48 AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6

1.0 ABSTRACTThis paper presents the classification of architecture ofNigeria starting from pre-colonial until contemporarytimes. It depicts the historical perspective and portrayscontemporary trends and movements. It shows the rich-ness of Nigerian heritage and deciphers recent develop-ments. A main achievement of this paper is a synthe-sised classification of Nigerian architecture. It portraysthe Historical Style (represented by the European, Bra-zilian and North African Trends) through TraditionalArchitecture and the Modern Style (with the Interna-tional Style, the New West African Style and the Post-Modern Trend).

There is a very weak link between the Historical Style(including Traditional Architecture), and contemporarymodern architecture of Nigeria. The Historical Style re-veals how architects can draw inspiration from histori-cal heritage as evidenced by the Regional Trend of con-temporary Nigerian architecture.

The author studied the work, ideas and aspirations ofsome leading architects in the country in order to seehow the trends and styles of this genealogy relate logi-cally to the contemporary situation. The presentation ofcontemporary masterpieces gives a general overview ofthe recent situation and identifies the basic problems thatthe designers are facing.

Keywords:Style: Distinctive or characteristic expression of ar-

chitectural ideas, as of a specified period inhistory.

Trend: To have a tendency or prevailing direction:general tendency.

2.0 INTRODUCTIONThe period embraced by this presentation spans afew centuries starting from pre-colonial times andending with recent developments. The genealogyis portrayed by a model of evolution in Nigerianarchitecture (Fig. 1).

The inspirations were drawn from such architec-tural critics as Kenzo Tange, Louis Khan, AdaLouis Huxtable, Nikolaus Pevsner and CharlesJencks to mention a few. This paper often relies onsome recognized movements but some trends arenewly defined.

3.0 THE HISTORICAL STYLE ANDTRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

A basic distinction in Nigerian architecture can bemade between the North and the South, and thisis best pronounced by Traditional Architecture andTraditional Style. The strongest influences on in-digenous architecture were the introduction of Is-lam into Northern Nigeria, the return of the ex-slaves from the Americas (especially Brazil), andcolonization. The Historical Style consists of theEuropean Trend followed by the Colonial Style.The Brazilian Trend evolved into the BrazilianStyle while the North African Trend evolved intoSudanese Architecture. The blend of TraditionalArchitecture and Historical Styles formed Vernacu-lar Architecture.

Before considering the historical influences, a men-tion should be made of antiquity. The Nok civili-zation developed in the central part of Nigeria�spresent territory between 500 BC and 200 BC. Pos-sessing the knowledge of iron, these grassland peo-ple moved into the forest country (Clarke 1984)and that was when people �set up new homes� atIfe and other places. The Hausas were then anumber of different people. Although knowledgeof the achievements of the Nok civilization is wideit is difficult to imagine the form of their settle-ments. On the contrary knowledge of the architec-ture of the Middle Ages is rather extensive.

3.1 Traditional Architecture andTraditional Style

The more stable and enduring towns of pre-colo-nial Africa developed because of the intense ritualof market activity. Oliver (1976) called these citiespre-industrial cities, which were theatres of com-petition for the symbols of power and material wellbeing. Initially, some towns emerged as collectingpoints for wandering immigrants who used theirfavourable locations as spiritual or cultural basesfor subsequent territorial expansion. For the Hausaand Yoruba, Daura and Ife respectively becamespiritual springboards for the establishment of ex-tensive empires. In a city like Kano, group masonsand other specialized trades could be found in thepast, basic elements of a real building industry.

From the 15th century, the mosque was one of themost prominent buildings in Hausa towns. Houses,

CLASSIFICATION OF NIGERIAN ARCHITECTURE

Dr. (Mrs.) Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote, Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure.

AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6 49

TRADITIONAL

ARCHITECTURE

NORTH

EUROPEAN BRAZILIAN AFRICAN

TREND TREND TREND

COLONIAL BRAZILIAN SUDANESE

STYLE STYLE ARCHITECTURE

TRADITIONAL

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE STYLE

MODERN STYLE REGIONAL TREND

INTERNATIONAL STYLE THE NEW WEST AFRICAN STYLE

PURE LOW HIGH NOUVEAU

MODERN TROP TROP RICH

LATE POST-MODERN TREND

MODERN

Figure 1: The evolution of Nigerian Architecture.

HISTORICAL STYLE

VERNACULAR ARCHITECYURE

BRAZILIAN

TREND

EUROPEAN

TREND

LATE

MODERN

50 AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6

boundary walls and roofs in the towns were builtof mud. In the villages the roofs were almost al-ways of grass and boundary walls were of mattingor corn stalks. The basic house walls were oftenmade of mud.

In the Yoruba zone of Nigeria the chief �s (Oba�s)palace and the market place dominated the centralareas of well-planned cities like Ile-Ife (11th cen-tury), Ilesha and Ekiti. The populace lived in com-pounds each of which had a large house set in asquare-shaped space bounded by a high wall. Somewere more than a half-acre in size and providedliving space for a large family and kinsmen. Therewas only a single entrance. Inside, the compoundswere divided into numerous rooms. Until the earlytwentieth century, most of the compounds as wellas the Oba�s palace were roofed with thatch.

The conclusion can then be drawn that in the Tra-ditional Style the roofs of the houses were con-structed of thatch, but quite early in the develop-ment of Northern Nigerian towns the thatchedroof was replaced by the flat or dome-shaped mudroof (Fig. 2). The climate, human physiology andgeography led to the development of curvilinear,conical and mud-roofed structures in the North andthe rectilinear thatch-roof mud houses of the South(Awotona 1986, p. 55).

Figure 2: Traditional Architecture of the North. A struc-

ture masterly covered with several domes with very

small openings on external walls. Source: Author�s

photograph.

3.2 The European Trend and theDevelopment of the Colonial Style

During the 18th and 19th centuries the region oc-cupying the territory of today�s Nigeria developeddynamic economies, which adapted in a positive

manner to the expansion of world trade. Accord-ing to Payne (1977), �a cash economy had devel-oped and was well able to exploit the benefits ofinternational trade for internal development�.Three factors combined to make a radical trans-formation of the Nigerian scene in the 19th cen-tury - the Muslim jihads and Yoruba civil wars,European exploration and missionary efforts, anda revolution in trade.

The influence of Britain started mainly throughthe trade of slaves in the 18th century, which washowever brought to an end in the middle of the19th century. Nigeria became a protectorate ofEngland with Lagos as a colony. In 1914 SouthernNigeria, Northern Nigeria and the Colony of La-gos got united and became the Colony and Protec-torate of Nigeria.

Because of the expansion of Britain in the land-scape of Nigerian architecture new types of build-ings were introduced. These were usually eitherimported 18th century houses of the English coun-tryside or prefabricated constructions with deepverandas and overhanging eaves. These were some-times raised on stilts (Adeyemi 1975-1976), andthey usually had a continuous horizontal band ofwindows. The physical appearance of settlementschanged because of the introduction of new build-ing materials from Europe. Corrugated ironsheeting and cement have had perhaps the great-est effect (Denyer 1978). These buildings representthe Colonial Style, whose character is neverthelessmost distinctively represented by public and admin-istrative buildings from that era (Fig. 3). These arereminiscent of the classic revival in England withthe classic orders carved out of walls to give im-pressive scale.

Figure 3: Colonial Style. High Court Building, Lagos,

by Watkins and Partners, 1950. Source: Schultz, 1975,

p.26.

AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6 51

3.3 Brazilian StyleFor four centuries, the slave trade dominated rela-tions between the peoples of Nigeria and peoplesof Europe and America. Many Nigerians who wereforcibly settled in the New World soon lost theiridentities. The Yoruba, on the other hand fre-quently preserved his cultural individuality. A largegroup of slaves revolted in Brazil in the 1800�s, forexample, and were repatriated to Nigeria. At thetime when freed slaves returned to West Africafrom the Americas, there appeared a new stylecalled the Brazilian Style. It emerged with a newarchitecture different from the traditional huts andcolonial structures. It also fulfilled the need for amore distinguished form. There were very oftentwo-storey houses built in cement and embellishedwith heavy ornamental pillars and balustrades andcan still be seen in Lagos and other Southern cit-ies. They are certainly worth being preserved.

3.4 The North African Trend and theDevelopment of SudaneseArchitecture

Islam undoubtedly had a strong effect on home-grown architecture because:

� it applies geometric designs and� it had an impact on form, scale, proportion

and aesthetics.The dome-shaped mud roof became very popular.It gave the North a distinctive appearance reminis-cent of cities in North Africa. Worth noting is thatHausa vaults or Bakan Gizo were mostly used forceiling construction and architectural decorationswere adopted in mosque�s ceiling construction.Further on in Hausa towns merchants began toadorn the outside walls of the otherwise traditionalhouses with elaborate moulded designs executedin cement. The old, non-figurative clay walls gaveway to painted decorations executed in paint andsometimes in figurative patterns.

3.5 Vernacular ArchitectureIn the evolution of historic settlements, externalmodels dominated increasingly the choice of ma-terials and techniques as well as decoration, thesize and relationship of the rooms and the formalorganization of the dwellings. These models mas-tered by the people would, according to Langley(1976) become the foundations for a vernacular ar-chitecture, �an architecture specific to a countryand a people�. In the Nigerian context, vernaculararchitecture is expressed in forms deriving from the

culture influences of Brazil, North Africa and Eu-rope. �These forms have a traditional base in thesocio-cultural organization of the Nigerian soci-ety and the interaction between it and the otherinfluences have crystallized into the Nigerian Ver-nacular Architecture� (Adeyemi 1975-76). For ex-ample in the rural areas of South-Eastern Nigeria,family mutual help gradually disappeared, and ahousing model inspired from the �Brazilian� ur-ban houses, involving the use of new materials andnew building techniques spread rapidly.

4.0 MODERN STYLEIn Nigeria motifs of the modern movement hadbecome very popular by the late 1930s. One ofthese was the modern flat roof, which proved to bea bad solution for the tropics with heavy rainfall.The first tall buildings in the new Modern Styleappeared in Lagos in the late 1950s starting withShell now (National House) and Co-op Bank.

In the Middle East in the early 1960�s Western mod-els for buildings were used almost without think-ing in order to meet local wishes and produce pro-gressive buildings which were noticeably up-to-dateand by implication, Western in flavour. In the Ni-gerian context architects often tried to make thebuildings suitable to the weather and local condi-tions. Successful were such architectural firms asDeji Oyenuga and Partners, Design Group Nigeria,Oluwole Olumuyiwa and Associates and EllaWaziri Associates.

4.1 International StyleThe International Style adapted to Nigeria domi-nates contemporary modern architecture of Ni-geria. It usually explores simple geometrical formsbut often with exposed parapet walls. Characteris-tic is the use of concrete external walls supple-mented by concrete, steel or aluminium sun shad-ing devices (Senate Building at ABU Zaria, Man-agement House in Lagos, CSS Bookshop Housein Lagos).

This style is well represented by the architecturecreated by architects of the older generation whowere trained abroad in modern ideas. This archi-tecture is best portrayed by the term Pure Mod-ern. The International Style is also represented inNigeria by high rise buildings portrayed by the termHigh-Trop and by housing for the low incomegroup referred to as Low-Trop architecture. Morethan one third of modern buildings in Nigeria ur-ban centers belong to the International Style. The

52 AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6

buildings are designed here along with modernideas with the use of clean forms like cubes, cuboidsor compositions of simple geometrical solids. Theyexplore the ideas of simplicity and functionality.

4.2 Pure ModernSome of the young architects (foreigners) who werebehind the first modern buildings came to Nigeriaas to an unknown exotic country. All Nigerianspracticing then were also educated abroad. Theycame with all the hopes and dreams the new gen-eration had about modern architecture. Perfectionwas attained by Arc. Olumuyiwa in his Manage-ment House on Idowu Taylor Street at Victoria Is-land in Lagos. It is only through working and re-working that the idea of a brain was embodied inarchitectural form.

The design for the Faculty of Education in Ibadanby Deji Oyenuga and Partners completed in 1976but unfortunately only partly built, is very simple.It pronounces the architecture of modern pioneers.Excellence was attained by James Cubitt in the Sen-ate Building at UNILAG and Mobil Building - bothin Lagos.

There are numerous good examples because ac-cording to Prucnal-Ogunsote (1993, p.217) 36% ofbuildings in Nigeria were designed in the Interna-tional Style and very many of them belong to thePure Modern Trend.

4.3 High-Trop: A proud architectureHigh-trop architecture is an architecture of glassboxes. The buildings in that trend are extra mod-ern and use high technologies, reflective glass andcentral air conditioning. To this group belongmainly banks and offices especially in Lagos. Thisgroup will normally embrace buildings from fivefloors and above. The risk for people in such build-ings starts beyond the reach of turntable laddersbecause the Nigerian fire fighting capacity is en-tirely ground based.

The High-Trop trend does not necessarily followMiesian formulas for tall buildings. The buildingswhich explore different meanings are: IMB Build-ing, Victoria Island, Lagos (1985), by InchscapeArchitects (Fig. 4), and First Bank Headquartersin Lagos (1982/83) by Ronald Ward Associates.The forms of the buildings are in contradiction towhat the bureaucratic movement with pure formsand curtain walls of skyscrapers in America repre-sent.

National Oil & Chemical Marketing CompanyBuilding (Eagle House) in Lagos and BrokingHouse in Ibadan by Design Group Nigeria are val-ued here particularly for the first level which referto human scale. Only on rare occasions one is ableto perceive a whole - the building is usually seen inpieces from the perspective of a pedestrian. Build-ings like the office block on Ibrahim Taiwo Roadin Kano by Femi Majekodunmi Associates havinga perfect location constitute a strong accent withits polygonal shape on plan and its transparencycontrasting with more solid concrete surfaces. FemiMajekodunmi Associates are also the authors ofIBRU Building in Apapa, Lagos where they madeuse of reflecting surfaces to create an abstract im-age of piercing solids. In NAL Towers at Marinain Lagos the bright white wall surfaces contrastsharply with elegant dark strips and wide windowbands. This same idea is used by Multi-Systems inthe proposal for Nigerian Agricultural and Coop-erative Bank at Abuja. In conclusion it can be saidthat this presentation concerns very elegant butextremely expensive structures.

Figure 4: High Trop. IMB Building, Victoria Island, La-

gos by Inchscape Architects. Source: Photograph by

Arc. O.A. Oyediran.

4.4 Low-trop: The architecture of themasses

Low-trop Architecture represents architecture ofthe masses, architecture of draughtsmen, and lowincome estates reminiscent of monotonous hous-ing estates in Eastern Europe. Here apart from lackof good aesthetics, the standard of living is verylow. Common are �face me I face you� apartments,bungalows or two-storey houses. When construct-ing, local materials and local labour are used.(Izomoh, 1997).

AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6 53

This architecture can be easily observed in citiesand suburban areas and it shapes the landscape ofNigerian Architecture. This is probably the mostchallenging area for architects, to find ways andmeans to influence this architecture to make it morehuman but not more expensive. Here the call ofBenna Associates for innovations is somehow an-swered by Triad Architects who designed screenwall elements (blocks), which allow for privacy andair penetration. They applied the blocks in the Po-litical Party Offices all over Nigeria and even startedits local production in Kaduna. A low-cost row pro-totype house was designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. The building can be con-structed on a very small plot size and is the answerto high prices of land in Lagos.

5.0 THE NEW WEST AFRICAN STYLENew West African Style was recognised byAkinsemoyin (1977) and Kultermann (1969) andit was meant to cover buildings, which are moresuitable for the country (designed with climate).The climate and building form are quite relevanthere.

In Lagos University Science Complex at UNILAGin Lagos, 1978 by Godwin and Hopwood thebreeze can freely penetrate the entire complex. In

James Cubitt Architects� buildings although airconditioning is assumed, and they use tinted or re-flective glass usually there is a provision for crossventilation as in Mobil Building in Lagos (1991)with its atrium. Cross ventilation is particularlyvalued in buildings by Deji Oyenuga and Partnersand by Niger Consultants. Climate plays a verydominant role in Olumuyiwa and Associates� ar-chitecture. Olumuyiwa recognized the importanceof vegetation and believed in incorporating waterinto design (Management House, ArchitectureHouse and Eko Meridien Hotel in Lagos).

Very original in the approach of making buildingssuitable to the weather is Environmental Develop-ment Consultants� architecture by making use ofstaggered windows. Deep overhangs like in UnitedBank for Africa in Hadejia, Kano (Fig. 5) also help.

6.0 LATE MODERNLate-Modernism according to Jencks is a pragmaticand technocratic architecture, which draws its in-spirations from the highest achievements of Mod-ernism. The buildings that must be mentioned hereare political party offices by Triad Associates(1989), which from the beginning strongly domi-nated the landscape of Nigerian Architecture (Fig.6). The architects� proposals were in �extreme of

Figure 5: The New West African Style. United Bank for Africa Branch Office, Hadejia, Kano, by Environmental

Development Consultants. Source: Environmental Development Consultants� photograph.

54 AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6

international style� later on amended to suit thepurpose. The proposed large glazed surfaces forexample were removed to avoid breakage duringriots and disturbances.

There are three alternatives: for local, state and na-tional offices. Local offices are only one storeybuildings with a simple Conference Hall. Differ-ent and unique entrances were proposed accord-ing to the type of the office. The roofs usually havea small slope except in case of Rivers / Cross Riv-ers States.

7.0 REGIONAL TRENDThe tendency towards regional expression ismainly observed in private houses like in residencesby Environmental Development Consultants or inMr. Adesuyi�s House in Zaria followed by Institu-tional buildings like NIPSS in Kuru with its circu-lar forms and former NIA Secretariat in Lagoswhich is a courtyard building. Zanko motives, whichare very popular in the North are characteristic ofelevations and also sometimes used for city gates.Sometimes it is a decorated column, a sculpture orjust a gate that is used to enhance the traditional

aspect. First Bank in Bauchi by Archcon Nigeriais reminiscent of traditional architecture of theNorth (Fig. 7). A stucco column with traditionalmotifs designed by an artisan is used in the ap-proach elevation for First Bank Headquarters inLagos. Horizontal strips may be used on the build-ing like on Federal Palace Hotel, Lagos.

In conclusion, the Regional Trend is representedby contemporary modern buildings using the mo-tif of a hut (N.I.P.S.S. in Kuru by Fola Alade andBank of the North, Kano Branch by Multi-Sys-tems) or using courtyard or impluvium concepts.Natural materials like timber or stone may be ex-plored but most essential is the natural ventilation(Department of Nursing at University of Ibadanby Design Group Nigeria). Very important in thistrend is the functional layout of residences, whichis most capable of reflecting the Nigerian wayof life and generally important here is the close-ness to nature through outdoor areas. For exam-ple in Moslem residences characteristic is the ob-served separation of sitting rooms from family liv-ing rooms.

Figure 6: Late Modern Trend. State Party Office by Triad Associates, 1989. Source: Triad Associates� photo-

graph.

AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6 55

Figure 7: Regional Trend. First Bank in Bauchi by

Archcon Nigeria, 1983-89. Source: Archcon Nigeria

Brochure.

8.0 NOUVEAU RICH: THE ARCHITEC-TURE OF THE SUPER RICH

This is the architecture of the newly rich easilyfound in Lagos on Lekki Peninsula. It is charac-terised by bourgeois forms, expensive decorationsand materials and exotic atmosphere. Usuallyfound in residential houses with typical post-mod-ern elements, in particular semicircular windows,verandas or balconies and other picturesque ele-ments (Fig. 8). Favoured also are the red villa roof-ing sheets although criticised by some masters ofNigerian Architecture. Positive examples of suchbuildings can by found among houses designed byInchscape Architects.

Figure 8: Nouveau Rich. Residential building at

Maroko Extension, Lagos. Source: Author�s sketch.

9.0 POST-MODERN TRENDPostmodern Architecture in Nigeria has got many�faces�. Sometimes it will pretend to look like aship and sometimes it will tend to �wear� histori-cal style.

9.1 Pluralism of StylesPostmodern trend explores pluralism of styles. Ituses historical styles like neoclassicism, gets inspi-ration from Egyptian architecture and reaches alsoto the roots of Nigerian architecture.

Design Group Nigeria architects used motives ofBrazilian classical elements such as pillars and pi-lasters, lintels and pediments with their character-istic proportions in NNPC Office on Victoria Is-land, Lagos and similarly in case of their MusicalSociety Building in Lagos. More examples can befound among the most current buildings (in a stylecalled �historicism�) at Victoria Island extension.Implementation of such �historical� forms is a dif-ficult task for architects. Inspiration can be drawnfrom Brazilian buildings, old colonial buildings, tra-ditional compound layouts of several kinds, andthe larger old mosques of Northern Nigeria.

Egyptian architecture is reflected in Civil Engineer-ing Complex at theObafemi Awolowo University,Ile-Ife by Niger Consultants ( Fig. 9) and in Meth-odist Church in Ikenne by Deji Oyenuga throughforms reminiscent of the pyramid.

9.2 Individuality of FormsBorno State Secretariat in Maiduguri by DesignGroup Nigeria depends on a classical plan. In thiselaborate but rigid design the Conference Hall, cen-trally placed, has a very characteristic roof and thepassages with vaults dominate the architecture ofthis complex. Odd shapes which determine thebuilding�s appearance were used in Zaranda Hotelin Bauchi by Niger Consultants and in Union Bankin Kaduna by Benna Associates. Union Bank hascolumns exposed at the corners, a major featureof this design. The design is integrated by two pierc-ing solids through all elements like balconies andparapet walls and with very consistent details.

Towry Towers/Coker Court and Abuja SheratonHotel please the eyes with their stepped surfaces.The effects achieved are fascinating, analogy caneven be drawn to pyramidal shapes, but too manysurfaces are exposed to the sun.

56 AARCHES Journal Volume 1, No. 6

Figure 9: Postmodern Trend. Civil Engineering Com-

plex, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife by Niger

Consultants. Source: Author�s sketch.

10.0 CONCLUSIONThe introduction of new building materials haschanged the physical appearance of settlements. Itis not convenient to roof a circular house with cor-rugated sheeting, so it�s introduction in some ar-eas changed not only the roofing material but alsothe basic shape of the house to a rectangular one.It was in this way that traditional patterns tendedto persist longer where the basic shape of the housewas rectangular rather than circular. Modern cit-ies can not be turned into museums of vernaculararchitecture, but rather the spirit of this architec-ture should be preserved as it is done in case of theRegional Trend.

This paper has shown that contemporary modernNigerian architecture is dominated by the Interna-tional Style. This is architecture of the Nigerianurban landscape. Here belong also most of thepopular buildings like First Bank Headquarters inLagos by Ronald Ward, National Arts Theatre inLagos by Techno-Export, Broking House in Ibadanby Design Group Nigeria, NAL Towers in Lagosby Femi Majekodunmi Associates. In some casesthe buildings look ordinary but always are sym-bols of progress and modernism. It also bringsdelight in case of such buildings like Chellaramsin Lagos by James Cubit & Partners, IMB Plaza inLagos by Inchscape Architects (Fig. 4), et cetera.As stated earlier these types of buildings do notsuit the level of technology in the country espe-cially because of fire hazards.

In case of Regional Trend the architectural exam-ples pointed out are very rare in the Nigerian land-scape. They are mentioned as examples worthstudying and pointed to by other architects, archi-tecture students and the society as something

unique. They are able to satisfy the desire for iden-tity.

Postmodern architecture reached Nigeria quiteearly with plastic forms but now it is difficult tocontinue its development due to economic crises.Clients often prefer simplified versions of what ar-chitects are proposing due to cost constraints. How-ever this trend is still developing, for examplethrough Nouveau Rich architecture.

REFERENCESAdeyemi, E.A. (1975-1976). Changing Traditional

Culture and Modern Architecture. In:Archiforum Magazine. No. 1, pp. 12-19.

Akinsemoyin, K. and Vaughan Richards, A.(1977). Building Lagos. F. and A. Services, La-gos.

Awotona, A (1986). Aspects of Nigerian Archi-tecture. In: NIA Journal Vol. 2. No.3. Octo-ber-December, pp. 55.

Clarke, J.D. (1984). A Visual History of Nigeria.Evans Brothers Limited, London.

Denyer, S. (1978). African Traditional Architecture.Heineman Educational Books Ltd., London.

Izomoh, S.O. (1997). Housing Provision and Man-agement in Nigeria. Emiola Publishers Ltd,Ogbomoso.

Kultermann, U. (1969). New Directions In AfricanArchitecture. George Braziller, New York.

Oliver, P. (1976). Shelter In Africa. Barrie JenkinsLtd., London.

Langley (1976). Changes In The Production of TheBuilt Environment In Rural Areas. In: Afri-can Environment. Vol.2, London, pp.37-51.

Payne, G.K. (1977). Urban Housing In The ThirdWorld. Leonard Hill, London, pp. 11-20.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993).�A Study of ModernTrends in Some Aspects of Architecture inNigeria�. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria.

BROCHURES1. Archcon Nigeria Limited Brochure2. Design Group Nigeria Brochure3. Environmental Development Consultants

Brochure4. Femi Majekodunmi Associates Brochure5. Godwin Hopwood Kuye Brochure6. Habitat Associates Brochure7. Multi-Systems Brochure8. Triad Associates Brochure