Learning Objective of this Learning Objective of this topictopic

Analyze thinking process.Analyze thinking process. Describe how to think clearly and Describe how to think clearly and

logically.logically. Explain creativity.Explain creativity. Identify common fallacies in Identify common fallacies in

everyday language everyday language

We are the product of our We are the product of our thoughts????????????? thoughts?????????????

Change your thoughts and you Change your thoughts and you change your world.change your world.

Thought makes the whole dignity of Thought makes the whole dignity of man, therefore endeavor to think man, therefore endeavor to think well, that is the only morality.well, that is the only morality.

What is Thinking ?What is Thinking ?

Thinking encompasses all of the mentalThinking encompasses all of the mentalactivities associated with activities associated with concept- formation, concept- formation, problem solving ,problem solving ,intellectual functioning,intellectual functioning,Creativity,Creativity,complex learning,complex learning, memory and memory and imagery .imagery .

Convergent thinkingConvergent thinking

It is,It is, Logical,Logical, Analytical and Analytical and predictable thinkingpredictable thinking

It is most useful when we have It is most useful when we have information that can be handled information that can be handled logically.logically.

Divergent thinkingDivergent thinking

It is characterized by a process of It is characterized by a process of ‘’moving away' in various directions, ‘’moving away' in various directions, a diverging of ideas to encompass a a diverging of ideas to encompass a variety of relevant aspects.variety of relevant aspects.

This kind of thinking is frequently This kind of thinking is frequently associated with creativity since it associated with creativity since it often yields novel ideas and often yields novel ideas and solutions.solutions.

? He is a bad journalist because he is a bad He is a bad journalist because he is a bad

man.man. Young people are more immoral in their Young people are more immoral in their

behavior than older people.behavior than older people. Ahmar is bound to be intelligent because Ahmar is bound to be intelligent because

he is always reading.he is always reading. The Pakistanis are the best people in the The Pakistanis are the best people in the

world.world.

Having just arrived in Ohio, I saw a white Having just arrived in Ohio, I saw a white squirrel. squirrel. All Ohio Squirrels are white. All Ohio Squirrels are white.

One day Ali wakes up with a fever. A few One day Ali wakes up with a fever. A few hours later he finds red spots on his skin. hours later he finds red spots on his skin. he concludes that the fever must have he concludes that the fever must have caused the red spots. His friend insists caused the red spots. His friend insists that the spots and the fever are caused by that the spots and the fever are caused by some microbe. Ali laughs at this and some microbe. Ali laughs at this and insists that if he spends the day in a tub of insists that if he spends the day in a tub of cold water his spots will go away. cold water his spots will go away.

No one can deny the justice of our No one can deny the justice of our cause.cause.

He mixes with criminals, therefore He mixes with criminals, therefore he is a criminal himself.he is a criminal himself.

Cricketers are superior peopleCricketers are superior people

Tyson is a cricketer .Tyson is a cricketer .

Tyson, therefore, is a superior Tyson, therefore, is a superior person.person.

Characteristics of clear Characteristics of clear thinkingthinking

DeterminismDeterminism

Empirical evidenceEmpirical evidence

ObjectivityObjectivity

Some fallacies in common Some fallacies in common thinkingthinking

A A fallacy fallacy is a technical flaw which is a technical flaw which makes an argument unsound or makes an argument unsound or invalid.invalid.

Arguments which contain fallacies Arguments which contain fallacies are described as are described as fallaciousfallacious. They . They often appear valid and convincing; often appear valid and convincing; sometimes only close inspection sometimes only close inspection reveals the logical flaw.reveals the logical flaw.

AD HOMINEM ARGUMENTS attack on AD HOMINEM ARGUMENTS attack on your opponent personally instead of your opponent personally instead of arguing against his or her position.arguing against his or her position.

Example:Example: Azhar's objections to Azhar's objections to capital punishment carry no weight capital punishment carry no weight since he is a known criminal.since he is a known criminal.

You claim that atheists can be moral--You claim that atheists can be moral--yet I happen to know that you yet I happen to know that you abandoned your wife and children." abandoned your wife and children."

. VICIOUS CIRCLE you assume what . VICIOUS CIRCLE you assume what you want to proveyou want to prove

Example: Example: Of course the Bible is the Of course the Bible is the word of God. Why? Because God word of God. Why? Because God says so in the Bible.says so in the Bible.

IRRELEVANCIES arguing a point by IRRELEVANCIES arguing a point by arguing everything else.arguing everything else.

All children should have ample All children should have ample attention from their parents. attention from their parents.

Parents who work full-time cannot Parents who work full-time cannot give ample attention to their give ample attention to their children. children.

Therefore, mothers should not work Therefore, mothers should not work full-timefull-time

COMMON BELIEFCOMMON BELIEF: This fallacy is : This fallacy is committed when we assert a committed when we assert a statement to be true on the evidence statement to be true on the evidence that many other people allegedly that many other people allegedly believe it. Being widely believed is believe it. Being widely believed is not proof or evidence of the truth.not proof or evidence of the truth.

Example:Example: Of course Mr X was Of course Mr X was guilty in surrey palace. Everybody guilty in surrey palace. Everybody knows that.knows that.

DUBIOUS AUTHORITY appeal to an DUBIOUS AUTHORITY appeal to an expert who is not expert in the area of expert who is not expert in the area of concern.concern.

ATTACKING A STRAW MAN refuting real ATTACKING A STRAW MAN refuting real arguments with silly example.arguments with silly example.

Example:Example: Those who favor gun-control Those who favor gun-control legislation just want to take all guns away legislation just want to take all guns away from responsible citizens and put them from responsible citizens and put them into the hands of the criminals.into the hands of the criminals.

ATTACKING A STRAW MAN refuting ATTACKING A STRAW MAN refuting real arguments with silly example.real arguments with silly example.

Example:Example: Those who favor gun- Those who favor gun-control legislation just want to take control legislation just want to take all guns away from responsible all guns away from responsible citizens and put them into the hands citizens and put them into the hands of the criminals.of the criminals.

ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGYARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY oror FALSE ANALOGYFALSE ANALOGY: An unsound : An unsound form of inductive argument in which form of inductive argument in which an argument is based completely or an argument is based completely or relies heavily on analogy to prove its relies heavily on analogy to prove its point. point.

ExampleExample: This must be a great car, : This must be a great car, for, like the finest watches in the for, like the finest watches in the world, it was made in Switzerland.world, it was made in Switzerland.

PITY AND OTHER EMOTIONAL APPEALS PITY AND OTHER EMOTIONAL APPEALS I am a single parent, solely responsible I am a single parent, solely responsible

for the financial support of my children. for the financial support of my children. If you give me this traffic ticket, I will lose If you give me this traffic ticket, I will lose

my license and be unable to drive to work. my license and be unable to drive to work.

PSEUDO QUESTIONS: questions that PSEUDO QUESTIONS: questions that lead to nowhere,lead to nowhere,

ExampleExample .How is the mind related to the .How is the mind related to the body?body?

CHANGING MEANINGCHANGING MEANING PREJUDICED ARGUMENTSPREJUDICED ARGUMENTS Example: Jim Bakker was an Example: Jim Bakker was an

insincere Christian. Therefore all insincere Christian. Therefore all Christians are insincere." Christians are insincere."

APPEAL TO IGNORANCE or Ad APPEAL TO IGNORANCE or Ad ignorantium. Arguing on the basis of ignorantium. Arguing on the basis of what is known and can be proven. If what is known and can be proven. If you can't prove that something is you can't prove that something is true then it must be false (and vice true then it must be false (and vice versa). versa).

Example: You can't prove there isn't Example: You can't prove there isn't any ghost, so there must be one.any ghost, so there must be one.

FALSE DILEMMAFALSE DILEMMA (often called the (often called the either/or fallacyeither/or fallacy because the argument because the argument nearly always includes the words "either... nearly always includes the words "either... or..."). This fallacy assumes that we must or..."). This fallacy assumes that we must choose between two opposite extremes choose between two opposite extremes instead of allowing for other possibilities, instead of allowing for other possibilities, especially for the possibility of choosing an especially for the possibility of choosing an alternative between the extremes. alternative between the extremes. Example:Example: Women need to be either Women need to be either brilliant or beautiful to survive in this brilliant or beautiful to survive in this world.world.

OVER-GENERALIZING OVER-GENERALIZING CONDEMNING WHOLE CLASS FOR CONDEMNING WHOLE CLASS FOR A CHARACTERISTIC POSSESSD BY A CHARACTERISTIC POSSESSD BY SOME.SOME.

Example: Jim was an insincere Example: Jim was an insincere Christian. Therefore all Christians Christian. Therefore all Christians are insincere." are insincere."

Benefits of critical thinking

Good critical thinking skills bring numerous benefits

such as: improved attention and observation more focused reading improved ability to identify the key points

in a text or other message rather than becoming distracted by less important material

improved ability to respond to the appropriate

points in a message knowledge of how to get your own point across more easily skills of analysis that you can choose to

apply in a variety of situations

Thinking CriticallyThinking Critically

Be skepticalBe skeptical Watch the definitionsWatch the definitions Beware of overgeneralizationBeware of overgeneralization Redefine problemsRedefine problems Use fractionationUse fractionation Consider the oppositeConsider the opposite Take the perspective of another Take the perspective of another

personperson

Some factors which inhibits Some factors which inhibits our our

ability to think clearly and ability to think clearly and logicallylogically EmotionsEmotions

Narrow-mindednessNarrow-mindedness CynicismCynicism Naïve optimismNaïve optimism SkepticismSkepticism Agnostic attitudeAgnostic attitude