This phenomenon becomes more critical at higher speeds,where the water cannot be squeezed out from between the tire andthe runway. Aquaplaning (or hydroplaning) is a situation where thetires of the aircraft are, to a large extent, separated from the runway

surface by a thin fluid film. Under these conditions, tire traction dropsto almost negligible values along with aircraft wheels braking; wheelsteering for directional control is, therefore, virtually ineffective.

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

JAR 25.1591:Supplementary performance information for runways contaminated

with standing water, slush, loose snow, compacted snow or ice mustbe furnished by the manufacturer in an approved document, in theform of guidance material, to assist operators in developing suitableguidance, recommendations or instructions for use by their flightcrews when operating on contaminated runway surface conditions.

The information on contaminated runways may be established bycalculation or by testing.

Example data for A320F provided by the Airbus Industrie

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

RWY

CONDITIONS

Braking action

Data published by ATR Industrie

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

Takeoff path

The takeoff path extends from a standing start (brake release) to apoint at which the aeroplane is at a height:

Of 1500 ft above the takeoff surface, or At which the transition from the takeoff to the en-route

configuration is completed and the final takeoff speed isreached,whichever point is higher.

The takeoff flight path begins 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the

end of the takeoff distance.

The takeoff path and takeoff flight path regulatory definitions assumethat the aircraft is accelerated on the ground to VEF, at whichpoint the critical engine is made inoperative and remains

inoperative for the rest of the takeoff.

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

Minimum required groos gradient (%)

JAR 25.121

P 1.7%P 1.7% (accel.)P 3.0%P 0.5%4 ENG

P 1.5%P 1.5% (accel.)P 2.7%P0.3%3 ENG

P 1.2%P 1.2% (accel.)P 2.4%>02 ENG

Final SEG3rd SEG2nd SEG1st SEGAircraft

Commuter category aircraft (JAR 23)

P 1.2%P 1.2% (accel.)2.0%>02 ENG

AEROPLANES CLASS A


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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

1.0 %4 ENG

0.9 %3 ENG

0.8 %2 ENG

Mandatory gross gradient reductionJAR 25.115

AIRCRAFT

Gross Net takeoff flight path

Net takeoff flight path must clear all obstacles in the Obstacle AccountableArea for at least 35 ft.



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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

Maximum Bank Angle During a Turn

25

15

15

Standard

procedure

30Above 400 ft

20Between 200 ft and 400 ft

15Below 200 ft

Specific

approval

Height above RWY END

Track changes

JAR-OPS 1.495(c)(1): Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point atwhich the net take-off flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the

wingspan but not less than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the take-

off run available.

Loss of climb gradient during a turn must be taken in account.



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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA)

All obstacles inside the OAA must be taken in account.

Track changes

up to 15

Track changes

more than 15



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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations

Engine Failure Procedures (Contingency Procedures)

Designed by the operator to safely clear all obstacles in case of an engine failure duringtakeoff, providing max. possible takeoff weight in given conditions.

JAR OPS1.495(f): An operator shall establish contingency proedures to provide a safe

route , avoiding obstacles, to enable aeroplane to either comply with the en-routerequirements or land at the aerodrome of departure or at a takeoff alternate.



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PERFORMANCE

JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Climb &

Obstacle

Limitations



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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

TOW

Calculation

TOW Calculation

TOD,TOR,ASD (runway)

Speeds

1st Segment gradient (>0%)

2nd Segment gradient (>2.4%)

Brake energy

ObstacleTire speed

Final Take off (>1.2%)

Limitations Take off parameters.

Configuration Speeds (V1, Vr, V2)

Allow the take off with a maximum performance TOW



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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

TOW

Calculation

To obtain MATOW explore all range of V1/Vr and V2/Vs

TOD

ASD

2nd

Obstacleoptimum weight

V2/Vs=1.27



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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Takeoff Data

Takeoff Data

Takeoff data are usually presented in Runway Weight Charts (RWC).



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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Flex T/O

Reduced thrust takeoff (FLEX T/O)

The aircraft actual takeoff weight is often lower than themaximum regulatory takeoff weight. Therefore, in certain cases, itis possible to takeoff at a thrust less than the Maximum TakeoffThrust.It is advantageous to adjust the thrust to the actual weight, as itincreases engine life and reliability, while reducing maintenanceand operating costs.


N i Ab t t t k ff


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise

Abatement

takeoff

Noise Abatement takeoff

Aeroplane operating procedures for the take-off climb shall ensure that the

necessary safety of flight operations is maintained whilst minimizingexposure to noise on the ground.

The following two procedures for the climb have been developed asguidance. The first procedure (NADP 1) is intended to provide noise

reduction for noise sensitive areas in close proximity to the departure end ofthe runway . The second procedure (NADP 2) provides noise reduction toareas more distant from the runway end .

The two procedures differ in that the acceleration segment for flap/slatretraction is either initiated prior to reaching the maximum prescribed height

or at the maximum prescribed height. To ensure optimum accelerationperformance, thrust reduction may be initiated at an intermediate flap setting.

NOTE 1: For both procedures, intermediate flap transitions required for

specific performance related issues may be initiated prior to the prescribed

minimum height; however, no power reduction can be initiated prior toattaining the prescribed minimum altitude.

NOTE 2: The indicated airspeed for the initial climb portion of the departure

prior to the acceleration segment is to be flown at a climb speed of V2 plus

10 to 20 kt.


JAR 2 CERTIFIEDALLEVIATING NOISE CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise

Abatement

takeoff

ALLEVIATING NOISE CLOSE TO THE AERODROME (NADP 1)

This procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribedminimum altitude and the delay of flap/slat retraction until the prescribed

maximum altitude is attained. At the prescribed maximum altitude,accelerate and retract flaps/slats on schedule while maintaining a positiverate of climb, and complete the transition to normal en-route climb speed.

Maintain positive rate of climb. Accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed. Retract flaps/slats on schedule.

Climb at V2 + 10 to 20kt. Maintain

reduced power/thrust. Maintain

flaps/slats in the takeoff configuration.

Initiate power/thrust reduction at or above 800 ft.

Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.

3000 ft

800 ft


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ALLEVIATING NOISE DISTANT FROM THE AERODROME (NADP 2)

This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching the


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise

Abatement

takeoff

This procedure involves initiation of flap/slat retraction on reaching theminimum prescribed altitude. The flaps/slats are to be retracted onschedule while maintaining a positive rate of climb. The power reduction is

to be performed with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction or whenthe zero flap/slat configuration is attained. At the prescribed altitude,complete the transition to normal enroute climb procedures.

Transition smoothly to en-route climb speed.

Not before 800 ft and whilst maintaining a

positive rate of climb, accelerate towards VZFand reduce power with the initiation of the first

flap/slat retraction,

- or -when flaps/slats are retracted and whilst

maintaining a positive rate of climb, reduce

power and climb at VZF + 10 to 20 kt.

Takeoff thrust, V2 + 10 to 20kt.

3000 ft

800 ft

RWY


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMany locations continue to prescribe the former Noise


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise

Abatement

takeoff

Many locations continue to prescribe the former Noise

Abatement Departure Procedures A and B.

Flap retraction and accelerate smoothly to en-route climb speed.

CLimb at V2 + 10 to 20 kt.

Takeoff thrust

V2 + 10 to 20kt.

3000 ft

1500 ft

Reduce to climb power/thrust.

Runway


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

TAKEOFF

Noise

Abatement

takeoff

Accelerate smoothly to en-route

climb speed.

Climb at VZF + 10 kt.

Takeoff thrust

V2 + 10 to 20kt.

3000 ft

1000 ft Accelerate to VZF.

Reduce power/thrust.

Retract flaps/slats on schedule.

Runway


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDCLIMB


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CLIMB

Flight

Mechanics

CLIMB

Flight Mechanics

Thrust x cos = Drag + Weight x sin

Lift = Weight x cossin tan (in radian)

cos 1 and cos 1

RC = TAS x sin TAS x

DL

1

W

T

WEIGHT

THRUST

WEIGHT

DRAGTHRUST=

=

=

WEIGHT

POWER

WEIGHT

DRAGTHRUSTTASRC

=

=


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Th li b l ( ) i ti l t th diff b t th


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CLIMB

Flight

Mechanics

The climb angle () is proportional to the difference between theavailable thrust and the required thrust.

The rate of climb (RC) is proportional to the difference between theavailable power and the required power.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Influencing parameters


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CLIMB

Influencing

parameters

Influencing parameters

Altitudeeffect

Climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with pressure altitude, dueto a lower excess of thrust.

Temperature effect

As temperature increases, thrust decreases due to a lower air density. As

a result, the effect is the same as for altitude.

WEIGHT

THRUST

WEIGHT

DRAGTHRUST ==

WEIGHT

POWER

WEIGHT

DRAGTHRUSTTASRC

=

=

Weight effect


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDWind effect


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CLIMB

Influencing

parameters

Wind effect

Headwind: - Rate of climb

- Fuel and time to TOC - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance to TOC

Tailwind: - Rate of climb

- Fuel and time to TOC - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance to TOC


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDClimb profile


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CLIMB

Climb Profile

Climb profile

Constant IAS / Mach tehnique

Crossover Altitude

-switch from constant IAS to constant Mach during climb to avoidreaching critical Ma (Makr).

-switch from constant Mach to constant IAS during descent to avoid

exceeding VMO.


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDClimb data


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CLIMB

Climb data

Climb data


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

CRUISE


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CRUISE

Flight

Mechanics

CRUISE

DL

WT=

L = WD = T

Min. Thrust required for best L/D ratio

Flight Mechanics


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDSpecific Range


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CRUISE

Specific

Range

p g

( )ton

NM

TASTTSFCTTSFC

TASSRAIR

=

=1

USEDFUELDISTANCEAIRSRAIR=

Prop. aircraft:

Jet aircraft:

SR=f(WEIGHT, ALTITUDE, SPEED)

( )ton

NM

TASPPSFCPPSFC

TASSRAIR

=

=

1


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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CRUISE

Specific

Range


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMax. Range vs. Long Range


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CRUISE

MR & LRC

Flight at Long Range cruise speed will result in significant speed

increase (more comfort by shortening flight time on long distanceflights) and slight decrease in Specific Range (SRLRC will be 99% ofthe SRMR).


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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CRUISE

MR & LRC

Min. T/TAS ratio

( )tonNMTAS

TTSFCTTSFCTASSRAIR

=

= 1


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDWind-Altitude trade


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CRUISE

MR & LRC

Optimum Altitude 37100At FL330 -6/25(interpolated)It means that at FL330 the Specific Rangeis 6% worse than at the Optimum Altitude,but it may be compensated with at least 25kt favourable wind.As at FL330 there is 60-20=40 kt less HW,

it is better choice to fly at FL330.

Aircraft A320 9A-CTFGW 62.0 tonSpeed M0.78Wind At Optimum Altitude HW=60kt

At FL330 HW=20kt

FINDGIVEN

MACH .78DS

R%/W

C[kt]

OPTIM

UMALTIT

UDE

-7/30-5/20

-9/40

-2/5

-3/10

-11/50

290

300

310

320

330

340

350

360

370

380

390

464850525456586062646668707274

GROSS WEIGHT [ton]

FLIGHTLEVEL


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Cost Index


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CRUISE

Cost IndexLong-range Cruise Mach number was considered as a minimum fuelregime. If we consider the Direct Operating Cost instead, theEconomic Mach number(MECON), can be introduced.

( ) ( ) CTTFF

CCCDOC ++=That is:CC = fixed costsCF = cost of fuel unitF = trip fuel

CT = time related costs per flight hourT = trip time

Minimum fuel costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach

number. The minimum DOC corresponds to a specific Machnumber, referred to as Econ Mach (MECON).


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

D.O.C.


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CRUISE

Cost Index

The MECON value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. Thisratio is called Cost Index (CI), and is usually expressed in kg/minor 100lb/h:

F

T

CC

FuelofCostTimeofCostCI ==


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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CRUISE

Cost Index

The extreme CI values are:

CI = 0: Flight time costs are null (fixed wages), soMECON = MMR (lowest boundary).

CI = CImax: Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low,

so MECON = MAX SPEED in order to have a trip with a minimumflight time. The maximum speed is generally (MMO - 0.02) or(VMO - 10kt).

CI => MECON

CI => MECON


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDCeiling


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CRUISE

Ceiling

Critical Ma (Makr) Speed of aircraft in term of Ma at which for the firsttime speed of sound is achieved locally, usually at wing upper surface).

Makr< 1

2

LSL

2 MCSP7.0CVS2

1Wn ==

Lift equation

PS Static air-pressure = Pressure Altitude (PA)


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAt given weight, depending on the Lift equation, each of CLmaxxM2 value

corresponds to a static pressure, that is pressure altitude. There is direct


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CRUISE

Ceiling

Ma(L/D)max

p p prelationship between CLmaxxM

2 and PA same curve shape.

n=1


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAt given weight and given altitude (PA), depending on the Lift equation,each of CLmaxxM

2 value corresponds to one load factor (n) . There is


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CRUISE

Ceiling

Coffin

Corner

direct relationship between CLmaxxM2 and n same curve shape.

PA3=Absolute Ceiling


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDAltitude

Absolute Ceiling Coffin corner

Flight Envelope

B ff C ili


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CRUISE

Ceiling

Absolute ceiling - No more R/C capability, MCT- Flight is only possible at Best (L/D) ratio speed

Buffet ceiling - Protection from buffet (stalling) in term of manouv.capability usually 1.3g load factor

Max. Altitude - R/C capabilty of 300ft/min @ MCT

Altitude R/C Climb gradient

TAS, R/C

Coffin

Corner

Operational Ceiling

BuffetingArea

VMO

lim

it

MMO

limit

Low

speed

stall

Highsp

eedstallV

Y

V X

Max. Altitude

R/C

capab

ility

Buffet Ceiling


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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63

CRUISE

Max. Altitude

Example: 1. Determine max. bank angle limited by buffet:Data: M=0.56, FL=330, CG=35%, GW=60tResult: Load factor available=1.2g or 30 bank2. Determine low and high speed limited by buffet:Data: 47 bank or 1.6g load, GW=70t, CG=35%, FL=330

Result: Mmin.=0.72 (low speed buffet), Mmax.=0.81 (high speed buffet)


JAR 25 CERTIFIED


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CRUISE

Max.

Altitude

The 1.3g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 39 bank angle.

The 1.5g load factor corresponds to turn in level flight with 48 bank angle.

ISA+1

0&below

ISA+1

5

ISA+2

0

1.3gb

uffet

1.5gb

uffet

33000

34000

35000

36000

37000

38000

39000

70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46

GW [ton]

Al

titude[ft]

MACH 0.78

Max. Altitude

Buffet Ceil ing


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Fli ht M h i

DESCENT


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66

DESCENT

Flight

Mechanics

Flight Mechanics

W

DTASsinTASRD

DL1tg

sinWD

cosWL

==

=

=

=

)


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDMin. descent gradient when (L/D) ratio is max.

Min rate of descent when TAS x Drag is min


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67

DESCENT

Flight

Mechanics

Min. rate of descent when TAS x Drag is min.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Weight Effect:


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68

DESCENT

Flight

MechanicsHeavy goes heavier

Wind Effect:

Headwind: - Rate of descent- Fuel and time from TOD- Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance from TOD

Tailwind: - Rate of descent

- Fuel and time fromTOD - Flight path angle (g) - Ground distance from TOD

Temperature Effect: No significant influence


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Speed schedule


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DESCENT

Speed

schedule

Speed schedule

Cross-over

Altitude

Cross-over Altitude switch from constant Ma speed to constantIAS during descent, to avoid exceeding VMO.

A320F Standard Descent Rule: 0.78/300/250


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Descent Data

STANDARD DESCENT 2 ENGINE A320-211/212


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70

DESCENTDescent Data

M0.76/280/250KT CLEAN CONFIGURATION

ISA HIGH AIR CONDITIONINGIDLE WITHOUT ANTI ICINGCG = 30.0 %WEIGHT

(ton)

TIME FUEL DIST. N1 TIME FUEL DIST. N1FL (min) (kg) (NM) (min) (kg) (NM) (kt)

390 21.2 213 104 IDLE 234

370 20.5 209 99 IDLE 22.0 217 114 IDLE 245350 19.8 205 94 IDLE 21.3 213 109 IDLE 257

330 19.2 202 90 IDLE 20.6 209 104 IDLE 269

310 18.6 199 86 IDLE 19.9 205 99 IDLE 280

290 17.9 194 80 IDLE 19.1 200 92 IDLE 280

270 17.2 190 75 IDLE 18.2 194 86 IDLE 280

250 16.4 185 70 IDLE 17.3 188 80 IDLE 280

240 16.0 183 68 IDLE 16.8 185 77 IDLE 280


180 13.7 167 53 IDLE 14.0 166 59 IDLE 280

160 12.9 161 48 IDLE 13.0 159 53 IDLE 280

140 12.1 155 44 IDLE 12.0 152 47 IDLE 280

120 11.3 149 39 IDLE 11.0 144 42 IDLE 280

100 10.5 143 34 IDLE 10.0 137 36 IDLE 280


13.2-113 A320-211/212 CFM56-5A1/A3 23100000C5KG300 0 018400 0 0-1 0.0 0.0 0.00 1 03 0.760280.000250.000 0

TOTAL ANTI ICEPER 10ABOVE

ISA

+ 12 % -+ 74 % + 4 %

+ 11.5 % + 5 %DISTANCE - + 11 %FUEL - 2.5 % + 57 %TIME - + 11 %

CORRECTIONSLOW AIR

CONDITIONINGENG ANTI ICE ON

50 70

IAS


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDEN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE

Regulatory requirements


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71

GROSSP

ATH

NETPATH

g y q

2000ft

1000ft1500ft

JAR OPS 1.500 Net path must:

1. Clear all obstacles in OAA for at least 2000ft during descent

2. Clear all obstacle in OAA for at least 1000ft in horizontal flightor climb

3. Must be positive at 1500ft overhead airport of intended

landing.

OEI EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

OEI

Operation


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

JAR 25.123 Gross gradient reduction


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72

-0.5%-1.6%4 ENG-0.3%-1.4%3 ENG

--1.1 %2 ENG

2 ENG INOP1 ENG INOPAIRCRAFT

Obstacle Accountable Area (OAA) JAR OPS 1.500

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

OEI

Operation


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Descent Strategies


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Maintain Best (L/D) ratio speed(Drift-down speed)

NO OBSTACLE LIMITATIONS

Maintain horizontal flight untillbest (L/D) ratio speed is reached

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

OEI

Operation


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Descision Point Descision Point


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74

Critical segment A-B

Either to have operating

diversion airport or to

reduce TOW

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

OEI

Operation


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED


CABIN DECOMPRESSION


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76

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

Cabin

decompres.

JAR-OPS 1.770

An operator shall not operate a pressurized aeroplane at pressure

altitudes above 10,000 ft unless supplemental oxygen equipment [] is

provided.

The duration of passenger oxygen supply varies, depending on the system.As of today, two main oxygen system categories exist:

- Chemical systems

- Gaseous systems.

Summary of regulatory requirements on oxygen supply:


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

As a result, it is possible to establish a flight profile, with which the aircraftmust always remain, taking into account the above-mentioned oxygen


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77

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

Cabin

decompres.

requirements. This profile depends on the installed oxygen system

Nevertheless, this doesnt mean that the aircraft is always able to follow

the oxygen profile, particularly in descent.


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDThe performance profile must be established, and this profile mustalways remain below the oxygen profile. The calculation is basedon the following assumptions:


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78

EN-ROUTECONTINGENCY

Cabin

decompres.

Descent phase: Emergency descent at MMO/VMO. Airbrakescan be extended to increase the rate of descent, if necessary.

Cruise phase: Cruise at maximum speed (limited to VMO).


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

EN ROUTE

Obstacle clearance

A net flight path is not required in the cabin pressurization failure case. Thenet flight path shall be understood as a safety margin when there is a risk


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79

EN-ROUTE

CONTINGENCY

Cabin

decompres.

A319 Obstacle Clearance Profile Pressurization Failure

net flight path shall be understood as a safety margin, when there is a riskthat the aircraft cannot maintain the expected descent performance (enginefailure case).

In case of cabin depressurization, any altitude below the initial flight altitudecan be flown without any problem as all engines are running. Therefore, the

standard minimum flight altitudes apply and the descent profile must,therefore, clear any obstacle by 2,000 feet.


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLANDING



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LANDINGRegulatory

requirements

JAR 25.125The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop

from a point 50 ft above the landing surface must be determined (for

standard temperatures,at each weight, altitude and wind within the

operational limits established by the applicant for the aeroplane) as follows:

The aeroplane must be in the landing configurationA stabilized approach, with a calibrated airspeed of VLS must bemaintained down to the 50 ft.

Actual landing distance (ALD): Distance between a point 50 feet above the

runway threshold, and the point where the aircraft comes to a complete stop.VP1.3VS0 or 1.23VS1g


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Required Landing Distance (RLD) It is the ALD increased by regulatory


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81

LANDINGRegulatory

requirements

q g ( ) y g y

additions to provide safety margin.

( )7.06.0ALD

RLD DRYDRY=Turbojet: 0.6

Turboprop: 0.7

DRYWET RLD15.1RLD =

=

WET

.CONTAM

.CONTAMRLD

ALD15.1ofgreaterRLD

RLD LDA


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JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Max. Allowable Landing Weight of the aircraft may not be higher than

Limitations


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83

LANDINGLimitations-MLW limited by structure (MLWSTRUCT)

-MLW limited by field (MLWFIELD)-MLW limited by approach (go-around) climb gradient (MLWACG)-MLW limited by landing climb gradient (MLWLCG)

MLWSTRUCT

Prescribed by the aircraft manufacturer.

Limited by landing gear strength.May be exceeded only in owerweight landing (emergency).Maintenance action must follow.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RLD LDAField limits


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84

LANDINGLimitations

RLD=f(ALD)

Approach climb gradient (ACG)

Descision Altitude

Min.ACG

Conditions: One engine inoperative

TOGA thrust (rem. engines) Gear retracted Slats and flaps in approach configuration VREF V and V VMCL


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

Min. ACG required byAIRCRAFT


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85

LANDINGLimitations

Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.

required by regulations.

Go-around procedures are normally desgined with assumed ACG of 2.5%. Ifrequired ACG is greater than 2.5%, it will be published on the approachchart.

2.7%4 ENG

2.4%3 ENG

2.1%2 ENGregulations (certification)


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDLanding climb gradient (LCG)


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86

LANDINGLimitations

50ft above THR

Min.LC

G

Conditions: All engines operative

Thrust available after 8sec from IDLE to TOGA

Gear extended

Slats and flaps in landing configuration

V2 VVREF and V VMCL


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING

Min. LCG required byAIRCRAFT


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87

LANDINGLimitations

Terrain configuration (obstacles) may require higher ACG than min.

required by regulations.

Landing climb gradient is never limiting due to fact that all engines areoperative. Approach climb gradient limit always prevail.

4 ENG

3 ENG 3.2%

2 ENGregulations (certification)


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING

Affecting factors


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88

LANDINGAffecting

factors

Atmosphere (Density Altitude)

RWY slopeMax. +/- 2%

Upslope ALD

Downslope ALD

DA rZ

TAS ALD

Climb gradient


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING

RWY conditions

Friction coefficient ALD


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89

LANDINGAffecting

factorsPrecipitation drag ALD

Depending on the type of contaminant and its thickness, landingdistance can either increase or decrease. So, it is not unusual to

have a shorter ALD on 12.7 mm of slush than on 6.3mm.

Flap settings

Flap deflectionLanding distance

Climb gradient


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LANDING

Landing data

TAIL TAIL10 0 10 0

CONF FULL A320-211/212

LANDING

WEIGHT

[ton]

REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]

DRY RWY WET RWY

WIND [kt] WIND [kt]

10 0 10 0 10 0WIND [kt]

CONT. RUNWAY CONF FULL A320-211/212

LANDING

WEIGHT

[ton]

REQURED LANDING DISTANCE

6mm water 6mm slush Comp. Snow

WIND [kt] WIND [kt]


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90

LANDINGLanding

data

Landing distance

Climb gradient

TAIL TAIL-10 0 -10 0

78 2220 1910 2550 220074 2090 1790 2400 206070 1940 1650 2230 190066 1790 1510 2050 173062 1640 1400 1880 161058 1530 1340 1750 154054 1460 1280 1680 1480

50 1400 1230 1610 141046 1340 1170 1540 1350

TAIL TAIL

-10 0 -10 0

78 2430 2110 2800 243074 2280 1980 2630 228070 2120 1830 2440 211066 1950 1670 2250 192062 1790 1530 2060 176058 1650 1440 1900 166054 1570 1380 1800 158050 1500 1310 1720 151046 1430 1250 1640 1440

Note:

Weight [ton]60 andabove 55 50 45

Length [m]no

corrections +30 +60 +90

[ton]

- No correction for headwind due to windcorrection on approach speed.

-Shaded area indicates overweight landing

CONF 3 A320-211/212

LANDING

WEIGHT

[ton]

REQUIRED LANDING DISTANCE [m]

DRY RWY WET RWY

WIND [kt] WIND [kt]

per 1000 ft above SL 3%

Altitude Correction

Autoland Correction

Increase values by 15 % on wet runway

-10 0 -10 0 -10 0

78 2590 2200 2550 2200 2550 220074 2510 2070 2450 2060 2400 206070 2390 1970 2340 1930 2230 190066 2250 1840 2200 1820 2060 179062 2110 1720 2070 1720 1970 170058 1980 1610 1940 1630 1880 162054 1850 1520 1820 1540 1790 1540

50 1710 1430 1710 1450 1700 145046 1590 1350 1610 1350 1610 1370

-10 0 -10 0 -10 0

78 2550 2200 2550 2200 4790 392074 2400 2060 2400 2060 4720 384070 2270 1900 2230 1900 4580 370066 2140 1780 2100 1760 4400 353062 2010 1670 1970 1670 4230 336058 1890 1560 1850 1580 4060 320054 1770 1480 1750 1490 3890 304050 1650 1410 1650 1410 3720 288046 1540 1350 1550 1350 3560 2720

Note:

55 50 45+ 30 + 50 + 60No correctionsLength [m]

Altitude Correction + 5% per 1000 ft above sea level

- No correction for headwind due to wind correction on

approach speed.-Shaded area indicates overweight landing

Autoland Correction

Weight [ton] 60 and above

WIND [kt]

LANDING

WEIGHT

[ton]

REQURED LANDING DISTANCE

12mm water 12mm slush Ice

WIND [kt] WIND [kt] WIND [kt]

[ton] WIND [kt] WIND [kt]


91/104


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY

BEARING

RWY BEARING STRENGTH

RWY bearing strength may limit Max. Weight of aircraft in order toavoid permanent deformation of the RWY surface.


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92

BEARING

STRENGTH

ACN/PCN

The ICAO introduced the ACN/PCN System as a method to classifypavement bearing strength for aircraft with an All-up Mass of morethan 5700kg.

ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) - A number expressing therelative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standardsubgrade category.

PCN (Pavement Classification Number) - A number expressingthe bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.

ACN for selected aircraft types currently in use have beenprovided by aircraft manufacturers or ICAO (refer to Airplane

Characteristics Manual or Jeppesen Airport Directory.

PCN will be determined and reported by the appropriate authority.Data are published in the AIP, Jeppesen Airport Chart, etc.


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDPCN will be qualified by type of pavement, subgrade strength, tirepressure and calculation method information, using the followingcodes:

1 The Pavement Classification Number:RWY

BEARING


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93

1. The Pavement Classification Number:The reported PCN indicates that an aircraft with an ACNequal to or less than the reported PCN can operate on thepavement subject to any limitation on the tire pressure.

2. The type of pavement:R - RigidF - Flexible

3. The subgrade strength category:A - HighB - MediumC - LowD - Ultra-low

4. The tire pressure category:W - High, no pressure limitX - Medium, limited to 1.5OMPa (218psi)Y - Low, limited to 1.OMPa (145psi)

Z - Very low, limited to 0.50MPa (73psi)

BEARING

STRENGTH

ACN/PCN


94/104


JAR 25 CERTIFIEDACN are published for Max. Ramp Weight (MRW) and OperatingEmpty Weight (OEW). Between those two values, it varies linearly.

If the RWY PCN is below the ACN for the MRW then the MaxWeight may be obtained by linear interpolationRWY

BEARING


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95

If the RWY PCN is below the ACN for the MRW, then the Max.Weight may be obtained by linear interpolation. BEARINGSTRENGTH

ACN/PCN

OEWMRW

OEWACNACN

OEWMRW)ACNPCN(OEWightWe.Max

+=

ACN

Weight

ACNMRW

ACNOEW

OEW MRW

PCN

Max. Weight


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY

BEARING


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96

Example:A320 (MRW=73900kg), PCN 35 F/B/W/T. May we operate?

PCN=35 < ACNMRW=39 Max. Ramp Weight must be limited!!

OEW=45000kg, ACNOEW=22

BEARING

STRENGTH

ACN/PCN

kg671002239

4500073900)2235(45000MRW =

+=


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

LCN Method

At some airports the bearing strength of runway pavement is definedby Load Classification Number (LCN) / Load Classification Group

(LCG) The LCN / LCG has to be determined for a given aircraft andRWY

BEARING


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97

(LCG). The LCN / LCG has to be determined for a given aircraft andcompared with the specific runway LCN / LCG.

Normally the LCN / LCG of an aircraft should not be above that

of the runway on which a landing is contemplated.

Pre arranged exceptions may be allowed by airport authorities.

The aircraft LCN / LCG can be determined as follows:1) Obtain Single Isolated Wheel Load (SIWL) for the

aircraft from Aircraft Operations Manual and locate this

figure on the left scale of the chart.

2) Locate tire pressure on the scale to the right.

3) Connect the points found in 1 and 2 with a straight line.Where this line crosses the center scale read your aircraftLCN / LCG.

4) This LCN / LCG should not be above the published

runway LCN / LCG.

BEARING

STRENGTH

LCN


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

RWY

BEARING

Example:Aircraft SIWL = 36,500 lbs or 16.5 tonsTire pressure = 70 PSI or 4.9 kg/cm2


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98

STRENGTH

LCN

LCN = 32

LCG = IV


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPSJAR-OPS 1.245: Unless specifically approved by the Authority , anoperator shall not operate a two-engined aeroplane over a route which

ETOPS



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99

p p g p

contains a point further from an adequate aerodrome than the distance flown

in 60 minutes at the [approved] one-engine inoperative cruise speed.

When at least one route sector is at more than 60 minutes flying time, with

one engine inoperative from a possible en route diversion airfield, the airlineneeds specific approval, referred to as ETOPS approval.

60 Minute Rule


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

ETOPS (Extended Twin Operations) is the acronym created by ICAO todescribe the operation of twin engine aircraft over a route that contains apoint further than one hour's flying time from an adequate airport at theapproved one-engine inoperative cruise speed.

ETOPS l ti li bl t t t ll t


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100

ETOPS regulations are applicable to routes over water as well as remoteland areas.

The advent of the ETOPS regulations permitted an enlarged area ofoperation for the twin-engine aircraft. This area of operation has beenenlarged in steps by allowance of maximum diversion time to an adequateairport from the nominal 60 minutes up to the current 180 minutes.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

A second benefit to operators is that ETOPS permits twins to be used onroutes previously denied them.

The increase of the diversion time to 120-minutes easily permits an operatorthe flexibility to use twins on an route which would otherwise remain the sole


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101

preserve of larger three and four-engine aircraft.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

ETOPS area of operation

The ETOPS area of operation is the area in which it is authorized to conducta flight under ETOPS regulations and is defined by the maximum diversion

distance from an adequate airport or set of adequate airports. It isrepresented by circles centred on the adequate airports, the radius of which


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102

represented by circles centred on the adequate airports, the radius of whichis the defined maximum diversion distance.

Suitable airport

A suitable airport for dispatch purposes is an airport confirmed to beadequate which satisfies the ETOPS dispatch weather requirements interms of ceiling and visibility minima within a validity period. This periodopens one hour before the earliest Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) at theairport and closes one hour after the latest ETA. In addition, cross-windforecasts must also be checked to be acceptable for the same validity

period.Field conditions should also ensure that a safe landing can be accomplishedwith one engine and / or airframe system inoperative.

Diversion / en-route alternate airport

A "diversion" airport, also called "en-route alternate" airport, is an adequate /suitable airport to which a diversion can be accomplished.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

Maximum diversion time

The maximum diversion time (75, 90, 120, 138 or 180 minutes) from an en-route alternate airport is granted by the operator's national authority and is

included in the individual airline's operating specifications.


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103

ETOPS Entry Point (EEP)The ETOPS Entry Point is the point located on the aircraft's outbound routeat one hour flying time, at the selected one-engine-out diversion speedschedule (in still air and ISA conditions), from the last adequate airport priorto entering the ETOPS segment. It marks the beginning of the ETOPSsegment.


JAR 25 CERTIFIED

ETOPS

ETOPS segment

The ETOPS segment starts at the EEP and finishes when the route is backand remains within the 60-minute area from an adequate airport.

An ETOPS route can contain several success if ETOPS segments well

separated each other.


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104

Equitime Point (ETP)

An Equitime Point is a point on the aircraft route which is located at thesame flying time (in forecasted atmospheric conditions) from two suitable

diversion airports.Critical Point (CP)

The Critical Point is one of the Equitime Point (ETP) of the route which scritical with regard to the ETOPS fuel requirements if a diversion has to beinitiated from that point. The CP is usually, but not always, the last

ETP within the ETOPS segment.

Documents

CLASS A AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE.pdf